CUTTINGTON UNIVERSITYSUAKOKO, BONG COUNTY, LIBERIA

THE EFFECTS OF GOAT MANURE ON THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF CORN

(LOCAL VARIETY IN LIBERIA)

BY:LAHAND J. STEWART

ID# 213499

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCE

SUBMITTED TO:THE FACULTY OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, CUTTINGTON UNIVERSITY, SUAKOKO DISTRICT, BONG

COUNTY, LIBERIA

FEBRUARY 26, 2016

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Corn is a major cereal crop grown in Liberia for both human and animal consumption. The

yield or output is influenced by the nature and amount of fertilizer applied during production.

Organic or inorganic manure is used to grow corn (maize) in Liberia. The essence of the

study is to assess the use of goat manure on the growth and yield of the local variety of corn.

In most of the farming activities in Liberia, farmers grow crops and rear animals at the same

time. The animal dropping feces serve as manure for the crops thereby providing economic

relief in purchasing fertilizer.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Maize or corn (Zea mays) is a plant belonging to the family of grasses grasses (poaceae)

(Poaceae). It is cultivated worldwide, being one of the most important cereal crops consumed

worldwide. Maize is not only an important human nutritional food, but also a basic element of

animal provender and raw material for production of many industrial products. These products

include corn starch, maltodextrins, corn oil, corn syrup and products of fermentation and

condensation industries. It’s ranked third in the world to rice and wheat. Maize is a useful crop

grown over a range of agro climatic zones. Maize is one of the oldest food grains which have its

origin in Mesoamerica about 3000years ago. By 2500 B. C, it has spread throughout America;

from which it spread to Europe, Asia and then Africa. It belong to the grass family poaceae, the

genus zeas and it is the only cultivated species in this genus.

In fact, the suitability of maize to diverse environments is unrivaled by any other crop.

Consumption pattern varies on the locality and culture of the consumers, especially in sub

Saharan Africa. It is the basic staple food and an important essential in the diets of people in

many countries (Biology of Maize, pp7 2002).

In Liberia, it is mainly consumed roasted or boiled, sometimes pounded as bread, it is also served

as a vegetable side dish or added as an ingredient to other dishes such as soups, stews and

salads . Maize can also be processed into syrup, sugars used as sweeteners in soft drinks, starch

and cereals. In urban area of Liberia, it is gradually becoming an important vegetable crop since

it forms a useful ingredient in the preparation of fried rice and other foods both at home and in

restaurants.

Presently, Corn is mainly consumed during the hunger in rural Liberia where more than 75% of

the country population resides. Corn is locally produced by farmers who throughout their lives

practice subsistence farming. Due to the large number of farmers that are engaged in the

production of corn, the average yield per hectares are comparatively low as compare to other

yield that are obtained in sub region by other producers.

Present day, maize has been breed to acquire improve variety to enhance market demand and

support the growing population food need.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Most local farmers are engage in corn (Zea Mays) production at the subsistence level in order to

minimize food shortage in Liberia. Farmers use fertilizer to boost production. Some farmer use

organic manure which is easy to access and cost effective. But farmers often lack the knowledge

to apply these fertilizers. The study is conducted to determine the amount of organic manure

applied during the production period to assess its effect on the vegetative growth as well as yield.

1.3 HYPOTHESIS / RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Null Hypothesis: the applications rate of goat manure on the soil has no significant effect

on the vegetative growth and yield of corn (local Varieties in Liberia).

Alternative Hypothesis: the applications rate of goat manure on the soil has significant

effect on the vegetative growth and yield of corn (local Variety in Liberia).

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

General Objective

The overall objective of the research is to assess the effect of the rate of application of goat

manure on the vegetative growth and yield of corn (local variety in Liberia).

Specific Objectives:

The detailed goals of the study are:

To determine the rate of application

To determine the effect of rate of application on vegetative growth and yield

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Considering the soil types of Liberia, many varieties of corn are introduced to local farmers that

are engaged in corn production. These foreign varieties yield are poorly resulted in the Liberian

soil, due to changes in climatic condition and the genetic make-up of them. The local variety is

already adoptable to logging and they can resist many diseases and are well adapted to the local

agronomic practices and climatic conditions. The local variety is most preferred by farmers and

consumers, due to the characteristics embedded in them such that they are adaptable to logging

and they can resist many diseases and pests; from personal observation. Since these farmers lack

the basic knowledge and skills of fertilizer and the rate at which they are applied in the

production of their crops, growth and yield are always poor. This research aimed at providing the

necessary guide to help local farmers in the proper application and rate of organic fertilizer (goat

manure) on their crops in order to obtain maximum yield of corn when they adapt the

recommended rate.

This study provides farmers long term economic benefits on the population in Liberia, Africa

and the world at large. Due to the lack of adequate information this research provides the perfect

level at which corn will significantly respond to the application of organic manure (Goat

Manure).

1.6 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY:

The researcher predicts some limitation in the study which include the following:

Funding’s to buy agriculture inputs such as; planting materials, goat manure, pesticides, and

irrigation which causes water shortage in the field.

The researcher used the research field which is provided by the university and which have been

influenced by previous researchers.

1.7 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY:

The research covers the assessment of effect of goat manure on the vegetative growth and yield

of local corn in Liberia for the period 2016

1.8 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS:

Maize: Is a tall cereal crop bearing grains on large cobs

Fertilizer: A material added to the soil to improve plant growth and yield

Organic: Pertaining to or derived from living organism

Goat manure: Solid waste product from farm animals (goat) that are used to make soil better for

growing crops.

Manure: are well decomposed organic matters used as sources of plant nutrients that retained

soil nutrients components.

Rate: The estimate degree or worth of something

Yield: The output of a product after harvest

Research: Is an attentive and thorough inquiry and investigation into a subject

Methodology: A particular procedure or set of methods that are important in science or art

Adoptable: To accept formally and put into effect

Null Hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis to be tested and accepted or rejected

Alternative Hypothesis: Is a statistical hypothesis that is tested and allow a choice between two

or more possibilities

Maltodextrins: A carbohydrates that are derived from corn or potatoes that is use to tender food

Fermentation: To go through a chemical change that results in the production of alcohol

EU: European Union

Factorial: the product of all possible integers from 1 to any number (n)

Army worms: common name for the caterpillars of any of several American species of moths that travel in groups from one area of vegetation to another.

Cucumber Beetles: leaf-eating insect of the leaf beetle family. These beetles feed on the leaves of such plants as cucumbers, squashes, and pumpkins, as well as corn and beans.

Corn Earworms: larva that eats corn, tomatoes and other plants.

1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

The study is organized into two (2) parts. The first part consists of the first three (3) chapters;

which are consider as the proposal. Chapter one of the proposal discussed the problems

identified and the second chapter discusses the review of related literature of the study and also

the third chapter explain the method use within the research. The second category or part of the

research comprise of two chapters, four and five. Chapter four of the research itself discuss data

presentation, results and discussion.

The last chapter in the second part of the research which is chapter five, is the final part of the

study. It discusses the summary, conclusion and recommendations.

CHAPTER II

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW:

2.1 Historical origin of maize

Maize is the third most important food grain in India after wheat and rice. In India, about 28% of

maize produced is used for food purpose, about 11% as livestock feed, 48% as poultry feed, 12%

in wet milling industry (for example starch and oil production) and 1% as seed (AICRP on

Maize, 2007) . Scientists had recorded and suggested that the domestication of corn arose at least

6000 years ago in the region of southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central America

(Mangelsdorf, 1974). Later than the Portuguese make known maize to Southeast-Asia from the

Americas in the 16th century. Later on Columbus introduced maize into Spain after his return

from the Americas, it reached France later on Italy and Turkey. The Portuguese exposed it to

India in the 17th century and later it travel to China and Philippines and the East Indies. In the late

17th century it reach Africa along the Sub Saharan Region, and later on spread in all parts of

Africa.

Maize is a useful crop grown over a range of agro climatic zones. In fact the suitability of maize

to diverse environments is unbeatable by any other crop. It is grown from 58oN to 40oS, from

below sea level to altitudes higher than 3000 m, and in areas with 250 mm to more than 5000

mm of rainfall per year (Dowswell et. al., 1996) and with a growing cycle ranging from 3 to 13

months (CIMMYT, 2000). Eubanks (1993, 1997a) suggests that domesticated

maize may have arisen via human selection of natural hybrids between

Tripsacum and perennial teosinte, however the major maize production areas are

located in temperate regions of the globe.

2.2 Economic Importance of Maize

Maize is an annual plant and it is a crop of balance excellence for food, feed

and industrial utilization (Biology of Maize p1 2002). Although in Liberia, maize is

not staple food but it can be served as meal or even combine with other food stuff to balance the

recommended diet of human. There are so many minerals and vitamins that are present in corn;

such include protein, vitamin A, B, B1….6, calcium, amino acid, carbohydrates, calories etc.,

iron and magnesium (Biology of Maize, p2 2002). It has risen from being grown as a compound

crop in a few dispersed villages to the status of widespread and large and its production is still

increasing in Africa (Obilana, et al, 1978). Maize is important in the cropping system of the

small scale Liberian farmer whereby it is frequently found grown in mixture with other crops

such as legumes or even cereals like rice under traditional practice. Apart from early millet, it is

the earliest grain that is harvested in any given season, hence giving relieve to the usual food

scarcity being experienced at such periods of the year. Secondly surplus early harvested maize is

sold off by farmers and the revenue realized is used for buying farm inputs e.g. fertilizer for

application on other crops or even late planted maize, or for hiring additional labor outside the

family source. Maize farming in Liberia, Africa a large involves millions of small-scale farmers

whose level of income, quantity of production, hectarage expansion, market outlets and financial

dependence keep them subservient to economic decision and operating constraints (F.A.O.

1985). Therefore research findings have discovered that the large maize farms are more

economically efficient than the small farms, Ahmed (1985). Abalu (1984), in his study found

that small scale farmers in some region of West Africa constitute the most significant population

of those engaged in farming production. It also identified small-scale peasant farmers as the most

effective means of meeting the food needs of the country.

The production of maize has strengthened in market gardens in the country due mainly to

increasing demand and partly to supplement the income of peasant farmers dwelling in the rural

areas of Liberia. Maize is an important crop in the world, it ranks second followed by wheat in

the world production of cereals. The total area devoted to maize in 1948 and 1989 was 88 and

129 million hectare respectively in West Africa. Thus, indicating an increase of about 47%

(Economic Analysis of maize production, pp 9 2000).

In Liberia, maize is one of the most important crops for food and cash. Its dual role of

Feeding a fast increasing population and supporting a potentially resilient agricultural

Industrialization is well recognized (Researcher Personal observation).

Effect of Fertilizer application on vegetative growth and yield

Studies have shown that manure can have positive long-term effects on maize yield. The long-

term effects that manure applications have on soil characteristics and subsequently Nitrogen (N)

availability from recently added N are examined. Results showed that when no new Nitrogen

added, net mineralization in soils with a history of organic management will be twice that of

soils with a history of industrial management, such as inorganic N fertilizer (Griffin et.al. 2007).

2.1 CHARACTERISTIC OF CORN

Maize belongs to the tribe Maydeae of the grass family poaceae Poaceae. “Zea” (zela) was

derived from an old Greek name for a food grass. The genus Zea consists of four species of

which Zea mays L. is economically important. The other zea sp., referred to as teosintes, are

largely wild grasses native to Mexico and Central America (Doeblay, 1990).

The number of chromosomes in Zea mays is 2 n = 20, it is a Monoecious, annual plant

2.2 CULTURAL PRACTICES

Seedbed Preparation: Soil should be cultivated deeply enough to insure that no barrier

to penetrations of the top root of the corn at early growth stage. Soil or the field much be

tilt enough to support air passage and sun ray penetration within the soil. This also

accompany faster germination and good seedling which is referred to as the sprouting

stage.

Seeding Planting Date: It is advisable in Liberia to plant your corn during season early

(April-June) to enhance quality yield. Relative to other region seasons of dry spell, but

not rainy season because corn is susceptible to water and they will not do well at all, only

by slight chance. Use healthy seeds that are not contaminated by pests, and disease.

Planting Method: The method of planting also varies from time to time, region, but in

most cases seed bed are prepared before in research cases and sometime till before

planting on a commercial levels. Local farmer only plant theirs in an open field without

seed bed preparation. Scientist have been struggling to find out a precise distance for

planting in such that it depends on the cultivar. Some farmers use lower spacing but the

researcher his self-advice higher spacing so that crops will not compute for nutrients to

enable them have better yield.

Maize crop is primarily a warm weather crop and it is grown in wide range of climatic

surroundings. Maize can successfully be grown in areas receiving an annual rainfall of 60 cm,

which should be well distributed throughout its growing stage. It needs more than 50% of its

total water requirements in about 30 to 35 days after tasseling and inadequate soil moisture at

grain filling stage results in a poor yield and shriveled grains (ICAR, 2006).

It cannot withstand water surplus at any stage. It will never do well for optimal growth and yield

during rainy season of high rain fall. Corn can only grow by faint chance in a water loge area,

but it is not advisable. Prolonged cloudy period is harmful for the crop but an intermittent

sunlight and cloud of rain is the most ideal for its growth. It needs bright sunny days for its

accelerated photosynthetic activity and rapid growth of plants.

The type of soil that is conducive for corn production is relative or varies in other region around

the world. In Liberia, corn is cultivated on a piece of land that has the characteristic of silty loam,

sandy clay loam or loamy soil with a minimum pH of 6.7 to the maximum pH of 4.0. The lower

the pH the higher of its acidity, vice versa.

Soil pH, which is a guide of acidity or alkalinity of soils, is an important factor in crop

production in Liberia. It controls the solubility, availability and precipitation of nutrients. Acidity

increases the deficiency of some elements. Soil acidity is harmful to plants because of nutritional

disorder, such as the reduced availability of phosphorus and molybdenum as well as the toxicity

of soluble nutrients such as aluminum and manganese (Tang et al., 2007).

2.4 SITE SELECTION

Sweet corn grows best on well-drained soils that have good water-holding characteristics. If you

grow corn (zea mays) on sandy soil, irrigation is important for optimum pollination and kernel

development. Soil should have a pH of 5.8–6.6.When growing early corn (zea mays), use soils

that warm quickly and locations with a southern exposure to ensure early growth and harvest.

2.5 VARIETY OF CORN

In corn production, selection of variety plays a major role in such that a particular hybrid or

varieties are not tolerant to logging, diseases, pests and the soil type. Farmers will prefer higher

yield varieties but note that tolerances, resistance matters for a farmer in such that their labors are

not wasted.

2.6 FERTILIZATION

The production of maize has strengthened in market gardens in the country due mainly to

increasing demand and partly to supplement the income of peasant farmers dwelling in the rural

areas of Liberia. Organic matter and nutrient depletion are the major causes of low crop yield

under intensive cropping. Continuous cropping as a result of scarcity of land, removal of crop

residues after cropping for feeding livestock, nutrient depletion through erosion and leaching

leading to increased soil acidity, leading to the low productive capacity of the arable land.

To achieve food security for the rapidly expanding population in Liberia and the world at large it

entails making deliberate efforts at promoting the judicious utilization of animal manures (GM)

and organic residues for crop production.

Soil enhancing benefits from these manures in addition to those from macro and micro nutrients

supply, are related to the organic matter that improves soil structure, soil profile, moisture affairs,

increases movement of P, K and micro nutrients and stimulates microbial actions (Uwah et al,

2014).

Many farmers that apply animal manures lack the scientific knowledge for appropriate rate,

timing and number of applications, method of application and storage techniques to retain

nutrients. Timing of nutrient application is guided by some basic considerations which include

nutrient availability when crops need it, avoiding waste and enhancing nutrient use efficiency

(Brady & Weil, 2008). Nitrogen present in the urine of goat manure is mostly in the form of urea

which is subjected to volatilization losses. Previous research by other researchers have shown

that there are so many benefits of goat manure to the soil for plant growth. Such as, they supply

plant nutrients including micronutrients, they improve soil physical properties like structure,

water holding capacity etc., they increase the availability of nutrients, carbon dioxide released

during decomposition acts as a CO2 (carbon dioxide fertilizer), and plant parasitic nematodes

and fungi are controlled to some extent by altering the balance of microorganisms in the soil.

Goat manure has both macro and micro nutrients in it that are released to plants, and on an

average, Goat manure contains 3% N, 1% P2O5 and 2% K2O (Lecture-9-BINM-Organic-

Manures, Jan 2014). Although goat manure (GM) is readily available on most small holders’

vegetable farms, second only to poultry manure in terms of availability its use has received little

research attention. There is a scarcity of information on appropriate number of applications and

the right proportion for optimum performance of maize by farmers, but the researcher applied the

manure of goat three days before planting. Another method would be apply the (GM) after two

weeks of planting where the corn had bear at least 4 to 6 leaves.

2.7 MULCHING IN CORN PRODUCTION

Mulching is one of the simplest and most beneficial practices used locally in the production of

corn in Liberia. Mulch is simply a conservative and protective moistening layer of a material that

is spread on top of the soil. Mulches can either be organic -- such as grass clippings, straw, bark

chips, and similar materials -- or inorganic -- such as stones, brick chips, and plastic (in other

parts of the world). Both organic and inorganic mulches have numerous benefits and these

incudes:

Protects the soil from erosion

Reduces compaction from the impact of heavy rains

Conserves moisture, reducing the need for frequent watering

Maintains a more even soil temperature

Prevents weed growth

Keeps fruits and vegetables clean

Keeps feet clean, allowing access to garden even when damp

Provides a "finished" look to the garden

When all of these are done in the field, it will retain nutrients within the soil for the next planting

season. This can also reduce labor cost and capital saving.

Organic mulches also improve the condition of the soil. As these mulches slowly decompose,

they provide organic matter which helps keep the soil loose. This improves root growth,

increases the infiltration of water, and also improves the water-holding capacity of the soil.

Organic matter is a source of plant nutrients and provides an ideal environment for earthworms

and other beneficial soil organisms (NRCSA, United States Department of Agriculture, 2011).

1.8 WEED CONTROL METHODS IN CORN PRODUCTION

Weeds compete with corn for light, nutrients, and water, especially during the first 3 to 5 weeks

following development of the crop. It is important to control weeds in a corn field before they are

6 to 8 inches high, which is when they begin to impact corn yields.

Late-season weed infestations do not reduce corn yield nearly as much as early weed

competition; however, weeds at this time can harbor destructive insect pests such as thrips,

which can course Fusarium ear rot, and armyworms, which can defoliate corn. Weeds also

reduce forage feed quality, slow harvesters by causing controls or clogging, raise grain moisture

content, and provide a seed source to infest subsequent crops (UC ANR Publication 3443, July

2009).

1.9 DISEASE AND PEST OF CORN

Description of the pests: Several species of aphids may be found in corn, but corn leaf aphid

and green bug are the primary aphid species infesting corn in California. Corn leaf aphids are

small to medium and bluish green in color and also infest small grains.Bacterial soft rot first appears as rapid desiccation of youngest leaves. A soft, watery rot of leaf

tissue occurs inside the leaf coil. The rot, which has an unpleasant odor, may kill the growing

point of the plant. It is cause by a specific disease.

Other pests that damages corn field are as follow:

• Army worms

• Cucumber beetles

• Corn earworm etc

Corn had suffer from 110 diseases in the world and basically they are caused by fungi, Bacteria

and viruses. These spectrum varies in different climatic condition and zones. Some of these

disease are: seed delights, foliar disease, downy mildews (Dhillon and Prasanna, 2001).

To reduce the infestation of pest and disease; you use clean seeds, resistance varieties or

adaptable seeds of the region in which you are planting to enhance good yield. Another method

of preventing these stuff can be the practice of crop rotation, mix cropping and planting early.

CHAPTER III

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Experimental Area

The study begin effectively in March 2016. The factorial field experiment was conducted under

field condition from March to June at the student research field at the College of Agricultural and

Sustainable Development (CASD), Cuttington University Bong County Liberia.

3.21 RESEARCH DESIGN

The experimental aspect of the research was carry out on one variety (local or MoA) corn, and a

six (6) levels of fertility rates with a total treatment of 24 (twenty four plot) and replicated in four

blocks laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) this design was employed to

reduce experimental errors. The field layout was measured 35ft byX 26ft or (10.m XX 7.8m)

with 4 blocks; each block contains 6 sub plots and each measured 5ft byX 5ft (1.5m X 1.5m.

Relative amount of goat manure was applied on each based on the calculations. Total of 9 plants

was maintain in each plot with inter-row and intra-row spacing of 630cm byX 6030cm or (0.6m

X 0.6m).

Urea was provided with measurement of 24gm and applied to decomposed manure faster

and fix bacteria with in the soil.

Goat manure was bought and measure at different fertility level to be used as organic

fertilizer. Later there was various ton measure per hectare which include; 2ton/ha,

4ton/ha, 8ton/ha, 16ton/ha and 32ton/ha and broadcast at each rate. Corn seeds were

selected based upon good health and quality of seeds before the researcher sow them in

the field, and 1 (one) seed was sow per hill. Mulching was done in all the plots after

sowing of seeds.

Treatments

The following treatment were apply in each plots:

F1 = Control (no urea and goat manure)

F2 = goat manure at 2tonnes/ha (450gm)

F3 = goat manure at 4ton/ha (900gm)

F4 = goat manure at 8tonnes/ha (1800gm)

F5 = goat manure at 16tonnes/ha (3600gm)

F6 = goat manure at 32tonnes/ha (7200gm)

3.32 RESEARCH POPULATION

The research dealt wither dealt with the total populationnumber of 216 plants, which were were

subdivided into 24 plotsmaintained containing 4 (four) blocks and each plots consist of 9 (nine)

hills of which 1 (one) seed was planted per hill, which summed 9 (nine) plants per plots..

3.43 DATA COLLECTION

The researcher collected data on both growth and yield of the crop under the study. This was

done to evaluate the effect of goat manure and it level of application on corn vegetative and

reproductive growth. The researcher used physical, hardware instruments to gather data; such as

tap line to measure plant height, leaves length and width (plant growth parameter). Pen, pencil

and note book were used to collect data too. Digital balance Scale was also used to measure the

weight of crop yield and biomass of the plant.

3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE AND SIZE

Three plant per hill of each plot were randomly selected from each experimental plot for data

gathering purpose. Therefore there were 72 plants of total sample size.

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS

In the analysis of presented data that were gathered, it was analyze by using a SAS (Statistical

Analysis Software) modern and upgraded version.

3.6 EXPECTED RESULTS

After the research and experimentation, the researcher provided evidence that the application of

Goat manure (GM) in corn production have significant difference on the growth and yield. In

such conditions, there were higher yield on plot that received higher application rates of GM,

vice versa.

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