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Journal of Popular Education in Africa October, November & December 2020, Volume 4, Number 10, 11 & 12

ISSN 2523-2800 (online) Citation: Bakamana, D. B; Magesa, L & Majawa, C. C. A. (2020). Indigenous African Leadership and Implications

on Good Governance with Manga among the Luba people of Kasai Central Province, in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Journal of Popular Education in Africa. 4(10), 92 – 108.

92 Copyright © 2020 African Society for Research on the Education of Adults (ASREA), Nairobi, Kenya

http://www.jopea.org/index.php/current-issue

Indigenous African Leadership and Implications on Good Governance with Special

Reference to the role of Manga Rituals among the Luba people of Kasai Central

Province, in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

By

David Bilungule Bakamana 1; PhD Student, Tangaza University;

[email protected]; Tel: +254.742.898988

Prof. Laurenti Magesa2; Hekima University College; [email protected];

Tel: +254.715.374502

Prof. Clement Chinkambako Abenguuni Majawa3; Catholic University of Eastern Africa;

[email protected] / [email protected]; Tel: +254.722.659020

Abstract

Indigenous leadership in Africa is the governance system that is most known to the indigenous

people. Traditional leaders enjoyed the confidence of their communities who allowed them to

direct their affairs. They derived their legitimacy from culture, historical practices, social values,

and traditional institutions of the societies in which they lived. Among the Luba, the use of

manga was an essential component of leadership. Manga are rituals that contain certain values

in enabling people to get and use power in society. They evoke the life-long spiritual powers

which could either be positive or negative. This study sought to find out the nature of traditional

African political leadership in promoting good governance with manga among the Luba people

in Kasai Central Province, of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The results show that

traditional leaders/chiefs among the Luba people derive their power from custom; they have

customary power to exercise leadership. Additionally, they possess various symbols of power.

These symbols are varied and often possess a form of manga in them that further differentiates

them from other similar symbols found within the Luba people. Traditional leadership serves

some roles which are power and duty; organization and hierarchy; submission to ancestral

customs and traditions.

Key Words: Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Traditional African Leadership, Manga,

good governance, Luba, Kasai

mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]






Indigenous African Leadership and Implications on Good Governance with Special

Reference to the role of Manga Rituals among the Luba people of Kasai Central

Province, in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

By

David Bilungule Bakamana, Prof. Laurenti Magesa & Prof. Clement C. A. Majawa

1.0 Introduction Indigenous leadership in Africa encompasses an indigenous system used to govern communities

based on cultural norms and ethics. Koenane (2017) observes that traditional leadership in Africa

is the governance system that is most known to the indigenous people. Traditional leaders

governed their communities by providing security, regulating activities in society, resolving

disputes, and administering justice. This system of governance was based on heredity according

to a clan-based system (Rapatsa, 2015). Traditional leaders enjoyed the confidence of their

communities who allowed them to direct their affairs. They derived their legitimacy from

culture, historical practices, social values, and traditional institutions of the societies in which

they lived (Igboin, 2016). In spite of its endurance, traditional African leadership has undergone

various phases of disintegration and remodelling due to the socio-religious, political and

economic realities of slavery, colonization and imperialism.

Among the Luba, the use of manga was an essential component of leadership. Even

though colonialism suppressed the indigenous political systems (Barret, 2013; Middleton, 2015),

the use of manga at different levels of the Luba society is widely practiced today. The Luba

people believed that manga would protect them from their enemies, provide healing, bring

prosperity, establish social justice, and ensure good leadership. Manga are rituals that contain

certain values in enabling people to get and use power in society. Manga are rituals that evoke

the life-long spiritual powers which could either be positive or negative (Nooter, 2017). The

manga institution is inherited according to the family tree. Mediums (priestesses or priests) are

professionals who communicate with the spirits in tongues when they go into a trance. Through

these experiences, they carry out divination and give manga. Luba Kings and their dignitaries

(tupita) chiefs, and ritual specialists used charms personified in wood sculptures as a receptacle

of the spirits. In all forms of symbolizations as either amulets, beads, or statuettes, the purpose

was to bring peace, prosperity, healing, procreation, food production, blessings, personal

protection, and gaining fame and relevance in the Luba Kingdom, especially among the chiefs

(Nooter, 2017). This study investigates the use of these manga rituals and the implications they

have on good governance.

2.0 Statement of the Problem

African traditional leadership systems have been painted as old-fashioned, ungodly and out-dated

(Tshitangoni & Francis, 2018). African societies have thus embraced the new modern leadership

systems viewed as being better (Duri, 2017). However, the modern liberal systems of leadership






in some countries are associated with corruption, unethical behaviour, dictatorship, bad

governance, and lack of some basic values. Traditional African leadership systems were less

marred with what is witnessed in the current modern leadership systems. They should not be

done away with entirely. Rather, their good aspects or values should be preserved and

incorporated into the modern leadership systems. The latter must be remodelled, based on

attributes that are found in traditional African leadership systems.

3.0 Research Question

The study sought to answer the following research question:

a) What is the nature of traditional African political leadership in promoting good governance with manga among the Luba people in Kasai Central Province, DRC?

4.0 Literature Review

4.1 Tylor’s Theory of Fetishism

The Theory of Fetishism was proposed by Tylor in 1866. According to the theory, since spiritual

beings have the power of embodied human beings and material objects, they can use their mystic

energy to influence them. Such objects thus acquire and possess special powers and have

personal consciousness. Fetish objects that have mystic powers are carried around to protect

those carrying them from diseases, enemies, or for harming others. As Majawa (2017a) points

out, the objects carried in such traditions often include teeth, horns, beads, dead insects, images

of people among others. The objects are believed to possess some destructive and therapeutic

mystical powers. The form or shape of the fetish determines the person, animal or object

involved. Fetishes, therefore, take the image or properties of the person or object involved. They

are based on the principle of like things attract each other.

In the Theory of Fetishism, MacGaffey (1977) details the practice of fetishism in the

Kongo. The author looks at the relationship between spirits, figures and practitioners. According

to MacGaffey, fetishes have immense power which can either be bad or good. This power is

found in the spirit world but some living people are at times also considered to have considerable

amounts of it. In the Kongo, fetishes held power that influenced the locals and enabled them to

participate actively in the community. These objects were vessels of the power of spirits that

resided in the figures. The objects are also varied based on what they were used for and because

they possessed mystical power, the Congolese revered the figures as though they were a living

elder of the community. However, Agbanusi (2016) is adamant that most people fail to believe in

the existence of fetishes, magic and witchcraft, supporting their belief through the argument that

it is not scientifically possible to prove cases that magic is a reality. This view, however, is

incorrect, considering that witchcraft is not subject to scientific investigation in a positivist’s

sense of tangible reality because of its nature. Simply claiming that witchcraft does not exist

because of lack of scientific evidence is being ignorant. The phenomenon exists and can be

testified to by a multitude of people. This is worth investigating.






4.2 Manga

Manga in DRC are rituals that use leaves of some powerful trees, parts of some strong animals,

or human beings, to make strong charms that are used to denote protection, healing, wealth

acquisition, good luck or to bring calamity. Manga evokes the spiritual powers with different

intentions, which could be either positive or negative (Nooter, 2017). Manga are performed by

the charm givers who are known as bena manga. The use of manga is in line with the indigenous

practices of ancestral “worship” that invokes the spirits of ancestors as practiced in African

Religion (Mbiti, 1975, 1992). Manga vary in their types, and each is used for a specific purpose

among the Luba people.

Manga can be conceptualised as prayer rituals, involving designated individuals who can

mediate between the invisible and the visible, and respond to the request of the living. While it is

true that other spiritual forces are acknowledged within the culture, manga is not primarily

thought of negatively as witchcraft; if so kings and leaders would not use it. In Luba tradition,

the word for witchcraft is mupongo, and the witch is mwena mupongo. Such distinction is not

only a matter of semantics but also guard against the prejudices or stereotypes that go contrary to

the African culture and to its ritual practices which were often condemned as “pagan” or

primitive (Ntsebeza, 2011). There are both good and bad types of manga among the Luba people

of Kasai Central Province. The use of good types of manga is encouraged while bad manga are

shunned in the Luba community.

The practice of using manga which are types of fetishes is popular in the DRC in general

and among the Luba people in particular. The tenta is a fetish that certain people have to set a

magical trap to help anyone who may be involved in any of the following activities: having a

problem or a debt, who engages in sexual activities with the wife of another, or even one who

steals (Tshibinda, 2008). Bizaba is another type of fetish which consists of consulting a sorcerer,

who takes the clients through a rite to make them immune to physical objects, which would

otherwise harm them. The harming objects range from bullets, knives, and even spears. It is

believed that when the person to whom bizaba has been administered is attacked, blood will not

spill (Tshibinda, 2008). In the context of this study, manga in Tshiluba, is plural for medicine,

and also refers to fetishes that are believed to confer magical powers on those that wear, possess,

or ingest them. Manga also include drinking of potions from a clay pot called a tshizaba (a term

which also came to refer to the potion itself) and ingesting live red ants (mankenene).

4.3 Traditional Leadership

In Africa, communities believed and still believe that African traditional leadership, governance,

and guidance is originally given by God to humanity for transformation and so it has divine

wisdom and has to be respected by all (Majawa, 2017a). Traditional leaders hence continue to

govern their communities through the provision of security, resolving disputes, regulation of

social activities and dispensing justice among other functions (Rapatsa, 2015). Due to its divine

nature, the traditional leadership system of governance does not go through election cycles; its

succession is based on clans, chieftaincy and heredity (Rapatsa, 2015). Ola and Tonwe (2009)

give a comprehensive definition of traditional leaders as the heads of an ethnic society who have






the topmost executive power in indigenous politics or who are appointed to such positions based

on set traditions and customs and whose titles are recognized by the state. This indicates that

they are appointed by other leaders or custom bearers.

To have a clearer understanding of the African leadership system, it is important to

address its evolution. This is because the African cultural worldview in its totality continually

evolves because it adapts itself to changing times (Majawa, 2017a). This is looked at in two main

phases: the time of pre-colonization and during colonization. The post-colonial phase will be

addressed later under the modern governance systems. African kingdoms and states that existed

before colonialism, together with their political systems that governed the land, water, and

conflicts within and beyond the kingdoms had values, traditions, and customs that guided them

rather than a formal constitution (Martin, 2012). As Martin explains:

The concept of power in Africa fused the secular and the sacred. The traditional

leader was both a religious as well as a secular leader and he acted as a link between

the living world and the dead, between the subjects and their ancestors.

African traditional leadership was greatly changed during colonial times. Colonialism

suppressed the influence of indigenous political systems. This was done to the extent that

traditional leadership was a form of ruling the people indirectly, which was mainly practiced in

African states that influenced the British.

Although the Belgians attempted to destroy the African traditional chieftaincy

(Rugarabura, 2008) and force a total assimilation in colonies such as DRC, this study shows that

kingdoms such as Luba managed to endure the pressure and have continued to the present day.

Despite their presence, these indigenous political systems are neither very influential nor

superfluous (Amoateng & Kalule-Sabiti, 2011). That notwithstanding, one cannot dispute their

importance in the allocation and management of available natural resources. This focus on the

Luba traditional leadership and its influence on modern governance is key to this study. This

leadership used manga to strengthen their influence and determine the authenticity of their

leadership.

4.4 Influence of Traditional African Leadership Today

A majority of the traditional leaders derive their legitimacy from their culture and history which

is in most cases supported through divine reference (Lutz & Liner, 2004). Traditional leaders are

well listened to in communities where they are selected based on traditional norms; they are

highly respected and sometimes even venerated. The traditional leaders in Zimbabwe were

largely respected because they were regarded as being wise, able to make popular decisions;

people liked their appearance or etiquette (Dodo, 2013). In this country, traditional leadership

and modern governance complement each other, a factor that comes to play majorly during

elections (Chigudu, 2015).

In DRC, the country within which Kasai Central Province is, the traditional leadership

system of chieftaincies is generally hereditary within the reigning family or appointed from the






political hierarchy and so helps decentralise political power (Rugarabura, 2008). In some

regions, the positions are inherited; they remain in specific families and passed over from one

generation to the next. Traditional leaders have significant power and influence relating to

dispute resolution, maintaining law and order, religion, and guarding their power closely often

through the use of manga. The traditional chiefs have their advisors who sit around the chief,

discuss and resolve matters relating to their communities (Gaynor, 2013). Traditional leaders in

Kasai Central Province are exclusively male who originate from the reigning family lineage. The

traditional leaders perform the role of preserving the customs and traditions of society and

keeping them alive from one generation to another. Traditional leadership is enshrined in the

DRC constitution and is recognized as an institution at local levels on issues that affect local

communities. They also deal with matters that relate to customary law (Rugarabura & Robain,

2008).

4.5 Manga and Politics in the Luba Kingdom

Manga (fetishes, charms) are intrinsically linked to the leadership of the Luba people. In

administering power to the leaders who are believed to have immense life-long force, rituals

become the media. The ritual grounds are under the control of the ritual specialists or the charm

givers. These ritual specialists evoke the life-long powers using manga that have different

functions with distinctions being made that can either be positive or negative manga (Nooter,

2017).

People such as politicians have often given sacrifices to some deities in exchange for

protection and help. The manipulation of manga is common among the Luba people (Macola,

2015). The head of a household leads the incantations that are directed to the deities. When

mediums are in trance, spirits are believed to speak through them. Through this, they can carry

out divinations (Peterson, Emma & Stephanie, 2016).

By being in charge of the manga rituals, the charm givers play significant roles in how

politics was conducted in the Luba kingdom. Specifically, the king, traditional leaders and

dignitaries and ritual specialists used manga that came in the form of Luba wood sculptures that

served as a receptacle for the spirits. As Nooter (2017) noted, such manga for personal protection

and gaining fame and relevance in the Luba kingdom especially among the chiefs were very

important.

5.0 Research Methodology

This research was a qualitative research that was rooted in phenomenology, expounded in the

philosophy of Husserl (1977), and other phenomenologists to the effect that people’s experience

of life can be captured and interpreted. In phenomenological studies, the essence of phenomena,

such as manga can be determined through people who live the experience. As Merriam and

Tisdell (2006) explain, “the task of the phenomenologists, then, is to depict the essence or basic

structure of experience”. Thus, this research entailed capturing the use of manga as it was

experienced by the Luba in the political leadership sphere concerned with acquiring leadership

power. The concentration of the study was on the Kasai Central Province. The choice of the






Kasai Central Province was based on the long history of the Luba and due to the attitude the

Luba in the Province had towards manga and its efficacy.

The target population for the study was charm givers, militia and political leaders. The

political leaders comprised of local traditional chiefs of villages and modern leaders in Kasai

Central Province in the DRC. The study used the non-probability snowball sampling technique

(Ishak & Bakar, 2014). In the snowball sampling technique, the researcher contacted local

gatekeepers in the Kasai Central Province to be able to reach out to the first snows. These

gatekeepers include the area local chiefs and elders who were the indefacto authority at the

grass-roots levels. Through them, locally known charm givers were identified and contacted. The

researcher targeted 40 participants: 10 charm givers, 8 members of the provincial parliament, 4

provincial ministers, 13 traditional leaders, and 5 militia leaders. The researcher used in-depth

interviews (IDIs), observation and focus group discussions (FGDs) to collect primary data for the

study. Tape recording was used to record the data and notes were also taken in the field as part of

the data collection. Phenomenological Data Analysis Method was used to analyze the data based

on Creswell (2014).

6.0 Findings

6. 1 Source of power among traditional leaders

The study sought to find out the nature of traditional leadership. As a start, the task investigates

the source of this traditional power among the Luba people of Kasai Central Province in the

DRC. According to the research findings, the traditional leaders among the Luba people derive

their power from custom; they have customary power to exercise leadership, “Traditional leaders

in the Luba community inherit their powers according to the traditions and customs of our

ancestors” (Traditional Chief, TC, 1). From this explanation, the power is inherited from

ancestors based on the customs and traditions of the clan.

Among the Luba, “power comes from a Supreme Being who is their God” (Traditional

Chief, TC 1). The Supreme Being gives power, strength and wisdom to the traditional

leader/chief and requires the person to lead, based on traditional principles and philosophies,

represented in religious and manga rituals. Once this power is received, it is exercised through

the tupita (representatives of each clan or village, in the Kasai territory), “The traditional leader

is the custodian of the hereditary tradition and exercises the sovereign power of the people

through his tupita. The leader must follow clan traditions and principles which include use of

Manga” (Traditional Chief, TC 1).

The tupita also form the cabinet committee of the traditional leader. Under the care of a

traditional leader, the tupita are part of the decision making process, advice the leader, promote

justice, peace, harmony and development in the clan. The traditional exercise of power is known

as bukalenge bwa kabukulu and the person who exercises it is referred to as “mukalenge wa

kabukulu” (Traditional Chief TC 2), which means a traditional chief/leader.

According to the Luba tradition, “enthroning of a traditional leader is an ancestral

ceremony that preserves the traditions and customs of the people” (Traditional Leaders TL I; TL






4; TL 9). In the ceremony, the traditional chief adorns chieftaincy attires known as makuku a

bukalenge which make the person mfumu “mfumu wetu (our chief), means [that the Luba]

believe that you have the power over them and to defend them with your words of power… what

you say must happen, what you stop from happening in your town or villages will not happen”

(Traditional Chief, TC 6).

Traditional chiefs among the Luba have to keep mukayi wa bukalenga (laws of traditional

leadership), “…what makes a traditional chief a true traditional chief is when he upholds the

mukayi wa bukalenga…” (Charm Giver, CG 3). This will ensure that the chiefs are both

respected by the people and obey the laws of the manga, which make them authentic leaders

according to the Luba people.

In understanding the nature of the source of traditional African leadership among the

Luba, the place of the Supreme Being, traditions and customs has been discussed. Also, the

tupita (representatives of the villages), are presented as support to the traditional chief/leader.

The ceremony to enthrone the leader, the power and authority in the position as well as the duties

that the leader has to adhere to laws (among them the laws of the manga) shed light on the

source of this power. This paves way to the symbols of Luba traditional power.

6.2 Symbols of Luba traditional power From the research findings, traditional leaders possess certain symbols of power. These symbols

are varied and often possess a form of manga in them that further differentiates them from other

similar symbols found within the Luba people. The notable symbols of power include the

tshifulu tshia bukalenge which is a cap of power decorated with pearls, raffia palm and disala dia

nkusu which refers to long feathers of a parrot. The cap symbolizes loyalty, goodness, courage,

and victory. The traditional leader also wears menu a Nkashama meaning leopard teeth and it is a

form of a royal necklace. The tshiseba tshia Nkashama which means leopard skin is worn below

the belt and at times this is made as a bracelet to be worn on the arm. The teeth and skin of the

leopard symbolize power and strength possessed by a traditional leader. Heroism is symbolized

by diesa dia bukalenge, a fly whisk made from the tail of a buffalo. A necklace known as

mukaba wa bukalenge made from pearls and leopard teeth is worn to symbolize legitimacy,

dignity, integrity, respect for rules of law and stability of power.

Another popular symbol of power is the dikombo dia bukalenge, a walking stick that is

held in the right hand and is a sign of the undisputable power inherited from the ancestors. This

walking stick symbolizes command and authority over all the people led by the traditional

leader. The lukanu lukunze lwa bukalenge which is a red bracelet is worn on the left hand and it

is a symbol of glory and power of a traditional chief. This also symbolizes acceptance from the

living, dead and charm givers which makes the traditional chief the leader of all, both the living

and the dead.

When a person is anointed to be a leader, the lupemba lwa bukalenge which is Kaolin is

used for the ceremony. This is a powder that the traditional chief is anointed with when he is

made a leader and it is equally used by the leader to bless the people. The medal of power known

as mundayi wa mu nshingu is another symbol that given to traditional leaders by the central






government as a sign that the powers were recognized and accepted by the central government.

The traditional leader further wears a dress of power known as makuku a bukalenge and has a

two edged sword known as mwela wa nkaza together with an axe of power called difuma.

Finally, the traditional leaders possess a muchete wa bukalenge which is a wooden suitcase and

is used to store all the symbols of power in their possession. All these symbols of power give

glory to the traditional leaders and reinforce their political, judicial and religious power. An

answer by an interviewed traditional chief supported these finding on symbols of power that

have manga in them:

It is a must for a traditional leader to have some manga which will help the leader in case

of a challenge from the people or from outside. People who have evil intentions will test

their traditional leader to know how powerful the leader is. After that test of power, the

traditional leader becomes their friend and their leader because they know about the

strength and power of the leader (Traditional Chief, TC 4).






Table 1 gives a summary of the symbols

Table 1: Symbols of power among Luba Traditional Leaders/Chiefs

Name of Symbol Explanation of the Symbol

1. Tshifulu tshia bukalenge Cap of power decorated with pearls, raffia palm and Long

parrot feathers: the cap symbolizes loyalty, goodness,

courage, and victory

2. Mibela pearls (precious nature of the power)

3. Mpeku ya mabondo Raffia palm (beauty of traditional leadership)

4. Disala dia nkusu Long feathers of a parrot showing the longevity of the

traditional power

5. Menu a Nkashama A royal necklace made of Leopard teeth

6. Tshiseba tshia Nkashama Leopard skin worn below the belt. Can also be an arm

bracelet. The teeth and skin of the leopard symbolize power

and strength possessed by the traditional leader.

7. Diesa dia bukalenge A flywhisk made from the tail of a buffalo. It symbolises

heroism.

8. Mukaba wa bukalenge A necklace made from pearls and leopard teeth. It

symbolizes legitimacy, dignity, integrity, respect for rules of

law and stability of power.

9. Dikombo dia bukalenge A walking stick, held using the right hand. It symbolises the

undisputable power inherited from the ancestors. It also

symbolises command and authority over all the people under

the traditional leader.

10. Lukanu lukunze lwa

bukalenge

A red bracelet worn on the left hand. It symbolises glory and

power of a traditional chief. It shows acceptance from the

living, dead and charm givers, which makes the traditional

chief the leader of all, both the living and the dead.

11. Lupemba lwa bukalenge

(Kaolin)

A white powder used to anoint a traditional chief. It is also

used by the leader to bless the people.

12. Mundayi wa mu nshingu A medal of power and a symbol given to traditional leaders

by the central government as a sign that the powers were

recognized and accepted by the central government.

13. Makuku a bukalenge A dress of power worn by a traditional leader. Worn with a

two edged sword together with an axe of power called.

14. Mwela wa nkaza A two-edged sword symbolizing command.

15. Kasui ka bukalenge An axe of power. Symbolizes the holder of the power

16. Difuma dia bukalenge Spear of power: symbolises the first warrior of the tribe

17. Muchete wa bukalenge A wooden suitcase used to store all the symbols of power in

the possession of the traditional leaders.

Source: (Research Data, 2020)






6.3 Governance in Luba traditional leadership

In the exploration of the nature of African political leadership in promoting good governance

with the use of manga among the Luba, the study sought to establish how leadership and

governance is practiced among the Luba people. Interviewed traditional chiefs, charm givers and

modern politicians shared on traditional leadership and how it differs from modern day

government. They also shed light on the values espoused in traditional leadership. Their

contribution is grouped into: power and duty; organization and hierarchy; submission to ancestral

customs and traditions.

From data, traditional leaders have both the power and duty to maintain peace in the

regions under their authority. Their power is derived from the Supreme Being and also from the

traditions and customs of the ancestors, “Traditional leaders in our Luba community inherit their

powers according to the traditions and customs of our ancestors” (Traditional Chief, TC, 1). This

power grants them duties as discussed under traditional leadership among the Luba where

monitoring the observance of human rights; ensuring continuity; checking on security;

promoting progress and development through transformation; and conflict management were

noted.

In support of the power of the traditional leader, he is the spokesman of the village unless

someone else is delegated to speak on behalf of a chief. People who have received delegation to

speak on behalf of the traditional leader are referred to as the mwanyampala wa mfumu meaning

representative of the traditional leader.

The second category of the contribution of the respondents on matters of governance

among the Luba is the level of organization and hierarchy of power among traditional leadership.

At the lowest level of hierarchy we have the heads of families. These are answerable to the

tupitas (representatives of each clan or village, in the Kasai territory). These in turn give advice

to the senior traditional leader (chef de groupement) on issues of governance. These Senior

Chiefs are in charge of at least six villages (Charm Giver, CG 3).

The organization of governance among the Luba is majorly oscillating among the heads

of families, the tupita and the senior chief and then the king at the helm. The last three are termed

as the traditional leaders. The relationship of the traditional leaders is explained by Traditional

Chief (TC 4):

…for a pot to sit well there must be three stones to support it on the fire so the chief and

the tupita have to maintain peace together for development… they are vital to governance

system in Luba Traditional leadership….

The third group of the participant's contribution is submission to ancestral customs and

traditions among the Luba. The findings of the study established that among the Luba people, it

is a “tradition that people have to be submissive to customs and traditions of their ancestors”

(Traditional Leader, TL 3). Traditional laws have to be respected and followed. Failure to adhere

to this traditional precepts, and at worst an open dis-respect of the laws, results in the use of






traditional instruments of power to remedy the situation. This is led by the traditional leader and

the tupita.

Actions may include the use of manga, calling upon the ancestral spirit of power or

resorting to use of police officers and the army from the provincial government, “...our customs

and laws have to be adhered to and respected…when this does not happen, we resort to using

manga…. The police can also be called in when things are beyond our jurisdiction…”

(Traditional Leader, TL 8). These findings indicate that a clear line of authority and what needs

to be done in traditional leadership among the Luba exists. Also the use of manga is significant

as it is called upon to remedy when customs and traditions are not adhered to. This is part of the

governance system of the Luba traditional community.

7.0 Discussion

The findings of the study established how traditional leadership with manga is practiced and how

this promotes a culture of good governance among the Luba of Kasai Central Province in the

Democratic Republic of Congo. According to the research findings, the traditional leaders inherit

their power form the ancestors and have customary power to exercise leadership. Power is

exercised using their tupita who also form the cabinet committee of a traditional leader. The

tupita who are representatives of each clan or village of the territory under the care of a

traditional leader are part of the decision making process and advice the leader, promote justice,

peace, harmony and development in the clan.

These findings concur with Koenane (2017) who observes that traditional leadership and

governance system in Africa is widely known and acceptable to the indigenous Africans. The

role played by traditional leaders include governing their communities through ensuring security,

regulating activities in society, resolving disputes, and administering justice to the people. The

findings also agree with Rapatsa (2015) who finds that in the traditional system of governance,

power was inherited based on clannism where it is passed to the next in line to the throne. These

realizations are discussed further under the titles traditional leadership and authority, and under

manga or fetishes for leadership.

7.1 Traditional Leadership and Authority

The research findings of the study confirmed that traditional leaders have diyi dia ditunga which

means power and authority that is bestowed upon them by the people through different

enthroning ceremonies. This authority enables the traditional leader to have power when

speaking and whatever is declared by the traditional chief is bound to happen. Igboin (2016)

concurs and notes that traditional leaders derived their source of power from historical practices,

culture, traditional institutions and social values in their communities.

Traditional leadership among the Luba follows a great history of culture, and practices

carried out by the ancestors of the Luba people. This includes great ancestral ceremonies such as

the enthroning of a new traditional leader aimed at preserving the values and traditions of the

Luba people. This ceremony involves makuku a bukalenge which makes the person a mfumu and

various incantations known as makuku a bukalenge which are used to call upon the ancestors to






bless the new leader to promote good governance practices (Nooter, 2017). The use of this

ceremony to install a new traditional leader equipped the person with the courage to direct the

various affairs of the community at all times. This is a deeply held belief and great cultural

practice among the Luba of Kasai Central Province.

Among the Luba, installing of a new traditional leader involves use of different types of

manga. The study established that traditional leaders and their dignitaries, notably the tupita use

different symbols of power that have manga in them. All these symbols of traditional power are

essential in the Luba traditional system where installed leaders are given these as an indicator of

their power over their people in their chieftaincy, villages or clan.

According to Nooter (2017), Luba kings together with their aides, ritual specialists and

chiefs used different forms of symbolizations such as beads, amulets, statuettes and sculptures

that were the receptacles of spirits. This symbols were used to bring prosperity; healing, new life,

blessings, protection, production of food and gaining of relevance and fame in the Luba

traditional leadership systems. These findings concur with Majawa (2017a) who points out that

fetish objects have mystical powers and are carried to protect those who carry them from

enemies, diseases or for purposes of harming others. Majawa further notes that objects carried in

traditions often include things like horns, teeth, beads, dead insects and images of people among

other things and the type of fetish determine the animal, person or object that is involved. They

take the properties of image of the person or object involved.

7.2 Manga or fetishes for Leadership

In this context, traditional leaders use different types of fetishes that symbolize their power and

give them authority to perform their duties and functions among the Luba people of Kasai

Central Province in the DRC. Nyamiti (2017) also agrees with this finding by observing that in

Africa, power can be acquired through heredity from the ancestors and through charm givers.

Africans have a deep held belief in ensuring that they maintain a good relationship between them

and their ancestors as a way of ensuring the continuity of life and increasing their potency and

vigor. This is best done through the use of charm givers who give powers of healing, prosperity,

and leadership (Majawa, 2017a).

The findings of the study established that various types of manga are used for different

purposes among the Luba of Kasai central Province. This, as Nyamiti (2017) observes includes

animal parts, sacred cords, and pieces of leather, ointments, precious stones, animal cords or

statuettes. These are used as for protection, harm other or create calamities.

MacGaffey (1977) describes the practice of fetishism in the Kongo and examines the

existing relationships between figures and spirits. These fetishes possess an immense power and

can either be good or bad. The objects are also quite varied based on what they are used for in

the society and possess considerable amounts of power. This theory supports and confirms use of

the various symbols of power among the Luba traditional leaders. The different symbols of

power bequeath the leader with the required authority, power and protection that is vital in

traditional leadership among the Luba people.






The findings of the study agree with reviewed literature on the use of symbols of power

with manga in the Luba traditional system of leadership. These symbols indicate the power that

the person in possession has. Similar to modern day governance, the leader of a country is

bequeathed with certain symbols of power in the power transfer ceremony. These symbols give

the leader the power to perform leadership duties in the society and people are expected to both

recognize the leader and respect the symbols of power in their possession. Similarly, among the

Luba, this is the norm where new leaders are given a plethora of symbols that are expected to

earn them respect from the people and give them the authority need to perform the leadership

functions and duties.

However, when it comes to the symbols of the Luba, there is the use of manga in them

which distinguishes them from any other similar symbols in the society. The use of the manga is

also in line with the customs and traditions of the Luba people and guide the leader on the right

things to do while on the throne. The manga spells out what is a taboo in the community and the

leader is required to follow at all time to ensure that the laws, customs, and traditions of the

manga are strictly adhered to and followed in the community or territory. Through the

ceremonies that are performed on new leaders, the use of different types of fetish is seen as part

of the traditions and customs of the Luba people. Anyone who deviates or who fails to respect

and abide by this customs is seen as an enemy of both the community and the land and is deemed

to attract the wrath of the gods and ancestors (Nooter, 2017). This understanding has made a

majority of the traditional leaders to understand the high responsibility that has been bestowed

upon them and the need for them to be accountable and transparent in the way that they lead the

people and the community.

This part has looked at the nature of African political leadership. It has brought to light

two aspects: African leadership and authority, as well as fetishism or manga for leadership.

These two aspects bring together literature and the findings of this study. These aspects

determine the exercising of political power among traditional leaders. They also bestow upon

them immense responsibility on how to exercise their power. In so doing, their power is

monitored towards positive governance. This leads the study to the second objective that focused

on the contribution of manga as rituals of acquiring and exercising political leadership.

8.0 Conclusion

Traditional leadership is an inherited system that is passed down from one leader to another

among the Luba people of Kasai Central Province in the DRC. Due to the long history and the

way of acquiring leadership among the Luba, the traditional leader is a highly respected person

in the Luba society. He performs duties, rituals, ceremonies and functions in the community, on

behalf of the people. When traditional leaders are enthroned, they are given various types of

symbols of power that are meant to give them authority, power and protection. These symbols

are varied in nature and have manga in them. The manga distinguishes them from similar

ordinary items found within the community. With the symbols of power and authority that have

manga in them, the traditional leader is able to perform specific roles in the society.






9.0 Recommendations

African traditional political systems existed and with them the virtue of a prosperous society.

This means that vices such as corruption and evil to any member of the society, were at the

minimal. Also, power was from the Supreme Being and was passed on through inheritance.

Persons who hold the customs and traditions dear are still present. The study recommends that

rather than modernise these people with an attempt to incorporate them into the modern regimes,

they be granted their rightful positions. From such persons, advice on good governance and on

the respect needed to be given to manga will continuously be sought. Such people should also be

part of the justice advice system.






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