Empa

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Phone +41 33 228 46 26Fax +41 33 228 44 90

www.empa.ch

Annual Report 2006

jabe06_e_c.qxp 12.6.2007 15:35 Uhr Seite 1

2ForewordClimate neutral energy supplies for tomorrowand the sustainable use of our resources –two core topics for Empa

4Research programs

6Nanotechnology8Adaptive Material Systems10Technosphere – Atmosphere12Materials for Energy Technologies14Materials for Health and Performance

Contents

The technical-scientific report

«EMPA Activities 2006»,

previous Annual Reports and further

documentation are available

directly from:

Empa

Communication

Überlandstrasse 129

CH-8600 Dübendorf

contact@empa.ch

jabe06_e_c.qxp 12.6.2007 15:35 Uhr Seite 2

16Selected projects

18NANOVIR: a virus filter for clean drinkingwater thanks to nanotechnology 20Surface analysis made easy:a service laboratory forscanning force microscopy22Using molecular defects in nanotubesto fabricate components for nanoelectronics 24Damage analysis is detective work:what caused the track rope incident on theSchilthorn cableway? 26Fungi enhance the utility ofspruce and fir wood28Airships powered by plastic foils30Intelligent T-shirt monitors heartbeat32Functional textiles protectagainst infections34Fighting noise with active materials 36Preparing the ground forsafe nanotechnology38Measuring, modeling and minimizingcar emissions40Storing hydrogen for renewable energy

54Facts and Figures

56Scientific Output57Teaching / Disseminationof Knowledge / TechnologyTransfer58Personnel59Finances60Equal opportunities60Construction / Operations61Organs of Empa62Organizational chart

42Empa Inside

44Forum Chriesbach46Marketing47International PhD SchoolSwitzerland – Poland48Empa Academy50Science in Dialog 52Technology Transfer

Foreword

Prof. Dr Louis Schlapbach Dr Peter Hofer

Climate neutral energy suppliesfor tomorrow and thesustainable use of our resources –two core topics for Empa

3 4

Not only since the recent IPCC report («Inter-

governmental Panel on Climate Change») have

climate change and the looming crude oil

scarcity entered prime time. Both problems are

intricately linked: We are satisfying our seeming-

ly insatiable demand for energy by burning fossil

fuels at a rapidly increasing rate, causing emis-

sions of greenhouse gases such as carbon diox-

ide (CO2) to rise to unprecedented levels, there-

by inextricably accelerating global warming. At

stake is nothing less than our future energy sup-

ply – probably humankind’s most urgent prob-

lem in the decades to come.

Do we really want to continue to rely on fossil fu-

els such as oil, gas, coal – and uranium, too – un-

til all of Earth’s limited reserves are eventually ex-

hausted? Or should we rather start focusing on

sustainable energy sources and storage tech-

niques? For Empa, the answer is obvious. As the

ETH Domain’s materials research and technolo-

gy institution, Empa researchers and engineers

are working hard, in Empa’s research programs

«Materials for Energy Technologies» and «Tech-

nosphere – Atmosphere», to develop interdisci-

plinary solutions to the most pressing questions

concerning energy and the environment.

And rather successfully, as is shown by – among

other things – the numerous prestigious prizes

awarded to Empa scientists in 2006. For instance,

at the Jungfraujoch research station Empa’s

team of atmospheric scientists is analyzing the

concentrations of greenhouse gases and other

pollutants to investigate their chemical and phys-

ical behavior in the atmosphere as part of a world-

wide network of measuring stations. To reduce

individual transport’s environmental impact, Empa

researchers are developing tomorrow’s «clean»

automobile – a vehicle designated CLEVER, which

is fuelled with (bio-)gas. They have also created

novel foam catalytic converters designed specifi-

cally for use in gas motors, to reduce pollutant

emissions even further. Another Empa team has

used so-called «Life Cycle Assessments» and

ecobalance evaluations to scrutinize the poten-

tial of other biofuels with regard to reducing CO2

emissions and improving environmental friendli-

ness. Hydrogen is a top candidate for as a clean

fuel of the future, and with its newly established

«Hydrogen and Energy» Laboratory, Empa is

contributing to making the «hydrogen society» a

reality. But Empa is not just dedicated to inves-

tigating new sources of energy and means of

storage. It is also developing technologies to in-

crease energy efficiency, such as materials for

novel and innovative building shells (using, for

example, vacuum insulated panels) as well as

overall energy concepts for new buildings. One

example of this is the newly constructed zero-en-

ergy «Forum Chriesbach» building, which houses

the common Eawag-Empa library among other fa-

cilities.

Energy and sustainability are, however, not the

only topics Empa has been dealing with over the

past year (and almost always in cooperation

with national and international partners from in-

dustry and academia). This is illustrated in our

2006 Annual Report, featuring Empa’s five re-

Prof. Dr Louis Schlapbach

CEO Empa

Dr Peter Hofer

Deputy

search programs as well as several selected

projects. All these projects have one thing in

common: Empa’s R&D activities are always di-

rected towards meeting the requirements of our

industrial partners and addressing the needs of

society. This enables us to offer tailor-made so-

lutions to industry, thereby encouraging innova-

tion and, at the same time, enhancing the qual-

ity of life in our society. In other words: active

technology transfer is the trademark of all Empa

activities.

Have we aroused your curiosity? If you would

like to learn more about Empa, please visit our

homepage at www.empa.ch, send us an email

via the newly opened portal@empa.ch, our bidi-

rectional contact point for potential clients and

partners, or ask for our in-depth scientific and

technical report «Empa Activities 2006».

Have an enjoyable and interesting read!

Research programs

Nanotechnology

From the scientific fundamentalsto safe applications

Nanotechnology is already finding applications in many fields, rangingfrom information technology and electronics via materials with improvedmechanical properties and self-cleaning or abrasion-resistant surfacesall the way to medical technology. As a consequence of this increasingproliferation, questions regarding the safety of these «nanoproducts»are becoming increasingly relevant. Because of its interdisciplinaryorientation and its traditionally close relationship with industry Empa,as a materials science research institution, has made the safe, secureimplementation of nanotechnology applications one of its priorities.

In living up to and extending its role as a bridging

organization between fundamental nanoscience

and the development and implementation of prac-

tical nanotechnology-based applications, Empa

has evaluated its nano-activities and reoriented

its focal areas in research and development:

– Investigating basic ideas and phenomena on the

nanometer scale with a view to developing pos-

sible applications in the future (see for example

«Using Molecular Defects in Nanotubes to Cre-

ate Nanoelectronic Components», pp. 22 – 23)

– Developing new materials in the nanometer

range

– Developing and applying instruments for the

analysis of materials and of effects on the

nanometer scale, including offering such analy-

ses as a service to industry and regulatory au-

thorities

– Developing new components and applications

in the field of nanotechnology in cooperation

with industry (for example see «Nanovir – a Viral

Filter for Clean Drinking Water Thanks to Nan-

otechnology», pp. 18 –19)

– Elaborating methods for evaluating the risks

and potential consequences of nanotechnology

in partnership with regulatory authorities and in-

dustry (for example see «Laying the Foundations

for Safe Nanotechnology», pp. 36-37)

Developing new materialsHard surface coatings are of great importance,

in particular for cutting tools in the machining in-

dustry. Composite materials consisting of small

crystallites embedded in a thin, amorphous in-

termediate layer can be used to improve the

hardness of these tools, nanostructuring pro-

viding the required surface hardness in these

materials. Currently, as part of a doctoral stu-

dent project, transparent nanocomposite layers

are being studied at Empa. Stress-free, trans-

parent layers of extreme hardness have already

been produced on various substrates. Thanks

to their lack of stress, these surface layers ad-

here very strongly to the underlying materials, al-

lowing for example the thermal treatment of

coated glasses. In collaboration with several in-

dustrial partners, the next step the Empa re-

searchers are tackling is to develop concrete uses

for these hardened surfaces, for example in coat-

ing glass for architectural applications and optical

components, and in producing anti-reflection

coatings for watch glasses.

Instruments for analyses on thenanometer scaleIn addition to several commercially available scan-

ning tunnel microscopes, which Empa has been

using for some time, over the past three years a

novel low-temperature force version has been

developed and constructed at the institution and

is now operating successfully. Empa scientists

have already used this new apparatus to take im-

ages of samples with a resolution on the atomic

scale at 4.3 °C above absolute zero. They aim to

use the new low-temperature scanning force

microscope in the near future to analyze the me-

chanical and electronic characteristics of nanos-

tructures made of individual atoms and molecules

on surfaces. In doing so, they will extend Empa’s

LHe cryostat

Scanning forcemicroscope

Ultra high vacuumchamber system

a)

6 7

Components and new applicationsFor several years now Empa research teams

have been studying the fundamental physics

governing the emission of electrons by carbon

nanotubes (CNTs). The expertise gained during

this process has been used to devise new prod-

ucts – for example, the development, in collab-

oration with an industrial partner, of a novel X-

ray tube, in which single CNTs act as the X-ray

source. Due to their very low power consump-

tion these new X-ray tubes are particularly suit-

Methods of evaluating the risks nanotechnologyAs a result of its many years of experienc

analytical field, Empa has at its disposal b

material technology know-how and the ne

infrastructure to perform detailed studies of

als all the way down to the nanometer leve

der to meet the growing demand for informa

work-place and product safety, Empa has o

past years expanded its activities in the are

ological analysis and research into the ef

a) Final installation work before performing first experiments withthe new ultra-high vacuum low temperature scanning force microscope at Empa. b) View of the cantilever taken with a visible-light microscope: above the cantilever the Fabry-Perot optics can be seen, with whichthe deflection of the cantilever can be measured to a precision of 10-15 m/sqrt(Hz) = 1/1000000 nm/sqrt(Hz)c) Silicon- (111)-7x 7-surface: individual atoms can be seen.

Fabry-Perot optics

Cantilever with tip

Mirror-image ofcantilever

Silicon-111-7x7-unit cell

Single Si atom1 nm

1 mm

b)

c)

MXR-161

W

5

range of expertise in materials studies from the

classical large dimensional scale all the way

down to the single atom level. This allows re-

searchers, for example, to conduct tensile tests

between single atoms. Commercial manufac-

turers of conventional scanning probe micro-

scopes have already shown great interest in the

new Empa instrument. Know-how gained by

Empa staff in the field of scanning force mi-

croscopy is also being passed on to users of the

recently established «User Laboratory» for force

microscopy. This is open to partners and clients

from industry and academia for the characteri-

zation of materials and their surfaces.

In collaboration with the ETH Zurich Empa has al-

so recently purchased a new time-of-flight sec-

ondary ion mass spectrometer (TOF-SIMS). This

instrument allows scientists to analyze the chemi-

cal composition of materials in three dimensions.

Applications range from determining the local-

ized presence of adsorbed molecules on sur-

faces and the analysis of hidden layer structures

all the way to pharmacological investigations.

able for applications involving mobile instrumen-

tation, for example, in portable X-ray fluores-

cence spectrometers.

of

e in the

oth the

cessary

materi-

l. In or-

tion on

ver the

a of bi-

fects of

nanotechnology. The institution is therefore well po-

sitioned to collect and evaluate data on the biolog-

ical effects of nanomaterials and nanoparticles,

thus making Empa a centre for expertise and ad-

vice for industrial and political stakeholders con-

cerning questions about «nano-safety».

00-0000

0mm

mm

1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4 5

52m

m

Electronbeam

X-ray beam

00-0000 MXR-161

0mm

mm

W

LA

1 2 3 4 5

0 1 2 3 4 5

52m

m

Electronbeam

X-ray beam

Prof. Dr Hans Josef Hughans-josef.hug@empa.ch

a) a) Schematic diagram of the miniature fieldemission X-ray tube: an electron beam isgenerated, accelerated and focused in the tube,then strikes the rear of the yellow transmissionX-ray target. The target is a beryllium window,internally coated with tungsten or molybdenum,from which the X-ray beam is emitted.Altogether the tube is only 5.2 cm long.

b) Two X-ray focal point measurements of amodel tube using nanotubes as the electronsource, used to evaluate the quality of thetube’s electron optics. The emitted beam isvery homogeneous.

a)b)

Adaptive Material Systems

Actuators and sensors for «intelligent» mechanicalsystems and structures

It’s an idea which is simultaneously attractive and intriguing. Instead ofholding out – passive and static – against the elements, why should buildingmaterials and structures of the future not actively respond to their surroundingconditions? Active vibration dampers, «artificial muscles» and active aircraftwings are just a few of the possible applications of such adaptive systems.To make them tomorrow’s reality, Empa is working on the development of«intelligent» materials that can adapt to changes in their surroundings. Theydo this by being coupled to the external influences, such as electrical fieldsor changes in temperature, to which they then react appropriately. For exam-ple, one adaptive system developed at Empa protects bridges and similarstructures from destructive oscillations by adding a degree of damping to thesystem, the strength of which depends on the amplitude of the oscillations.

In the «Adaptive Material Systems» research

program Empa engineers and materials scien-

tists work together in an interdisciplinary way.

This places the institution in the advantageous

position of being able to make important contri-

butions in many research fields and to enhance

the innovative edge of Swiss industry through

active technology transfer. The program covers

the areas of materials development and the

creation of theories and algorithms for mod-

eling and optimization purpos-

es. Furthermore, it deals with the

development of novel experimental

methods relating to a wide variety of

topics, from the characterization of in-

telligent materials to application-oriented

projects, in which the suitability of newly

developed technologies is proven by

means of so-called «demonstrators».

Artificial muscles made ofelectroactive polymers (EAPs)When the active components of a control loop –

the actuators – are made of electroactive poly-

mers (EAPs), they are often referred to as «artifi-

cial muscles» because of their flexibility and their

ability to contract. The aim of one research pro-

ject begun in 2006 at Empa is to develop an arti-

ficial sphincter muscle for the urethra to treat in-

continence and bladder problems. One chal-

lenge is in the miniaturization of the system; in ad-

dition, Empa scientists are seeking new material

combinations, which will enable them to reduce

the electrical voltage needed to cause the artifi-

cial muscle to contract to such a low level that ap-

plications in the human body become feasible.

As a final challenge, EAPs need to be made more

reliable with their lifetime being extended signifi-

cantly before they can be used in medical appli-

cations.

On 3rd November 2006 Felix Weber received the first«Empa Innovation Award» for the development,in cooperation with industrial partners, of oscillationdamping systems.

8 9

The «Franjo Tudjman Bridge» nearDubrovnik, on which Empa engineersinstalled and tested adaptive,magnetorheological fluid dampersin June 2006.

The «Blimp» project is another example of using

EAPs. Here, an airship is designed to swim through

the air like a fish, propelled by EAP actuators. The

alpha version of the blimp, which was developed

in cooperation with the TU Berlin and the ETH

Zurich, made its maiden voyage in June 2006,

thereby proving that EAP technology is suitable

to meet the challenges set by lighter-than-air

construction techniques. Both initial fluid dynam-

ic studies involving analytical and numeric calcu-

lations and wind tunnel trials have yielded very

promising results. The next version, «C10», has

already been fitted with active EAP hinges to

steer the airship.

The EAP-Blimp (version C10): the control sur-faces of the airship are moved by active hinges– the black stripes – using electroactive poly-mer (EAP) technology.

Innovation prize for dampingcable-stayed bridgesAdaptive materials also offer interesting capabil-

ities in the area of active and passive oscillation

damping. One particular success is the system

for damping oscillations excited by the wind

blowing through bridge support cables, devel-

oped together with the company Maurer Söhne.

In this application the degree of damping ap-

plied by the actuators depends on the ampli-

tude and waveform of the cable oscillations. In

June 2006 the system was used on the «Franjo

Tudjman Bridge» near Dubrovnik, being installed

on the cables most susceptible to oscillation.

This year the system will be installed on the «Su-

tong Bridge» over the Yangtze River, which cur-

rently boasts the greatest free span between

two pylons in the world. In November last year

Dr. Felix Weber and his team were awarded the

first «Empa Innovation Award» for the develop-

ment of the system .

Composite materials containingactive fibers monitor structuralintegrityAdaptive materials also allow engineers to build

in a kind of «self-monitoring» capability into me-

chanical and civil engineering structures. This

will allow them to autonomously collect and

transmit data about their «state of health». Par-

ticularly suitable in this regard are composite

materials containing active piezoelectric fibers,

so-called «Active Fiber Composites» (AFCs).

They are flexible, easily integrated into a carrier

material, and have a long service life. Empa sci-

entists use AFCs as passive sensors and emit-

ters. Piezoelectric elements offer, in addition,

the ability to produce energy via electromagnet-

ic coupling. This can then be exploited to pro-

vide power for measurement signals and for

wireless data transmission purposes.

Converting the results intomarketable innovationsSince the program was initiated in 2000, Empa

scientists working together with colleagues

from the ETH Zurich and other R&D institutions

have developed a range of novel adaptive sys-

tems. They have made critical progress in the

modeling, optimization and production of such

systems. The cooperative work with academic

partners also ensures that the latest research re-

sults flow directly into the educational material

used by young engineers and scientists, through

lectures, doctoral research projects and numer-

ous student projects supported by Empa. From

2007 the program will be headed by Prof.

Edoardo Mazza, together with Prof. Paolo Er-

manni of the ETH Zurich. This will further en-

hance cooperation between the two research

institutes. Meanwhile, the time is ripe for the in-

dustrial implementation of the newly developed

technologies, and Empa is now searching for

suitable innovative and future-oriented partners.

Prof.Dr Edoardo Mazzaedoardo.mazza@empa.ch

Technosphere – Atmosphere

The greenhouse effect and climate change

The greenhouse effect and climate change are topics which have longceased to be of interest only to science, but which are increasinglyof concern in political circles and to society at large. The report on worldclimate – compiled by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange) expert commission and published in February 2007 – showsthat the temperature increases observed worldwide are with little doubtdue to emissions of pollutant gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2),methane (CH4) and halogenated hydrocarbons. These man-made emis-sions must be reduced to within acceptable limits. In the «Technosphere –Atmosphere» (TECAT) research program Empa is investigating theformation and emission of these and other pollutants. It is workingto uncover the underlying basic science in order to better understand theprocesses involved and to enable solutions to be developed to reducethe pollutant load of the atmosphere.

VW Touran on the test dynometer.

A measuring instrument based on the quantum-cascadelaser, used for the very precise and rapid determination ofstable CO2 isotopes in atmospheric air.

All CO2 is not created equal In the biosphere the CO2 isotope 12CO2 is pref-

erentially bound by plants during photosynthesis,

so the CO2 they release has a 13CO2 / 12CO2 iso-

topic mixture which is different from that of the

surrounding atmosphere. At Empa a technique

has been developed for measuring the levels of

the different CO2 isotopes using quantum cas-

cade lasers. The high sensitivity and temporal

resolution of this technique allows concentration

variations resulting from air turbulence near to the

source of CO2 to be measured, for example in a

meadow, wooded area or on cultivated land. Sci-

entists use eddy covariance analysis by combin-

ing the concentration data with wind measure-

ments recorded with comparably fast temporal

resolution. This enables them to determine sep-

arately the CO2 flux due to assimilation (the up-

take of CO2 from the atmosphere during photo-

synthesis) and that due to respiration (the plant’s

«breathing»). They are then able to calculate how

much CO2 the area under investigation has re-

moved from the air through photosynthesis and

how much it has released back into the atmos-

phere by respiration. This provides answers to

questions such as to whether the area being inves-

tigated – be it forested or agricultural land – is a

source or a sink of CO2. A deeper understanding

of the interactions between the biosphere and

the atmosphere enables researchers to better

estimate the potential of the biosphere to act as

a CO2 sink within the global CO2 cycle.

10 11

Mobility with minimum CO2 emissionsThe necessary reduction in greenhouse gas emis-

sions calls not just for a highly improved perfor-

mance of conventional internal combustion en-

gines; it also requires the use of «low-carbon» fu-

els such as methane (the main constituent of

natural gas) and hydrogen. Biogas can also be

added to natural gas, further improving the CO2

balance. Methane has better anti-knock proper-

ties than petrol, so a methane fuelled engine can

be run at a higher compression ratio, thus signifi-

cantly increasing its efficiency. Together with the

ETH Zurich and partners from the automobile in-

dustry, Empa is developing a new combustion

process for turbocharged natural gas / biogas mo-

tors. If hydrogen is added to methane in suitable

quantities, the rate of combustion increases and

with it the motor’s efficiency, as initial tests at Em-

pa have shown.

Pure hydrogen can also be used to power fuel cells

or internal combustion engines, but the storage of

gaseous hydrogen at room temperature is not triv-

ial. Empa is therefore studying the thermodynam-

ic and kinetic properties of metal hydrides, which

have a high hydrogen storage capacity. Like a

sponge, these substances can absorb large

amounts of hydrogen, which they store in their

atomic lattice for later release.

POPs – some are vanishing,new ones are popping up Persistent organic pollutants (or POPs as they are

known) accumulate in the food chain, are biolog-

ically active as endocrine disruptors and have se-

vere acute and chronic toxic effects. For these

reasons the use of twelve of these substances

was banned or strictly limited in the Stockholm

Convention in 2001. In a collaborative project with

Eawag (the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Sci-

ence and Technology, a sister institution to Empa)

researchers studied a sediment core extracted

from the bottom of Lake Thun. They were able to

show, for example, that the concentrations of

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), banned in

Switzerland since 1972, have sharply dropped,

thus demonstrating the benefits of such environ-

mental regulations. On the other hand, their mea-

surements also show that levels of non-regulated

industrial chemicals such as chlorinated paraffins

have increased over the past few years.

Dr Peter Hoferpeter.hofer@empa.ch

Measurement of the long-term accumulation of chlorinated paraffins (CPs)and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in a sediment core taken from the bedof Lake Thun: The PCB levels (dark green lines) show a sharp decline afterthe maximum value, due to the ban of these substances in open systems.The CP concentrations (blue lines) rose from 1960 to the mid-1980’s, whenthey stabilized at a high level. Note the good correlation between the CPdeposits in the sediment core and global CP production (light green line).0

50

100

1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 2010Jahr

0

150

300

Rel

ati v

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ion

ind

rys e

di m

ent

[ %]

CP concentration [%]

PCB concentration [%]

Global CP production [109kg] Glo

bal

CP

pr o

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tion

[109

kg]

Materials for Energy Technologies

How biofuels can contribute to sustainable mobility

The aim of Empa’s Materials for Energy Technologies research program isto develop efficient, non-polluting methods of converting and storingenergy. In addition to dealing with scientific and technical questions, it alsoconsiders the evaluation of technologies. At the behest of three federalministries – the Swiss Federal Offices of Energy (SFOE), Environment(FOEN) and Agriculture (FOAG) – the institution has been carrying out, forexample, a study investigating how biofuels should be evaluated froma global ecological point of view. In addition, it is cooperatively involved inseveral other projects initiated last year by the newly established Compe-tence Center for Energy and Mobility (CCEM-CH), an initiative of the ETHDomain.

In the not-too-distant future, our current expec-

tations of quality of life and comfort will have to

be satisfied with a significantly reduced energy

consumption than that of today. Unless we dras-

tically trim back our accustomed level of com-

fort, this will only be possible through more effi-

cient energy technologies and the increased use

of renewable energies. To this end, Empa is de-

veloping new materials and systems such as

polymer solar cells, thermoelectric generators and

ceramic fuel cells, as well as novel means of stor-

ing hydrogen. Other areas of focus are energy sys-

tems for buildings including renewable energies

and building shells, which offer the required levels

of comfort at the cost of minimal energy consump-

tion. What’s more, Empa also analyzes the oppor-

tunities and risks offered by energy systems and

technologies – in particular the environmental ef-

fects.

Burning away the dry matter prior to harvesting a fieldof sugarcane in Brazil has a negative effect onthe environment because of smog and particles.(Image: Steiner/Tuchschmid)

Settlement Nature

Energy Food

Competition for land use: an area of landcan only be used for one purpose,either for energy generation, food production,for settlement or for nature conservation.

In Europe the use of fuels derivedfrom biomass is encouragedprimarily as a means of reducinggreenhouse gas emissions.(Image: iStockphoto)

12 13

Fertilizerproduction

Tractormanufacturing

Auxiliarymaterial

production

Truckmanufacturing

Carmanufacturing

Seedproduction

Cultivation Harvest Processing TransportSowing

Constructionof fertilizer pro-duction plant

Constructionof tractor manu-facturing plant

Constructionof

chemical plant

Constructionof truck manu-facturing plant

Constructionof car manu-

facturing plant

Constructionof seed pro-

duction facilities

Fossil energy flows (red arrows) when using biofuel powered vehicles.

The environmental effects of biofuelsThe study «The Environmental Life Cycle As-

sessment of Bioenergy – the Ecological Evalua-

tion of Fuel Use» aims to review and quantify the

environmental effects of various biofuels. In do-

ing so the consequences of production both in

Switzerland and abroad as well as the effects of

transport and usage in Switzerland were taken in-

to consideration. The results will serve as a scien-

tific basis for future political decision-making such

as potential tax rebates for fuels derived from bio-

mass including, for example, biogas, bioethanol or

biodiesel.

Biofuels provide the energy content of the organic

raw material and thereby contribute to reducing cli-

mate changing gas emissions. However, energy

derived from fossil fuels may be used during the

manufacture of such biofuels, and this must be

taken into account when performing a life cycle as-

sessment. In addition, other environmentally sig-

nificant factors – from over-fertilization and acid-

ification of agricultural land to loss of biodiversi-

ty and respiratory disease caused by the clear-

ing of land by slash and burn techniques – must

also be incorporated in the ecological analysis.

Thus, greenhouse gas emissions caused by a par-

ticular fuel – or reductions thereof – cannot be tak-

en as the sole relevant criterion for assessing its

environmental effects. On the contrary, the evalu-

ation methods used in the study assess in the en-

tire spectrum of environmental effects. As the Em-

pa study shows there are enormous differences

between the various biofuels depending on how

and where they are produced. Another factor to be

considered is the competition between the pro-

duction of biomass for manufacturing biofuels and

other land uses such as for food production or as

nature reserves. And even when land is set aside

for energy generation, one must strive to achieve

the highest possible energy yield, for example

through solar cells or wind turbines where appro-

priate. The efficiency of a solar cell is several times

higher than a plant’s photosynthetic conversion ef-

ficiency from sunlight to biomass.

Dr Xaver Edelmannxaver.edelmann@empa.ch

The ETH Domain’s CompetenceCenter for Energy and Mobility The Competence Center for Energy and Mobility

(CCEM-CH), an initiative of the ETH Domain, be-

gan work in early 2006, involving scientists from

the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI), the ETH Zurich,

the ETH Lausanne and Empa working closely with

Swiss technical universities, other academic insti-

tutions and industry. The objectives of the center

are very clear-cut – to improve the energy efficien-

cy of existing technologies, to reduce pollutant

emissions and to develop possible alternatives to

fossil fuels. Empa is involved in 14 individual CCEM-

CH projects, its staff members working for exam-

ple in projects to develop renovation concepts for

the sustainable renewal of dwellings, and to make

economic, efficient solar cells based on nanos-

tructured polymer layers.

Materials for Health and Performance

Research at the boundary betweenman and material

Given the trend to a rising life expectancy in today’s society, health andpersonal performance take on an ever increasing significance.Empa’s Materials for Health and Performance research programsupports and encourages efforts to maintain and – wherever necessary– reestablish the health and productivity of human beings, therebyenhancing their quality of life. With a thorough understanding of thefundamentals of the physical and chemical characteristics of materials,Empa researchers develop innovative materials, material combinationsand systems for a wide variety of applications such as implants,sensors and medical textiles. Most of the research at Empa’slaboratories produces results which are of immediate benefit to bothindustry and consumers.

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The Swiss Winter Olympic Teamwas outfitted with «approved®»winter clothing developed atEmpa – and obviously teammembers feels comfortable in it!

Thecovehip integstru

The primary foci of the research program are to in-

vestigate the interaction between human cells and

various materials and to gain a deeper under-

standing of cell behavior in response to different

environmental conditions. To these ends Empa

develops measurement and analysis methods

to investigate the reaction of cells to external stim-

uli. In collaboration with colleagues at the ETH

Zurich, Empa scientists have for the first time been

able to analyze cellular behavior in realistic, three-

dimensional structures. This new information will

help to improve both the production of implants

with biocompatible surfaces and the evaluation of

effects of nanoparticles on human cells. In ad-

n, Empa scientists also conduct research,

in EU-funded projects and as part of the Com-

ence Center for Materials Science and Technol-

(CCMX, an initiative of the ETH Domain), into

el biosensors, for instance for the measure-

t of cellular forces.

porous titanium layerring the surface of a

implant. This improvesration into the bone

cture.

14 15

Countering bacterial infestationwith new methodsMicrobial hygiene is a demanding aspect of our

everyday life, and one which represents an even

greater challenge to astronauts. The European

Space Agency (ESA) is supporting an Empa pro-

ject which is investigating how microbial biofilms

build up and developing methods to prevent

them. Biopolymers developed by Empa, in com-

bination with antibacterial agents, provide a good

basis for so-called anti-fouling surfaces that pre-

vent bacterial growth.

Empa research teams have also made significant

progress in the development of sensors for mon-

itoring human health. Together with scientists

from the ETH Zurich they have devised a passive,

implantable strain gage, which is capable of

transmitting data wirelessly. The sensor will per-

mit researchers to gather biometric data on the

processes involved in human body movement.

Another development, a «sensor-shirt» for the mo-

bile, long-term monitoring of heart activity as an

ECG of subjects at risk, was recently honored

with the Swiss Innovation Promotion Agency’s

(CTI) MedTech-Award.

Innovative fibers and textilesfor medical applications – andfor athletes The interaction between materials and the hu-

man body also plays a vital role in the prevention

of chronic bedsores and skin irritation. Empa re-

search has led to developments to improve the

abrasive characteristics of textiles in contact with

skin. This information is also of value to hobby

and professional athletes, helping them to avoid

skin irritation and blistering in particularly critical

regions of the body.

Good thermoregulation of the human body is

important, not just during sport but also during

certain working activities. Suitable clothing sys-

tems can provide support to the body’s own ef-

forts to maintain thermal balance, particularly

during extreme weather conditions. Together

with researchers from De Montfort University in

Leicester, England, the Fiala simulation model,

Linking the Fiala model for the simulation of humantemperature regulation and thermal comfort with SAM,Empa’s Sweating Agile thermal Manikin. This couplingallows SAM to mimic the human thermo-physiologicalresponse as realistically as possible.

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sive

syst

em

active system

thermal comfort model

which mimics human temperature regulation

and thermal comfort, has been further refined to

provide realistic regulation and control for SAM

– Empa’s Sweating Agile Thermal Manikin, a mo-

tion and sweating simulator. This unique combi-

nation of computer model and physical hard-

ware also takes into account variable heat loss-

es due to changes in blood circulation.

Transferring Empa innovationsto the market These, as well as many other Empa technologies,

have been passed on to industrial partners over

the past year. For example, the Empa-developed

prototype of a cooling system for multiple sclero-

sis patients (which received the Serono Charity

Award in 2006) has been transferred to a Swiss

SME, which will further develop the system to mar-

ket readiness; recently, the company has inaugu-

rated a brandnew production facility for this pur-

pose. In addition the Swiss Olympics team which

took part in the Winter Olympics in Turin in 2006

was outfitted with winter clothing developed by

Empa. This clothing system is already available on

the market under the label «approved®».

Markus Rüedimarkus.rueedi@empa.ch

Selected projects

NANOVIR: a virus filter for clean drinking waterthanks to nanotechnology

Fracture surface of acoated virus filterwith adsorbed latexnano-particles(particle size: 50 nm).

More than a billion people have only limited or even no accessto clean drinking water that is free of disease-causingpathogens. Several million die each year from drinking contaminatedwater. Empa is working together with an industrial partner todevelop a new type of virus filter based on the high-tech ceramicsthat are already in use for bacteria filters.

Viruses are generally considered to be the small-

est micro-organisms living on our planet. Over the

course of evolution, they have thrown all genetic

«ballast» over board – i.e. out of their genetic

make-up – and grown steadily smaller. Whereas

micro-organisms such as the coli bacteria in our

digestive tract measure approximately one mi-

crometer in size, viruses are some 10 to 100 times

smaller. Indeed, this is the crux of the matter: ef-

ficient ceramic filter systems capable of removing

pathegenic bacteria from drinking water – giants,

compared to viruses – were already developed

quite some time ago. Not so for viruses. These

minute, infectious germs slip through even the

finest filter.

New type of manufacturing processfor ceramic microbe filters For several years now, Empa researchers under

the direction of Thomas Graule and Frank Clemens

have been working with Katadyn Produkte AG,

a Swiss company specializing in water purifica-

tion technology, to develop effective microbe fil-

ters. Initial work proved successful, as the joint-

ly developed new production process demon-

strates: the so-called extrusion process lowers

material consumption and production costs by

more than half while at the same time increasing

the reliability of the high-tech ceramic filters. Then,

in a project funded by the Swiss Confederation’s

Promotion Agency for Innovation (CTI), Empa

researchers endeavoured to modify their high-

tech ceramic bacteria filter in such a way that it

could also efficiently retain viral pathogens.

Ceramic filters made from diatomaceous earth,

a natural raw material composed mainly of sili-

con oxide, possess highly promising character-

istics. They can be manufactured simply and

economically and regenerated for repeated use.

On the other hand, the specifications for effec-

tive virus filters – such as those prescribed by

the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

– are extremely strict. They must be capable of

retaining at least 99.99 percent of all viruses in

contaminated water – or in other words, no

more than one virus in 10000 may pass through

the filter. In addition, virus filters must have a

processing capacity of some 60 litres per hour

and in portable deployment – i.e. to process

highly contaminated water – must possess a

minimum «service life» of 500 litres. Further-

more, such microporous ceramic filters must

naturally still remain effective against bacteria.

Going hunting with nanotechnology Empa researchers have now come up with the

idea that if the filter surface were coated with

nanoparticles, the modified surface should be

capable of retaining viruses. A patent for this

idea has been applied for. Initial tests with

nanoparticle coatings indicated its potential –

which is why the project is named NANOVIR.

However, in order to determine virus filter effi-

ciency, Empa researchers and their colleagues

at Katadyn first had to establish a (safe) filter

test. After evaluating the properties of various

substances, fluorescent latex particles were

found to be most similar to viruses by virtue of

their diameter of 36 nanometers and their sur-

face characteristics. Researchers also devel-

oped a real virus test using MS2 bacteriophages

– viruses which infect bacteria but are harmless

to humans.

Early results are very promising. Under labora-

tory conditions, the nano-filter successfully re-

tained 99.9999 percent of the MS2 phages at a

filter throughput of 60 litres per hour. In addition,

bacteria were also filtered out in the usual way,

as required. However, filter efficiency diminished

over time, as the nanoparticles lose their effec-

tiveness with increasing use.

19

1 µm

18

Electron microscopeimaging showsthe pore structure ofdiatomaceous earth, theraw material used tofabricate the virus filters.

10 µm

The most important characteristic differentiating viruses from bacteria is size. Whilebacteria can grow to 0.002 mm, viruses are some one hundred times smaller.Bacteria are therefore large enough to be viewed under a light microscope, whereasan electron microscope is needed to see viruses.

Parvo virus (20nm)

Polio virus (30nm)

Adeno virus (80nm)

Herpes virus (150nm)

Bacterium (500x1100nm)Small pox virus (300nm)

Tobacco-mosaic virus (130nm)

Influenza virus (100nm)

Bacteriophage (150nm)

Dr Thomas Graulethomas.graule@empa.ch

Empa researchers are currently testing various

nanocoatings and production conditions to

achieve irreversible bonding of the nanoparti-

cles to the ceramic filter. A recently begun PhD

thesis is additionally investigating the influence

of contaminants such as organic substances

suspended in river water that would adversely

impact virus filter effectiveness. A first possible

use for these filters would therefore not be in out-

door applications, but rather for the household

treatment of tap water in developing countries

where such filtering is necessary and makes good

sense.

Empa's project partners

– Katadyn Produkte AG, Wallisellen, Switzerland

– Swiss Promotion Agency for Innovation (CTI)

Surface analysis made easy: a service laboratoryfor scanning force microscopy

A beech wood cell ob-served in detail: the SFMscans the cell surfacewith nanometer precision.

Recently, the Swiss Scanning Probe Microscopy User Laboratory(SUL) has been established at Empa in cooperation with theETH Domain’s Competence Centre for Materials Science andTechnology, (CCMX) . It offers customers from industry andresearch institutes a complete infrastructure for precision surfacemeasurements and analysis.

Studying surfaceson the nanometer rangeThe surface of a material constitutes its interface

with the outside world. Thus, it is exposed to nu-

merous environmental influences, from tempera-

ture and humidity to mechanical wear, all the way

to (molecular) adsorbents which – intentionally or

not – become adhered on the material surface

and thereby influence the properties of the sur-

face. Moreover, surfaces play an essential role in

determining properties of materials, such as their

reactivity, corrosion resistance, wear behavior or

mechanical strength. An understanding of the

surface structure and their characteristics is there-

fore of paramount importance to the materials pro-

cessing industry as well as to materials research.

Standard equipment used for surface analysis in-

cludes the scanning probe microscope (SPM) fam-

ily. Since 1986, its best known member, the scan-

ning force microscope (SFM), has been used to

image surfaces, providing «nanometer-accurate»

information on specific properties quickly and

non-destructively.

Often, institutions and enterprises require only a

few measurements for such surface analyses,

which hardly justifies the investment necessary to

buy and maintain their own instrument. Therefore

SFM manufacturers regularly receive requests for

surface analyses which, for reasons of limited ca-

pacity or due to a lack of material mechanics

know-how, they are often unable to fulfil. A central

service and user laboratory open to customers

from industry and research, has now been con-

ceived to meet these needs. In cooperation with

the ETH Domain’s Competence Centre for Mate-

rials Science and Technology, (CCMX), Empa re-

cently established the Swiss Scanning Probe Mi-

croscopy User Laboratory (SUL).

Empa & SUL – THE addressfor surface analysis The newly established SUL offers its customers a

complete infrastructure for precision measure-

ments and analysis of surfaces: five scanning force

microscopes are currently available for a wide va-

riety of measurements. These SFMs can deter-

mine surface roughness in the micro- or nanome-

ter range, but they are also able also perform de-

manding measurements of surface electrical

resistance, local hardness or magnetic and

electrical properties. The measuring environment

can be adapted to almost any customer needs;

the possibilities range from normal pressure and

room temperature to high-vacuum conditions and

various gases - including corrosive gases - or de-

grees of humidity, high and very low temperatures.

Customers anytime can tap into the extensive

know-how of Empa’s researchers right from the

experiment planning phase. These experts will al-

so provide advice and hands-on help with the op-

eration of the equipment or the analysis of mea-

surement results.

Precision measurement andtailor-made atomic force microscopesThe SUL’s broad range of services is truly unique

in Switzerland and enables it to satisfy individual

wishes of customers and partners. Extensive co-

operative arrangements for research and develop-

ment are possible, too. In such projects, providing

20 21

Have contractmeasurementsperformed orrent an SFMworkstation andperform measure-ments yourself –both are possibleat the SUL.

– Supports scientific collaborations: re

projects for surface analysis or for d

SFMs or SFM components.

– Gives training courses and continuing

Five SFMs are currently available fora wide variety of measurementand analysis tasks. Nevertheless, theservice spectrum is continually beingexpanded to meet future customerneeds.

The Swiss Scanning Probe Microscopy User

Laboratory (SUL)

– Provides consulting: SFM experts solve material

problems with the aid of surface analyses.

– Performs measurement services:

expert Empa researchers conduct SFM

measurements for customers.

– Leases SFM workstations to customers:

this enables customers to perform their own

measurements on a SFM after appropriate

introductory training.

search

eveloping new

education.

Dr Sara Romersara.romer@empa.ch

Dr Peter Kappenbergerpeter.kappenberger@empa.ch

infrastructure and performing measurements are

just the basis, as these are frequently only par-

tial steps towards solving a general problem in

surface science. How have the results, i.e. the

material parameters that have been measured,

to be interpreted? Do comparable literature val-

ues already exist? The experts at Empa can be

consulted on such questions at any time. In ad-

dition, the SUL offers training and continuing

education opportunities. Finally, should none of

the existing microscopes prove suitable for the

application at hand, the Empa’s specialists can

use research equipment that offers even greater

possibilities to tailor measuring environments

and conditions.

Empa scientists are not just studying structures

at nanometer scale, they are also developing

novel instruments for this purpose, such as an

AFM which will be connected to a synchrotron

beamline at the Swiss Light Source (SLS) to per-

mit chemical analyses at the nanometer range.

Another, specialized AFM will be optimized for

high-resolution measurements of (biological) sam-

ples immersed in liquids. Thus, the SUL can con-

tinuously expand the range of possible applica-

tions of scanning force microscopy and thereby

broaden its service spectrum to meet future

customer needs .

Using molecular defects in nanotubes to fabricatecomponents for nanoelectronics

The miniaturization of electronic components is continually advancing.Today, we find ourselves in the midst of transitioning from «classical»microelectronics to nanoelectronics; many components of today’smicrochips are already less than 100 nanometers in size. Indicationsare that advancing miniaturization will soon have us standing at thethreshold to molecular electronic components that can no longerbe manufactured by conventional methods. New molecular productionprocesses are needed that are capable of manufacturing componentsjust a few atoms or molecules in size. For example, to developminiature transistors for the computer chips of tomorrow, Emparesearchers are attempting to specifically alter the electronic proper-ties of carbon nanotubes by introducing atomic «defects» into thesenanostructures.

Single-wall carbon nanotube with multiple defectsgenerated by argon-ion bombardment, measured bymeans of scanning tunneling electron microscopyand displayed in 3D representation; the diameter of thetube is almost exactly 1nm. It is thus some 50 000 timethinner than a human hair.

Low-temperature scanning tunneling microscope

at Empa which works at a vacuum of 1e-11 mbarand a temperature of 5 K ( -268°C).

The success of silicon semiconductor technol-

ogy is partly due to controlled «doping» – the em-

bedding of foreign metals in certain locations of the

silicon crystal lattice. This causes minute materi-

al defects which decisively influence the electronic

properties of the material and associated compo-

nents – for example in transistors which, depend-

ing on the «gate voltage» applied, behave either

like a conductor or an insulator, i.e. like a minia-

ture «switch».

The Empa research team headed by Oliver

Gröning is now using the same trick on potential

nanoelectronic components, namely carbon nano-

tubes. Depending on their atomic structure and

diameter, these tubes can function either as an

electrical conductor, i.e. like a tiny piece of wire, or

as a semiconductor, similar to a transistor. In both

cases, this nanomaterial has significantly superior

electronic transport properties than its their micro-

electronic «role models».

The researchers’ goal is to be able to specifically

influence the electrical transport properties of the

nanotubes by introducing controlled atomic de-

fects. They start by exposing the nanotubes to a

proton plasma – consisting of ionized hydrogen

atoms – under ultra-high vacuum conditions. The

hydrogen atoms can «dock» with the nanotubes

and, owing to their reactivity, form a chemical bond

with a carbon atom from the tube «sleeve» there.

This causes a slight buckling in the nanotube which

can be «seen», i.e. scanned under a scanning tun-

neling microscope (STM); in all other respects, the

form of the nanotube remains unchanged. This tiny

atomic defect then acts as a barrier on the tube’s

electrical conductivity, a result also verified by STM

measurements performed by Empa researchers.

Because the STM provides data not only on the

atomic structure of the tube, but also on its elec-

tron density distribution, the researchers were

able to conclude that the electrons are in fact re-

flected by the defect.

22 23

Individual, single-wall carbon nanotube measuringapproximately 1 nm in diameter with an artificiallygenerated defect at its centre (white) as viewed througha scanning tunneling electron microscope; the carbonnanotube is resting on a gold surface.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of multi-wall carbon nanotubes grown with chemical vapordeposition (CVD); average diameter is between 20 and30 nm.

-0.5

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On our way to asingle-electron transistor The STM electron density measurements yield-

ed by researchers indicate that if two of these

defects are located very near to each other – and

near in this context means between approxi-

mately 10 to 20 nanometers – a so-called quan-

tum dot should result, which is the basis com-

ponent for a single electron transistor. This is a

transistor that displays electrically conductive

properties only at certain, very specifically de-

fined gate voltage values. (Conventional field-ef-

fect transistors, in contrast, are conductive below

a certain gate voltage, and act as an insulator at

levels above that value; in other words, they pos-

sess only two voltage ranges which determine

their behavior.) The advantage of a nanotube

STM image of a single-wall carbon nanotube with aplasma-induced defect at its centre (above);the diagram below shows the tunneling spectroscopyalong the dashed line. The band gap of the semi-conductive tube and a strongly localized electroncondition at the lower edge of the conduction bandaround the defect are clearly visible.

Dr Oliver Gröningoliver.groening@empa.ch

transistor is that to the right and left of the two de-

fects its (electrically conductive) wires are, for all

practical purposes, already «installed». In addition,

it could also operate at room temperature, unlike

the gallium prototypes produced so far, which

can only be used at temperatures lower than mi-

nus 190 degrees Celsius. The latter is, of course,

hardly a viable solution for the nanoelectronics-

based notebook computer of the future.

These «doped» nanotubes could also be suitable

as small and highly sensitive gas detectors for

mobile applications. Depending on the number of

absorbed molecules – i.e. those that have to be

measured – the current flow through the nano-

tube transistor changes at a constant gate volt-

age. And this can be measured relatively easily.

Electrical measurements nearto absolute zero In their next step, Empa researchers, in collabora-

tion with their colleagues at the Swiss Nanoscience

Institute at the University of Basel, will have to con-

firm their STM results by performing electrical mea-

surements on the «defective» nanotubes. This will

then demonstrate whether the nanotubes do in-

deed display the electronic properties that the

STM measurements suggest they will. However,

the experimental setup for the tests is quite com-

plicated; for example, all measurements have to

be performed at 5 Kelvin – in other words at a

temperature of -268 degrees Celsius.

Damage analysis is detective work: what causedthe track rope incident on the Schilthorn cab

At the end of December 2004, the outer layer of a track rope on theSchilthorn cableway in the Bernese Oberland fractured. Thanks to therapid and correct response of staff, no one was hurt in the incident.Once the initial shock had passed, efforts turned to determining thecause of the accident: What exactly had happened? Experts from Empadiscovered that damage suffered by the rope 25 years earlier duringroutine maintenance had triggered a slow-acting failure process whichculminated in the sudden collapse.

As early as June 1891, after a railway bridge at

Münchenstein in the Canton of Basel-Landschaft

(BL) had collapsed under the weight of a moving

train, Empa was given the task of establishing the

cause of the accident. Over the years, investigation

of major and minor accidents and damage has re-

mained an important task for Empa. Empa’s ex-

perts were thus again called in when, on 29 De-

cember 2004, the outer layer on one of the two

steel track ropes of the Schilthorn cableway in the

Bernese Oberland snapped.

Initial inspection and gatheringevidence at the scene …Empa assigned an interdisciplinary team to the

damage investigation, including experts from

such specialised fields as damage analysis, ma-

terials science, cableway engineering, fracture

mechanics, corrosion chemistry and non-de-

structive testing. In a first step, two team mem-

bers inspected the fractured cable at the scene

of the incident. Hanging from the winch of a he-

licopter, they assessed the rope's condition and

determined several important parameters which

would not be possible to measure once the ca-

ble had been dismantled, such as rope geome-

try in the damaged and undamaged sections,

the torsional displacement of the rope, the force

acting on the rope and several other factors. Af-

ter the track rope had been taken down, the ap-

proximately 24-metre-long damaged section

was flown by helicopter for laboratory investiga-

tion at Empa’s facilities in Dübendorf.

… followed by intensive laboratorysearch for evidence thanks toversatile analytical infrastructure In the laboratory investigations, Empa experts no-

ticed flaking scale-like deposits on the rope which

indicated that it was being rubbed away against

some metallic counterpart. This is indicative of

high-pressure sliding friction with inadequate lubri-

cation. It struck investigators that the scaling was

predominantly found where the wire-rope layer

had fractured. The experts therefore assumed that

these flaking scale deposits must have played an

important role in causing the damage. However,

where did these metallic flakes come from? What

caused the damage? To answer these questions,

the experts conducted a comprehensive range of

metallographic and microscopic tests and exami-

nations. In addition, the metallic scales were sub-

jected to chemical analysis by energy-dispersive x-

ray spectroscopy (EDX) and electron beam micro-

leway?

Cross-section of the upper terminal ofthe Schilthorn cableway.

track rope

capstan

deflectionsaddle (steel)

Cable surface: the traces of erosion are visibleto the naked eye.

A section through a damaged profiled wire revealsdepositions and cracks. Stress crack corrosiondeveloped under the scaly depositions, causing crackingand – in the long term – wire breaks.

200 µm

Scale

Wire axis

24 25

Comparison of the surfaces of the groved casting anda wire. If the two images were to be superposed therewould be no doubt that the erosion process occurredbetween the deflection saddle and the track rope.

Cable cross-section: the outer,Z-shaped wire strands comprisemore than 50 percent of the rope'scross-sectional area.

The damaged cable:the unravelled endsof the fractured layerare clearly visible.

5 mm 5 mm

Cast of deflectionsaddle surface

Traces of erosion on rupturedshaped wire strand

probe (wavelength dispersive analysis, WDX). Re-

sults showed that the deposits consisted of steel

of a different composition to that of the track rope.

So with what had the rope come into contact?

Main suspect:the cable deflection shoe As inspection of the passenger cabin running gear

failed to provide any clues, the Empa team had to

investigate other parts of the installation that had

come into contact with the track rope. The cable

deflection saddle located in the upper terminal

came under suspicion as the most likely counter-

part in the erosion process: It deflects the track

rope by 90 degrees towards the capstan to which

the cable is anchored. However, it was not possi-

ble to inspect this section of the system until the

track rope had been completely dismantled, giv-

ing free access to the deflection saddle. Indeed,

the deflection saddle displayed distinct signs of

erosion. This suspicion was confirmed by a topo-

logical comparison of the traces of erosion on the

rope with those on the deflection saddle and by

further chemical analyses.

The damage must have occurred in 1979 when

routine, periodic relacation of the track rope was

performed for the first time; at that point in time,

the affected cable section lay directly on the de-

flection saddle. The cables are moved by several

meters every few years in order to prevent the lo-

cal material fatigue that would occur if the same

location were to always lie on the supports. The

damage that occurred while moving the cable set

in motion a slow process in which micro-cracks

caused by hydrogen-induced stress crack corro-

sion ate deeper and deeper into the rope surface.

These tiny cracks cannot be detected by the

naked eye or by the specified magnetic-inductive

Dr Gabor Piskotygabor.piskoty@empa.ch

Markus Zgraggenmarkus.zgraggen@empa.ch

inspections. Since the cable was shifted several

times over the course of the years, the damaged

section was moved outside the upper terminal

and into the outdoor cableway. When, after 25

years, several adjacent strands had broken, they

unraveled from the helical winding of the wire

rope, thereby setting off a chain reaction in which

all the outer strands suddenly fractured with a

loud noise. Attentive cableway crew bringing the

cable car to an immediate halt kept the track rope

from breaking completely, thereby preventing a

major disaster.

Learning from the damage The outcome of the Empa investigation also

made clear that the Schilthorn cableway is not

the only cable-car system which could be af-

fected by this type of damage. Other cableways

of similar design were also inspected and –

wherever evidence of erosion was discovered –

repaired and overhauled. In addition, at the re-

quest of the Swiss Federal Office of Transport

(BAV), the team of experts put together a train-

ing case containing, in addition to information

materials, a small piece of the original ruptured

track rope from the Schilthorn as a visual aid.

The case serves to sensitize the inspection and

maintenance staff of cableway systems to the

topic and thus also to reassure passengers so

that they can continue to feel safe on-board.

Fungi enhance the utility of spruce and fir wood

For some time now, Empa has been deploying destructiveorganisms in a productive role to specifically improvecertain properties of wood. Certain fungi, for example, canreduce the density of wood used in violin making, therebyenhancing tone quality. Empa researchers are currentlyinvestigating how «problematic» commercial timberlike spruce and fir can be better impregnated and enhancedwith the help of the white-rot fungus Physisporinus vitreus.

Control Control

Control Control

After a six-week incubation period, the treated wood specimens absorb considerablymore of the blue dye used to verify depth of penetration than untreated wood(top, spruce wood; below, fir wood).

Making up some 63 percent of Switzerland’s tim-

ber stock, spruce and fir trees dominate the face

of Swiss forests. However, the utility of lumber from

these trees is restricted due to fact that, untreated,

the wood is not very strong or durable. Moreover, it

is difficult to impregnate the lumber of both these

types of tree with wood preservatives or other fin-

ishing agents intended, for example, to reduce

flammability, increase hardness or improve UV pro-

tection. This severely limits usage of this timber in

applications such as outdoor structures. Investiga-

tions have shown that aspiration of the «bordered

pits» in the cell structures of seasoned spruce and

fir wood prevents penetration of wood preserving

agents and coatings. In living, standing trees, the

non-aspirated bordered pits permit the exchange

of fluids between adjacent cells.

Destructive organisms used inunintended ways perform useful work For quite some time now, the Wood Department at

Empa has been using wood-decomposing fungi

for beneficial purposes. One example has been to

improve the acoustic properties of the wood used

in violin making. Empa researchers discovered that

certain fungi of the Xylariaceae fungus family can

be deployed to degrade the cell walls of the wood

and thereby reduce its density – an important pre-

requisite for achieving excellent tone quality.

26 27

A cross section reveals how the white-rot fungusPhysisporinus vitreus degrades the bordered pitmembranes of fir wood (arrows).

The white-rot fungus Physisporinusvitreus grows on the sides of damp treestumps, particularly in beech and elmforests.

As part of a study financed by Switzerland’s «Fund

for Promotion of Forestry and Wood Research»

(FFWH), Empa has recently begun researching the

basic principles of a biotechnological process for

improving the absorption, distribution and depth of

penetration of impregnating and finishing agents in

spruce and fir lumber. For this purpose, heartwood

specimens from these tree species were incubat-

ed with the white-rot fungus Physisporinus vitreus.

This experiment revealed that wood permeability

can be significantly improved by these means.

Physisporinus vitreus can be found in beech tree

forests and mixed deciduous forests throughout

the entire northern hemisphere. Its basidiome grow

on the sides of damp tree stumps, particularly

beech and elm trees. One of the places it causes

considerable economic damage is power plant

cooling towers, where the entire water distribution

system used to lower the temperature of the cool-

ing water is normally constructed of wood. This

fungus is widely found on other technical installa-

tions such as near the base of wooden telephone

and power-line poles or on the wooden buttressing

used in mining shafts and chambers, where it can

cause damage costing millions.

Results are very promisingWhite rot makes a good beneficial fungus pri-

marily because it colonizes spruce and fir wood

quickly and uniformly. Its cell units, i.e. the mycelia

made up of hyphae, decompose even the ligni-

fied tori of the bordered pits in heartwood. After

Prof. Dr Francis Schwarzefrancis.schwarze@empa.ch

just six-weeks of incubation, the permeability

properties of the treated spruce and fir wood

specimens were significantly better than those

of control specimens. The permeability induced

in the spruce wood specimens was up to four

times higher, while that of fir was up to six times

better. Tissue investigation of the treated wood

revealed that the increased permeability had been

achieved via selective breakdown of the tori.

Previous biotechnological attempts to reverse

the effects of bordered pit aspiration – using for

example bacteria or enzymes – yielded no effect

in heartwood. In contrast, the effects produced

with the Physisporinus vitreus fungus are al-

ready leading to significantly better results be-

cause the hyphae of the fungus – unlike other

agents – actively penetrate the wood.

A follow-up project financially supported by

the Swiss Confederation’s Innovation Promotion

Agency (CTI) is targeting ways of further improving

the absorbability, distribution and depth of pene-

tration of impregnation and finishing agents and

making such properties suitable for industrial ap-

plication. Ultimately, the researchers at Empa’s

Wood Department want to use their experiments

with fungi to make spruce and fir wood as hard

as oak and as durable as locust or teak, there-

by improving its suitability for commercial appli-

cations.

Airships powered by plastic foils

The airship of the future will glide through the air, propelling itselfforward – «swimming» – as silently as a trout moving through waterby bending its body in one direction while simultaneously swingingits tail fins in the opposite direction. Electroactive polymers (EAP),which Empa has also been researching for use as artificial muscles,are practically tailor-made as the power source for an airshippropulsion system inspired by the swimming action of fish.

EAP actuators movethe rudders of thesimplified models usedin initial testing.

α

β

The EAPs integrallymerge with the airshiphull at four points.They expand whenelectrically activated,causing the hull toexecute the «bendingrotation stroke», atechnically simplifiedimitation of a trout’smotion through water.

By bending its bodyin one direction andswinging its tail finin the other, a troutpropels itself forwardthrough water withminimal resistance.

Swim like a trout – butthrough the air Quiet, maneuverable and efficient airships would

be ideal as aerostatic communications platforms

floating in the sky, or for performing surveillance

and reconnaissance tasks; they could even serve

as a novel means of advertising. Today’s conven-

tional airships can do none of these, for example,

because they are driven exclusively by propellers

and are therefore highly inefficient. The simple

rule is the larger the lift-delivering hull of the air-

ship, the faster the propeller must turn to over-

come the vehicle’s aerodynamic resistance dur-

ing flight. However, propeller speed and blade di-

ameter are restricted by the speed of sound. On

the one hand, the power of the drive motor can-

not be increased at will because on the other

hand, if the tips of the propeller rotate faster than

the speed of sound, a crackling noise similar to

that made by helicopter rotors is produced. This

The Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurichused computer animation techniques to model theblimp’s trout-like motion, providing Empa’s researcherswith an insight into the airship’s aerodynamic behavior.

28 29

is due to acoustic shock waves which cause the

tips of the propeller blades to flutter, generating

an enormous noise and at the same time reduc-

ing efficiency even further.

If the patented idea of Empa researcher Silvain

Michel and his team proves successful in real-

life applications, then the airship of the future will

glide through the air silently using the same

means of propulsion as a trout swimming in wa-

ter – by bending its body in one direction and si-

multaneously moving its tail in the opposite di-

rection. The technically simplified version of this

trout-like motion, using three rigid, intercon-

nected body segments, is known in scientific

jargon as a «bending rotation stroke». This tech-

nique can be transferred directly from water to air.

In terms of the physics involved, a blimp moving

through the air is exactly the same as a fish mov-

ing through water, as in both cases a body is mov-

ing through a fluid and is subject to the same rules

of fluid dynamics. From an aerodynamic point of

view, this propulsion technique, combined with a

sleeker, trout-like shape, doubles the efficiency of

blimp design.

Drive mechanism and hullmerge into oneEAPs consist of elastic polymer films which,

when an electrical voltage is applied, become

subject to compressive forces which simultane-

ously press them thinner and thus outwards,

causing the film area to expand (see box). Re-

gardless of whether this deformation is used to

propel an airship, move an object or replace dam-

aged muscles, it occurs silently and at a highly ef-

ficient rate of energy conversion. Because they

convert electrical energy directly into mechani-

cal work without the need for electric motors

and gear systems, EAPs achieve energy con-

version efficiencies of up to 70 percent. Compare

that with an internal combustion engine, which,

depending on the type, achieves an efficiency of

just 25 to 30 percent. Since the EAPs to be used

in the Empa airship will form an integral part of the

hull, the «engine and gearbox» will, so to speak,

be merged into the body of the vehicle. This new

propulsion system allows a high degree of maneu-

verability, as any trout can demonstrate. And final-

ly, there is one factor which is a disadvantage from

the point of view of aerodynamic resistance but

which has advantages in terms of power supply:

the top side of a large airship hull offers enough sur-

face area for flexible solar cells, thus providing an

energy supply for the blimp.

Flying radio towers?Blimps can therefore theoretically be propelled

by emulating an example from nature. Practically

speaking, this is possible thanks to EAP technolo-

gy: experiments by Empa researchers demon-

strate that these devices can achieve the defor-

mations and forces required by the propulsion

system. In addition, they must also be capable

of expanding and contracting by some 15 percent

during the «bending rotation stroke», i.e. the two

movements in opposing directions made by the

blimp’s hull – a performance value which EAPs

easily deliver. The next step for the Empa team is

to find a way of designing the EAPs so they si-

multaneously meet the aerostatic, aerodynamic

and structural requirements. To do this the Em-

pa researchers will also need to increase the op-

erational life of the EAP actuators. Only when EAPs

are capable of functioning reliably over long peri-

ods will it be feasible to replace satellites or noisy

helicopters with EAP-powered blimps. Then they

Silvain Michelsilvain.michel@empa.ch

could be used for example to silently observe

animals in their natural habitat, or as television re-

lay stations for transmitting sports event broad-

casts, or even as communications platforms act-

ing as «floating radio masts» for mobile telephone

networks.

How do electroactive polymers (EAP) work?

Electroactive polymers convert electrical energy

directly into mechanical work. An elastic

membrane made of polymer material is made to

stretch by subjecting it to an electrical field,

and when the voltage is removed the membrane

regains its original size and shape. To achieve this,

both sides of the film are coated with electrically

conductive graphite. When a voltage is applied

to these extremely thin graphite coats, the device

acts as a compliant electrical capacitor. The

electrostatic forces resulting between the graphite

coatings cause the surfaces of the membrane

to draw together, compressing the polymer material

and causing its surface area to expand.

Intelligent T-shirt monitors heartbeat

How about just putting on a T-shirt to measure and recordyour heart activity instead of having to be wired up to amachine by a doctor? This idea is both inspiring and ingenious.Not only would people with cardiovascular problems benefit,but also high-performance athletes after their sporting exploits.Empa has developed a T-shirt embroidered with electrodesthat can be used for wireless recording of electrocardiogram(ECG) signals.

Cardiovascular problems are frequently life-threat-

ening, and not only for the elderly. However, such

problems can be avoided if they are detected at

an early stage. Permanent ECG monitoring can

enable early diagnosis of cardiac rhythm distur-

bances and ventricular fibrillation, for example,

and facilitate timely initiation of appropriate coun-

termeasures and therapies. This is why numerous

projects have been launched in the past with the

goal of developing a portable ECG warning sys-

tem. Up until now, the technical barrier to these

efforts has always been the conventional, off-the-

shelf electrodes used which are only suitable for

short-term monitoring: these stick-on electrodes

have to be replaced about every four hours be-

cause the silver chloride contact gel dries out.

Therefore research has sought to develop elec-

trodes capable of measuring the electric signals

of the heart over a longer period of time. More-

over, these electrodes should be just as suitable

for elderly people with dry skin as they are for per-

spiring athletes in vigorous motion.

The solution: textile electrodes The simplest way would be to just put the elec-

trodes on like a garment. To translate this idea into

reality, Empa researchers used a plasma coating

method to «enrich» textile fibers – in this case poly-

ester fibers – in order to make them suitable for use

as textile electrodes in medical and athletic appli-

cations. The advantages of these «fabric» elec-

trodes can certainly be felt: they are soft, do not

have to be stuck to the skin and offer the technical

advantage of an excellent signal-to-noise ratio.

However, how can polyester fiber be made to de-

tect and conduct electrical signals? Michael Keller

and his colleagues developed a process for this

very purpose which, firstly, cleans the polyester

fibers of residues from spinning in a low-pressure

vacuum chamber containing high-frequency

plasma – a helium-oxygen gas mixture. As a result,

the extremely thin, electrically conductive silver

coating applied in the reaction chamber in the sec-

ond step of the process adheres much better to

the fibers.

Electrically conductive fibers «enriched» in this way

canbe easily integrated into any sort of fabric. In ad-

dition, they can be embroidered in such a way so

as to build up a profile on the fabric, thereby creat-

ing a three-dimensional form which can easily be

pressed against the skin. Heart patients and ath-

letes simply put on the T-shirt to make the textile

electrodes sit precisely at the right locations on the

body and press against the skin at a defined pres-

sure. The ECG signals picked up by the sensors

are first routed to a microchip directly behind the

embroidered electrode which then transmits the

data to a portable diagnostic unit. Whenever an

unusual ECG pattern is registered, the software

triggers an alarm and the diagnostic unit transmits

the key data – wirelessly via Bluetooth and mobile

telephone – to a medical expert who initiates the

appropriate action as needed.

The use of several electrodesin the material allows thebest ECG signal to be selectedand transmitted automatically.

30 31

front

rear

Empa’s project partners

– NTB Buchs, Medical Engineering Lab

– ETH Zurich, Wearable Computing Lab

– Swiss Textile School STF, Zurich

– University Hospital Tübingen

– Odlo International AG, Hünenberg

– Bischoff Textil AG, St. Gallen

– Strela Development AG, Steinhausen

– Schiller AG, Baar

– HSR, Rapperswil

The Director of the CTI, Christoph Caviezel presentsEmpa staff member Markus Weder (left) the MedTech Award.

Markus Wedermarkus.weder@empa.ch

Dr Dirk Hegemanndirk.hegemann@empa.ch

Prize-winning research: CTI MedtechAward 2006 for the Empa ECG shirtThe project has already convinced the jury of the

CTI Medtech Awards. On 30 August 2006, the

Innovation Promotion Agency (CTI – an institu-

tion of the Swiss Federal Office for Professional

Education and Technology) awarded its 10000

CHF prize to Empa’s Markus Weder and his

partners from industry and academia. The award-

winning T-shirt project is proof of the high quality of

innovative, applied research at Empa and a fine

example of successful cooperation with Swiss

industry and other research institutes. So, what

is the next step? First, the «intelligent» Empa T-

shirt will be manufactured for the sportswear

market so that initial experience with the

portable ECG monitor can be gained and as-

sessed. If this proves successful, the next step

will be to develop it for heart patients

Functional textiles protect against infections

A process developed at Empa enables textiles to be coatedwith antibacterial silver particles on a nanometer scalewithout generating environmentally damaging wastewater –unlike conventional coating processes.

Plasma, the visible glow discharge at work.

Diseases can be spread when bacteria settle on

the surfaces of materials with which humans

come into contact. One effective way of pre-

venting this is to apply an antibacterial coating of

silver (Ag) to the material. Monovalent silver, i.e. sil-

ver ions, acts as a bactericide and fungicide be-

cause it interferes in the metabolic processes of

many micro-organisms. Silver ions are effective

against pathogenic organisms such as bacteria

and fungi that cause more than 650 diseases. It is

therefore generally assumed that silver coatings

are capable of hindering bacterial colonization of

biomaterial surfaces over the long term.

In contrast, small concentrations of monovalent

silver are non-toxic to the cells of mammals – in

other words to human cells. In fact the ancient Ro-

mans used it some 2500 years ago to purify water.

Depending on the given application, however, the

cytotoxicity of silver – its toxicity to cells – must be

constantly monitored, for example in implants.

For some time now, silver has also been incorpo-

rated into articles of clothing and medical textiles in

the form of a thin coating or nanoparticles in the

fibers. Conventional techniques for this purpose

use large quantities of silver in addition to the

chemicals involved, thereby contaminating the

process wastewater with environmentally dam-

aging heavy metals and chemicals.

New environmentally friendlycoating processBut there is a different way of doing it. Empa has

developed a nano-structured coating compris-

ing metallic participles embedded in the coating

matrix. This is achieved in a low-pressure plas-

ma reactor in which the material removed from

a thin metal plate, called a «target» by a process

called «sputtering», enters the growing plasma lay-

er in the form of nanoparticles. In addition to the

antibacterial effect, the gas composition of the

plasma can be used to give the fibers further de-

sirable properties. By these means, «functional-

ized» fibers can, for example, hinder the formation

of biofilms (anti-fouling) or promote accumulation

of cells and proteins, both important functions for

medical applications. The process consumes sig-

nificantly less metallic material than electro-chem-

ical techniques, which helps to save gold and sil-

ver costs in particular. Furthermore, no chemically

loaded wastewater is produced, which is a plus

point for the environment.

Empa has developed a multifunctional silver/

amino hydrocarbon coating (Ag/a-C:H:N), which

supports cell growth while also hindering bacte-

rial colonization of the surface, both important

aspects for implant surfaces, for example. Even

silver concentrations in the low percentage

range are sufficient to reduce the growth of

nosocomial pathogens – micro-organisms which

cause the hospital infections so dreaded today

Fibroblast on a Ag/a-C:H:N film. The apparent cellgrowth proves the non-toxic properties of the coating.

100 µm

32 33

uniformly throughout the polymer matrix.

500 nm

a) b)

Whereas the surface structure(a) merely displays a grainylayer growth, the phase contrastimage (b) of an atomic forcemicroscope (AFM) shows theembedded silver particles (bright)between the plasma layer(brown) and cavities (black).

While bacteria (here: E. coli) colonizean untreated polyester fabric (left),the Ag/a-C:H:N coating clearlydiminishes bacterial growth (right).

– by some 95 percent. By contrast, mammalian

cells display a growth rate on the nano-struc-

tured plasma layers comparable to that of bio-

medical surfaces specially designed for this pur-

pose.

Visualization of nanostructuresAn atomic force microscope (AFM) can be used

to study how the rough polymer structure of the

substrate affects plasma layer formation. In addi-

tion to images of the surface structure (roughness),

AFM imaging provides information on particle dis-

tribution across the surface; the differing viscoelas-

ticity and adhesive properties of the materials used

produce image contrasts visible under the AFM.

Images provided by a scanning electron micro-

scope (SEM) confirm that Empa scientists have

been successful in distributing the silver particles

Dr Dawn J. Balazsdawn.balazs@empa.ch

Dr Dirk Hegemanndirk.hegemann@empa.ch

Dr Jörn F. Lübbenjoern.luebben@empa.ch

Textile all-rounders: not justfunctional, but multi-functionalThe novel method of embedding silver nanopar-

ticles in truly «multi-functional» surfaces and tex-

tiles has been made possible by the combination

of antibacterial properties and targeted support

of cell growth. The enormous surface area of

nanoparticulates distributed homogenously in

the coating ensures excellent antibacterial ac-

tion despite the low quantities of material used.

Moreover, textile properties such as strength

and touch are not altered by the nano-scaled

coating.

Possible uses in the medical field include the

coating not only of implant surfaces and wound

dressings, for example, but also special under-

garments for neurodermatitis sufferers; these as

well as antibacterial sportswear are applications

which Empa researchers are already developing

in cooperative efforts with various partners from

industry.

Fighting noise with active materials

As far back as the start of the last century, Nobel Medicine Prize laureateRobert Koch was already prophesizing turbulent times marked by thebattle against noise. Just how right he was is made evident for exampleby the problems of aircraft noise in the vicinity of Zurich Airport.Conventional passive noise-reducing measures have been exploited totheir limits, from both a technical as well as economic standpoint:a further reduction of noise pollution can only be achieved with activematerials. Empa researchers are aiming to counter soundwaves usingloudspeakers, membranes and piezoelectric actuators, and therebyactively reduce noise levels for example in automobiles and buildings.

Flexible walls Neck of HR Rigid sidewalls

Helmholtz-Resonator (HR)

Acoustic cavityNeck of HR Helmholtz-Resonator (HR)

A cylindrical resonating body – a so-called Helmholtz resonator –mounted in the cavity enclosed within a double-walled structurecan lower noise by as much as eight decibels.

A lot of noise about nothing? Not at all. For noise

not only adversely affects our wellbeing, it also

increases the risk of heart attack and diminish-

es physical and mental performance. We per-

ceive sound to be a nuisance already at a «sound

pressure level» of 55 decibels – and physiologi-

cal stress sets in at levels of 65 decibels and above.

This means that noise induces the release of

stress hormones such as cortisol and cortico-

steroids. The term «noise pollution» is appropri-

ate, for example, when noise disturbs sleep or

prevents people working effectively. This is why

noise reduction in buildings is a major concern.

However, conventional noise control measures

such as acoustic barriers often have but little ef-

fect, in particular in attenuating low-frequency

tones, and have one «weighty» disadvantage –

This prototype double-glazed window is equipped with sensors around its entireperimeter to enable measurement of noise pollution originating from outdoors andwithin the room.

34 35

they require large structural components. Usu-

ally, windows are the weakest link in the noise

control chain. For example, when exposed to

low-frequency noise, the two panes of double-

glazed windows begin to vibrate synchronously.

However, this noise can be «neutralized» (at least

in part) if the sound waves are actively countered

using active noise control with adaptive materials

in the form of tiny loudspeakers and piezoelectric

actuators.

Controlling noise and vibrationAt Empa’s research laboratories, acoustics ex-

perts are working to decrease noise and vibration

– two closely linked phenomena – by using anti-

noise sources. The idea is that as soon as sound

waves are superimposed, they cancel each other

Actuator on an aluminum plate:piezo materials for active vibration control.

out. To achieve this, a microphone picks up the

disturbing sound wave, converts it to electric vibra-

tions and transmits it to a loudspeaker. The loud-

speaker in turn generates a negative mirror image

of the sound wave – an opposite-phase noise or

anti-noise. However, as it is hardly practical to

mount microphones on or in front of windows,

piezo materials are used as noise sensors and ac-

tuators and mounted in the air space between the

panes of double-glazed windows, where they act

as both a microphone and loudspeaker. Piezo ma-

terials change in shape and volume when exposed

to an electrical voltage such that electricity can be

used to induce excitation and thus vibration. In col-

laboration with the Automatic Control Laboratory

at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)

in Zurich, Empa researchers have developed

adaptive computer algorithms for controlling the

extremely complex actuation of these loudspeak-

ers. A prototype window developed at Empa and

fitted with this type of noise attenuation control sys-

tem reduces noise levels by a full 14 decibels.

The double-walled structures of modern light-

weight designs such as of aircraft fuselages, car

doors or movable divider partitions in open-plan

offices tend to vibrate owing to their lightweight

construction. Conventional, i.e. passive noise at-

tenuation measures are of no use for such applica-

tions due to their size and weight while, on the oth-

er hand, active noise controls equipped with actu-

ators, sensors and high-tech electronics involve

high costs. Empa researchers now want to resolve

this dilemma with a simple but practical design:

cylindrically shaped resonating bodies – so-called

Helmholtz-resonators – located in the cavity of

double-walled structures can pick up and elimi-

nate unwanted vibration instead of transferring it to

the second wall. These resonators work like an

empty bottle in which the air contained inside the

bottle begins to vibrate at the neck when air is

blown into it. In this way, a resonator which cov-

ers a mere 2.8 percent of the surface of a dou-

ble-walled structure can reduce noise by up to

8 decibels.

Prospects for a quiet(er) future? As a partner in the EU-funded, Europe-wide pro-

ject «Intelligent Materials for Active Noise Reduc-

tion» (InMAR), Stanislaw Pietrzko and his team

of Empa scientists are pursuing a challenging

goal: to develop production-ready adaptive ma-

terial systems capable of reducing noise levels

in buildings by some ten decibels. For this pur-

pose, they are researching the complex interaction

between vibration and noise generation and prop-

agation. Specific questions are also being ad-

dressed, such as how should multi-functional ma-

terials, sensors, actuators and the associated con-

trol mechanisms work together optimally to

neutralize disturbance signals using the appropri-

ate anti-noise? In addition, intelligent materials are

being developed for example, to help make ma-

chine tools less prone to vibration.

Dr Stanislaw Pietrzkostanislaw.pietrzko@empa.ch

Preparing the ground for safe nanotechnology

The safety and reliability of new materials have always playedan important role at Empa. The same holds true for nano-materials. Nano safety research at Empa is focusing particularlyon free nanoparticles and their impact on health and theenvironment. Empa researchers are investigating not only hownanoparticles affect human cells and the environment, butalso how we as a society are reacting to this new technologyand what we judge its value to be.

Whenever new materials or technologies are in-

troduced, questions quickly arise regarding their

safety. Those who speak of the «risks of nanotech-

nology» are thinking particularly of the risks asso-

ciated with synthetically manufactured nanoparti-

cles. If these tiny particles are firmly embedded in

a material – in a polymer, for example – they do not,

according to current research, pose any hazard.

Minute salt crystals blown from the oceans onto

land, for example, are likewise considered harm-

less to health. However, under certain circum-

stances many other nanoparticles may adversely

affect our health. When and how do they become

a health hazard? Is it their chemical composition,

their size or their surface characteristics? Or is the

decisive factor the number of particles to which a

person is exposed? Furthermore, what happens

when nanoparticles are released into the environ-

ment? Empa is studying all of these questions.

Nanotoxicity: when are these verysmall units toxic? To date, very few meaningful studies of nanopar-

ticle release mechanisms and nanotoxicology,

the study of the toxicity of nanoparticles,

have been performed. Biologists and

material scientists at Empa, in coop-

eration with biochemists at the Swiss Federal In-

stitute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich, have devel-

oped cell tests which enable an approximate

measurement of particle toxicity. Initial results

demonstrate that while some metallic oxide parti-

cles have a considerable adverse effect on human

pulmonary cells, substances such as tricalcium

phosphate (which is used in medical implants)

proved as innocuous in cellular experiments as sil-

icon oxide, a substance that has long been ap-

proved as a foodstuff additive and used, for exam-

ple, to improve the pouring properties of salt.

Nanologue: social dialogueon nanotechnology Empa scientists are also concentrating efforts on

determining the current attitudes of society to-

wards new technologies. There is still little public

awareness of the opportunities and hazards

posed by nanotechnological applications. Howev-

er, this situation will undoubtedly change as more

«nano products» appear on the market. The goal

of the «Nanologue» project was to prepare the

way for the broadest possible, best informed

public dialogue on nanotechnology. This

EU project drafted three possible scenar-

ios depicting how nanotechnology might

develop in the future. Numerous examples are

used to illustrate how society might benefit from

this new technology (for example, if nanomateri-

als enable the creation of new, environmentally

friendly forms of energy), but also how neglected

questions (such as those concerning risks) foster

mistrust and fear. Furthermore, the internet-based

«NanoMeter» uses a type of questionnaire to help

research communities and companies to identify

socially relevant topics associated with «their prod-

ucts» and to understand what reservations or ob-

jections the public may have to the use of such

products. The aim is provide impetus for thought at

an early stage in the product development phase

with the aim of initiating an open dialogue.

Nanoparticles and society:are new rules needed? Much in the field of nanotechnology is new and

seems futuristic. Do we therefore also need new

laws to regulate these new materials? To date, no

European state has taken this step and nanoparti-

cles are subject to the same legislation as «con-

ventional» chemicals. Of the European decision-

makers from science, industry, the health authori-

ties, the EU and non-governmental organizations

(NGOs) surveyed by Empa researchers, none of

them – with the exception of NGOs – expressed

any desire to push for new, more stringent laws,

not to mention outright prohibition. The basic

tenor is that today’s sketchy, incomplete knowl-

edge is insufficient to formulate any legislative

framework. However, all those interviewed

voiced the belief that more (safety) research is

needed along with open communication of the

results yielded by such research.

36 37

Human pulmonary cells which have beenexposed for three days to harmless silicondioxide (SiO2) nanoparticles. The cellsare firmly attached to the substrate and havea spindle-like form. This is how a healthy cellculture should appear.

Human pulmonary cells which have beenexposed for three days to toxic asbestosfibers. Instead of being attached to thesubstrate and elongated, as normally thecase, these cells have begun to developa rounded shape and to detach from thesubstrate, signs of stress.

Human pulmonary cells which have beenexposed for three days to iron oxide (Fe2O2 )nanoparticles. Here too the cells are alreadybeginning to develop a rounded shape and todetach from the substrate, initial signs that theiron oxide particles are cytotoxic too.

1m 100mm 10mm 1mm 100µm 10µm 1µm 100nm 10nm

The Thinker Apple Tick Bacteria DVD bits Virus Atom

Biopolymers Nanopatterning Manipulations onthe Nanoscale

Nanopowders NanostructuredCoatings

Nanotubes Self-organizedThin Films

nanotechnologies@empa

200 nm 2 µm 100 µm 0,4 µm

1nm

An illustration of the size relationship between one meter and atomic dimensions. Several examplesfrom current Empa projects in the nanometer range are marked in blue-green, the largest of which isas large as 100 nanometer.

Prof. Dr Harald Krugharald.krug@empa.ch

Dr Bernd Nowackbernd.nowack@empa.ch

Looking ahead to the futureEmpa, in collaboration with national and interna-

tional research institutions, conducts research into

the safety of nanotechnology and communicates

its results openly. One of its many interdisciplinary

projects focuses on lifecycle analysis of nanoma-

terials and nanoproducts. Another project is inves-

tigating the question of how nanomaterials behave

in the environment, i.e. in various ecological sys-

tems such as bodies of water and soils. The an-

swers to these questions will undoubtedly stimu-

late further debate and thereby fuel society’s im-

perative dialogue on this new technology.

Measuring, modeling and minimizing car emissions

Even brand new motor vehicles are not uniform in their levels ofpollutant emissions. Whereas some vehicles produce low exhaustemissions across the entire engine operation range, others emitmuch higher emissions when operated outside the official drivingcycle – unfortunately «unnoticed» by certification and inspectionauthorities and consumer groups. Empa is therefore developingcomputer models to determine the emission behavior of individualcars as well as entire fleets of motor vehicles under real operatingconditions. At the same time, this work is helping to developinnovative car exhaust aftertreatment systems characterized bythe lowest possible emissions across the entire engine operatingrange. Ultimately, motor vehicles must demonstrate goodemissions and fuel consumption values not only within the un-fortunately unrealistic but official «European Driving Cycle», butalso – and in particular – on the road.

Ceramic foam is an excellent substrate for exhaust gas aftertreatmentsystems. Its porous structure creates uniform flow across the entirevolume of the catalytic converter and thus improves exhaust treatment.

Whoever buys a car today wants to be sure that it

operates «cleanly». Unfortunately, this is not easy

to determine. Although new cars are subject to

strict certification regulations, in reality their ex-

haust emissions often vary considerably. The deci-

sive factor in this regard is the engine control sys-

tem. While some manufacturers take great pains to

minimize emissions across the entire engine speed

range and to resolve the inherent conflicts between

fuel consumption, driving comfort and exhaust

emissions with technically sophisticated systems,

other car makers pay far less attention to emissions

outside the range covered by statutory require-

ments. The major problem is that the legally speci-

fied driving cycle, in which pollutant emissions are

not permitted to exceed certain defined limits, has

little in common with the way vehicles are driven in

real life.

In order to obtain reliable data for road vehicle emissions inventories data was collected fromrepresentative spot tests during various driving cycles.

38 39

Unfortunately, it would be unrealistic to try to mea-

sure the exhaust emissions of all vehicle types un-

der all possible driving situations. Nevertheless, to

obtain reliable data for road traffic emissions inven-

tories, random sampling in various driving cycles

has been conducted for some time now. This da-

ta basis is suitable for calculating the total emis-

sions of wide regions. However, it is not suitable for

calculating emission loads in cities or for ring roads

and other similarly specific situations. Empa is

therefore developing a dynamic computer model

for the determination of exhaust emissions of non-

measured driving cycles, which is «fed» with mea-

surement data from the random samples referred

to above.

The aim of exhaust emissionsmodeling: to improve air quality Despite extensive efforts to combat air pollution,

the quality of air in Swiss cities has hardly improved

at all in the last ten years. High particulate levels in

winter and ozone levels in summer remain the rule

– and road traffic is one of the main culprits. In or-

der to be able to propose effective countermea-

sures, Empa researchers have to «convert» road

traffic emissions behavior data to suit given local

conditions. This is hardly possible using existing

methods. By applying their emissions model, how-

ever, they can simulate for example the exhaust

gas situation in specific individual street canyons,

even if the velocity profile of the actual flow of traf-

fic – and thus its exhaust behavior – was not de-

termined beforehand in laboratory studies.

To date, the Empa model has yielded very good

values for motor vehicles without exhaust gas af-

tertreatment systems or with conventional catalyt-

ic converters. The emissions of individual motor ve-

hicles were modeled in predefined driving cycles,

and then subsequently measured in laboratory

testing for comparative analysis. In all cases, the

modeled data correlated well with the measured

values.

More efficient catalytic convertersfrom the Empa laboratory Empa is also using its exhaust gas modeling

techniques to advance the development of more

efficient catalytic converter systems. Working in

collaboration with partners from industry, re-

searchers have succeeded in significantly reduc-

ing the expensive precious metal coating need-

ed in catalytic converters for natural gas-powered

vehicles while simultaneously improving the pollu-

tant conversion efficiency and service lifetime of

catalytic converters. A special catalytic converter

substrate has likewise been developed at Empa,

which is capable of reducing emissions thanks

to turbulent exhaust gas flow in its interior and

improved utilization of cross-sectional area. This

converter is proving particularly effective in the ex-

haust gas post-treatment systems of diesel en-

gines. The objectives of these efforts will not be

considered achieved until motor vehicle emissions

approach zero in reality, and not just on paper.

Christian Bachchristian.bach@empa.ch

European Driving Cyclefor the measurement ofthe emission levels andfuel consumption ofpassenger carsand light duty trucks.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Time in s

Sp

eed

inkm

/h

Storing hydrogen for renewable energy

The greatest challenges facing us in the 21st century are the climatechange wrought by humans and the limited reserves of fossil fuels suchas such as oil, gas and coal. New technologies are urgently needed,such as processes for converting solar energy into useable heatand electricity by way of a synthetic energy source such as hydrogen.Researchers at Empa are working to develop basic techniques forproducing hydrogen and storing it in suitable materials. Highly promisingcandidate materials for hydrogen storage are the so-called metalhydrides and a related class of materials, the complex hydrides. However,Empa scientists must first understand what actually occurs in hydrideswhen hydrogen is stored there.

The hydrogen cycle. Hydrogen is produced from waterby means of electrolysis and stored in metal hydrides.The stored chemical energy is extracted from fuel cellsor internal combustion engines when needed.The cycle functions in a closed loop without releasingany problematic substances such as CO2.

Hydrogen is an almost perfect energy carrier be-

cause it is clean. It can, for example, be combust-

ed with oxygen (from the air) in turbines, fuel cells

and internal combustion engines and thereby re-

lease its energy in the form of electricity and heat.

The sole by-product of this combustion process is

water. However, hydrogen is a gas at room temper-

ature and therefore too voluminous for mobile ap-

plications, such as powering automobiles. Two

methods currently exist for storing hydrogen com-

pactly: either at high pressure – such as in gas cylin-

ders – or by liquefying it. However, both of these

methods entail high energy consumption. A signif-

icantly better alternative would be to store hydro-

gen in metals, that is to say, in solids. Metals are ca-

pable of «soaking up» large quantities of hydro-

gen into their atomic lattice like a sponge and

subsequently releasing it again. Metallic «hydro-

gen sponges» of this type are called metal hy-

drides. At least in theory, metal hydrides can be

loaded and unloaded with hydrogen at low pres-

sure and room temperature. In practice, however,

experts are still searching for suitable storage ma-

terials. No wonder, considering the numerous pos-

sible combinations of workable metal hydrides.

For example, light metal hydrides such as lithium

boron hydride (LiBH4) theoretically possess a large

storage capacity of 18 mass percent. However,

their «sorption kinetics», which means the speed

at which hydrogen molecules react with the solid -

i.e. are absorbed – and subsequently released from

the solid in the process called desorption, are too

slow for practical applications. Nanocrystalline light

metal compounds with admixtures of catalysts

show greater promise of success. At high hydro-

gen pressures, sodium hydride (NaH) and alu-

minum (Al) combine to form sodium alanate

(NaAlH4). Without a catalyst, the reaction requires

several days at a temperature of 175 degrees Cel-

sius and a pressure of 200 bar. If nanocomposites

are added to the compound, temperatures of

around 120 degrees Celsius are sufficient to ensure

absorption within minutes. For practical applica-

tions in fuel cells, however, a temperature of even

120 degrees Celsius still too high.

What goes on inside hydrides?The processes which take place at a solid’s sur-

face as well as inside it during hydrogen absorp-

tion and desorption are extremely complex and,

for the most part, not yet completely understood.

Thermodynamics are therefore frequently applied

as an aid in modeling these processes. To do this,

researchers generate empirical models which

consider the initial and final conditions of hydride

formation only, without knowing the molecular

processes in detail. However, the ultimate goal of

these efforts is to understand the mechanisms right

down to the atomic level. Studies are further hin-

dered by the fact that the individual steps of hydro-

gen absorption take place within the femtoseconds

range – that is, within one trillionth of a second.

Crystal structure of lithium boron hydride (LiBH4).

x y

z

DO

S[S

tate

den

sity

/Uni

tce

ll]

E - EF [eV]

14

-10 -5 0 5 10

Total 1s H2s Li2p B

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

H 1s Li 2s

B 2p H 1s

Computational analyses of the density of stateof LiBH4 provide insight into the charge distributionand absorption coefficients in the crystal.

40 41

It is not clear how LiBH4 breaks down into hydrogen molecules (red), lithium hydride (red/green) and boron (blue).

Complex processes at the atomic level on the one

hand and extremely small units of time on the oth-

er together present research with a major chal-

lenge. The Empa scientists working together with

Andreas Züttel have taken up this challenge. They

are addressing such questions as: How is gaseous

hydrogen adsorbed at the surface of solids? What

interactions occur during adsorption? How quick-

ly do adsorption and desorption take place, and

how much energy is required to drive these

processes? When hydrogen molecules have been

split into atoms and penetrate the bulk of the

«sponge», where do they become affixed in the sol-

id’s atomic lattice? How mobile are they? What sur-

face structures hinder or accelerate sorption kinet-

ics? How do catalysts work and how can they be

improved?

Prof. Dr Andreas Züttelandreas.zuettel@empa.ch

Dr Andreas Borgschulteandreas.borgschule@empa.ch

Dr Michael Bielmannmichael.bielmann@empa.ch

In addition to conducting empirical experiments,

Empa is also developing new theoretical (comput-

er-based) models. These will help to create tailor-

made, complex metal hydrides with very specific

physical properties. For example, these hydrides

should function in a automobile fuel cell tank at a

temperature of 80 degrees Celsius (adapted ther-

modynamics) and not keep us waiting more than

two minutes when we stop to fill up with hydrogen

(fast kinetics).

Project partners

– Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan

– Free University Amsterdam, The Netherlands

– Karlsruhe Research Centre, Germany

– Geesthacht Research Centre (GKSS), Germany

– Toyota Motor Corporation, Higashi-Fuij, Japan

Empa Inside

Forum Chriesbach

A vision becomes reality

In 1999 Empa’s Building Technologies laboratory unveiled a conceptfor a new building to be erected on the institution’s own site. It wasdesigned to be a role model for sustainable construction and todemonstrate that the 2000 watt society is not all that far from futureattainability in real life. What began as a visionary idea reached itsclimax in 2006 with the inauguration of the technically most innovativebuilding in the ETH Domain, the Forum Chriesbach.

Forum Chriesbach – the finished building, 2006.

Empa’s Building Technologies laboratory is the

repository for a large amount of very detailed

know-how related to the efficient use of energy

and resources in buildings. For many years it was

responsible for running the national research pro-

gram for the rational use of energy in buildings. As

the concept of the sustainable 2000 watt society

emerged in the ETH Domain, the laboratory pre-

pared a proposal for the development and con-

struction of a building which would set new stan-

dards in energy efficiency and deliver proof that

the ambitious aims of the 2000 watt society were

attainable. Empa’s directors threw their full weight

behind the idea, seeing in the concept of the new

building a chance to demonstrate publicly the rele-

vance of Empa’s R & D efforts to society in general.

The project began by reviewing and clarifying what

exactly sustainability means in reality for buildings.

How high, for example, could energy and resource

usage be? And what level of polluting emissions,

and of what type, were allowable? This investiga-

tion provided guideline values for «sustainable

buildings».

It also showed that in residential dwellings built fol-

lowing passive house standards (MINERGIE-P)

the requirements of sustainable construction could

be met as long as the electrical power con-

sumed was derived primarily from renewable or

low-CO2 emitting sources (such as the Swiss

mains power supply). The targets for office build-

ings were, on the other hand, much more difficult

to achieve because of the proportionately high-

er usage of electric power.

In parallel to these calculations the first planning

studies for an innovative, role-model building were

developed. The aim was to reduce energy con-

sumption and CO2 emissions by a factor of twenty

compared to existing building standards. Detailed

simulations showed that this was in fact possible

using currently available technologies. Empa’s well

thought out proposal convinced Eawag, the neigh-

boring water research institute, to accept the plans

and concepts for the new building.

The planning process for the new Eawag build-

ing began in 2001. Empa took on the task of

defining the energy and comfort level require-

ments. A planning study for a model building was

created, which was used in numerous compre-

hensive computer simulations. This assured the

building planners that the requirements speci-

fied in the architectural competition were realis-

tic. The building was to be designed to be so

The vertical blue glass lamellae, the building’s trademark,were extensively tested by Empa experts.

44 45

The winning design,submitted by architectBob Gysin in 2002.

2000 watt society

The 2000 watt society envisages that each and

every inhabitant of the earth has 2000 watts

of energy at their disposal (17500 kWh/year of

primary energy), a figure on par with the current

global average value. This quantity of energy

is meant to ensure that every society has available

sufficient energetic resources to allow it develop

and reach a reasonable level of wellbeing.

In order to stabilize global warming effects and to

husband natural resources only 500 watts should

originate from fossil fuels, the remaining

1500 watts being provided by renewable energy

sources. This would enable us to meet the targets

defined by the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate

Change (IPCC) of one ton of CO2 emissions per

head annually.

energy efficient that it required no heating system.

A ventilation system would ensure that the indoor

microclimate was always pleasant, in summer as in

winter. Sun shades and nocturnal cooling were

therefore important features right from the begin-

ning of the design process. More than 90percent

of the heating energy needed was required to be

supplied from internal heat sources and incident

sunlight, while one third of the electrical power re-

quirements were to be met from solar cells.

Zurich architect Bob Gysin and his team were

selected as the winners of the competition and

were entrusted with the task of creating the build-

ing. Experts from Empa’s Building Technologies

laboratory ensured during the definitive planning

stages that the original aims would be met. The

greatest challenge faced by the planners was

not, however, the energy efficiency concept but

meeting the fire safety regulations. The vertical

blue glass lamellae, which became the trademark

of the building are, for example, the result of care-

ful optimization to meet the demands of fire safe-

ty and sun shading, while remaining visually attrac-

tive. The Empa team made wide ranging measure-

ments on a test façade, evaluating the effects of

various types of lamellae to obtain optimal condi-

tions in daylight and shade.

Construction was completed in May 2006. Since

then the building has demonstrated its outstand-

ing qualities during a hot summer and a mild win-

ter. Although some of the control systems in the

structure still need optimization, it is already ap-

parent that the planners’ aims have largely been

achieved. Forum Chriesbach shows conclusively

how buildings of the future can meet the demands

of sustainability. The novel philosophy and very ca-

pable planning and engineering teams have drawn

the 2000 watt society a step closer to reality. The

Forum has already received several awards,

among others the Swiss Federal Office of Energy’s

Prix eta, the 2007 Velux Daylight Award and the

Swisspor Innovation Prize 2006.

Mark Zimmermannmark.zimmermann@empa.ch

Marketing

Empa Portal – from science to business

To make its extensive know-how and experience available tothe Swiss economy in a simple and unbureaucratic way,Empa established a «portal» function in 2006. It serves as aninterface to potential clients and offers them easier access toEmpa’s wide range of competences, the aim being to facilitatethe transfer from research to marketable innovations.

Gabriele Dobeneckergabriele.dobenecker@empa.ch

The portal brings partners and clients

from industry and commerce into con-

tact with the appropriate Empa special-

ists. The experts then assess the client’s re-

quirements and deal with their requests quickly,

competently and – a significant advantage for

Empa - in an interdisciplinary manner. The initial

task of the portal staff is to understand

the nature of the client’s problem.

When this is defined, the most suit-

able Empa specialists are brought

on board. In some cases a return call by a

single expert is sufficient to solve the prob-

lem. Other times a meeting must be arranged,

one or more visits to Empa organized to enable

the client to obtain an impression of Empa and its

capabilities on location. Presentations

prepared specifically to suit the clients’

requirements and guided tours

help clarify how to best exploit Em-

pa’s knowledge and experience. Wher-

ever necessary and useful, problems

are addressed in an interdisciplinary fashion. As an

example, specialists from the areas of high perfor-

mance ceramics, metrology and interface technol-

ogy may sit together discussing the development

of a high-temperature sensor – frequent-

ly joined by professionals from Empa’s

Technology Transfer office. This guaran-

tees both Empa and its industrial partners a

well defined basis for the future commercial ex-

ploitation of the results of these collaborative ef-

forts.

The Portal – the centralpoint for industrial contact– leads you directly toEmpa’s specialists in awide range of disciplines,who will rapidly andcompetently help find asolution to your problem.

46 47

International PhD School Switzerland – Poland

Empa as Swiss pace setter

Almost two years ago Empa signed an agreement with the two leadingPolish universities – the Warsaw University of Technology and theAGH University of Science and Technology, Cracow – to establish acommon postgraduate course of study. In the meantime, ten Swissand Polish doctoral students have begun their PhD projects underthe auspices of the «International PhD School Switzerland – Poland»,with the subjects covered ranging from the nanosciences viabiomaterials to mechatronics.

Whilst some of the doctoral students are study-

ing and conducting research at the Polish univer-

sities, others are undertaking experimental work at

Empa. Twice annually, they all meet at colloquia

held alternately in Poland and Switzerland to re-

port on their progress and discuss results with

their supervisors and colleagues – in other words

to cultivate the invaluable process of scientific ex-

change.

First «Summer School» at Empa A first highlight was the two-week course on

Modeling Techniques, during which the PhD stu-

dents completed work in the areas of modeling

phenomena in technical materials, simulation of

measurement techniques and the prediction of

the material characteristics. The theoretical as-

pects were completed at Empa while the prac-

tical work, in which the participants familiarized

themselves with the newest computer based

methods such as ab-initio calculations, config-

urational thermodynamics and molecular dynam-

ics, was covered at the Modeling Competence

Center in Warsaw.

…and more casually during lectures.

Summer school participants in a formal setting…

Alongside the interdisciplinary-oriented educa-

tional program, the doctoral students are also

able to sign up to a wide range of further training

courses intended to develop their so-called «soft

skills». During the initial year they all attend the

«Basics in Management» and «Intercultural com-

munication, leading and working in international

research teams» courses, which are held during a

Summer School at Empa.

PhD School – a showcase project forSwitzerlandBy taking the initiative with its cooperative pro-

jects involving the new EU member states, Em-

pa has, to a certain degree, assumed the role of

pacesetter in the Swiss education and research

scene. It is thus extending the process of work-

ing together with the Eastern European coun-

tries in the context of the funding package which

was accepted by Swiss voters in a referendum

in November last year. The ETH Council has al-

so recently described the International PhD

School Switzerland – Poland as a “showcase”

initiative which could play an exemplary role for

other collaborative projects. To help extend the

cooperative work with Poland the «Science

Days CH – PL» has already taken place, an event

intended to encourage and deepen direct con-

tacts between scientific representatives from

both countries.

Dr Jolanta Janczak-Ruschjolanta.janczak@empa.ch

Empa Academy

Empa «on the road» –mobile academy on a «Tour de Suisse»

In 2006 the Empa Academy’s peripatetic exhibition «On the Road» paidvisits to several regions of Switzerland, becoming familiar to a widespectrum of the professional establishment drawn from industry,politics, the economy and the universities of applied sciences. Butthings were happening at home too – with 84 further education events(of which 18 were one day symposia or longer), twelve courses(in total 36 days) and 54 lectures, the Academy reached out to anaudience of around 5000 persons.

During a five week period in October and Novem-

ber Empa visited four Swiss universities of applied

sciences and one research organization in the

three linguistic regions of the country. Empa «On

the Road», its mobile exhibition, spent two days at

each location. The aim was to encourage – in part-

nership with the host institution – contact between

research bodies, innovative companies based in

the region, the cantonal authorities and regional

politicians.

The numbers of visitors who accepted Empa’s in-

vitations to Horw, Windisch, Neuchâtel, Sion and

Trevano were encouragingly high. A grand total of

over 400 guests from industry, the economy and

the world of politics were offered an overview of the

main focal points of research and study through

fascinating lectures given by Empa scientists and

their colleagues from the host organizations. The

R & D work presented by Empa ranged from smart

The exhibitions were wellattended and offered parti-cipants many opportunitiesfor intensive discussions.

materials which react to changes in their surround-

ings, through materials that encourage healing

processes in humans, all the way to tailor made

products from the field of nanotechnology. Visitors

were given a glimpse of the impressively interdisci-

plinary world of Empa material sciences and engi-

neering solutions and were able to see for them-

selves what technology really means for mankind

and his environment.

At each location, after the festive inauguration of

the event (which included a guided tour through

the exhibition) cocktails sponsored by the industri-

al partners were served and participants were able

to network to their hearts’ content. On the second

day guided tours were arranged, and the over 200

attendees were able to satisfy their curiosity about

Empa’s research activities by means of «hands on»

examples.

In the end everyone was happy. Visitors were

above all pleased that they were able to learn all

about Empa’s range of R & D services practically

without having to leave home, and that Empa was

making the effort to approach them as potential

clients. The partner institutions were able to take

the opportunity, together with Empa, to present

themselves to a wider public audience, and the

sponsoring companies of course were happy to

gain their fair share of publicity too. And, last but not

of course least, Empa itself, for whom the exhibition

was such a success that it will once again be «On

the Road» in 2007, with visits to Buchs SG and Biel

covering two further areas of the country.

48 49

Cooperation intechnical continuous education Also in November the first collaborative event

between the Empa Academy and the Haus der

Technik in Essen, Germany, (an external institute

of the RWTH Aachen University) took place. The

two day Titanium Symposium was aimed at ex-

perts from industry and was extremely well at-

tended. It covered fields ranging from titanium ores

through the processing of titanium to applications

in orthopedics. Participants took advantage of the

event to make contacts among themselves and

with the speakers, and awarded the symposium

good marks – once again confirming Empa’s lead-

ing role as a bridge between science and industry.

There are already several collaborative expert

courses on the program for 2007, among others on

the topic of magnetic materials.

PhD Symposium with aNobel Prize winner Another form of knowledge transfer has already

established itself, namely Empa’s further educa-

tion program for PhD students. The Symposium

for Doctoral Students, organized by the doctor-

al students themselves, the so called «PhD Day»,

has practically become a tradition. At the end of

October this was held for the first time at the St.

Gall site, with over 100 students participating.

The success of the event is primarily due to the

dedication and commitment of the organizers.

They were able to persuade Nobel laureate and

Emeritus Professor Richard Ernst of the ETH

Zurich to give the Guest Lecture, and his inspiring

and very personal talk was without a doubt the

high point of the day. In addition the Empa Re-

search Prize was awarded for the fourth time,

the recipients being Ruben Maeder and Enrico

Koerner for their work in the field of ultra high

vacuum scanning tunnel microscopy applied to

investigating electronic structures, and the gas

phase coating of synthetic fibers.

Also very well received was the Summer School

organized as part of the «International PhD School

Switzerland – Poland» course. For two weeks

more than a score of doctoral students got to grips

with fundamental questions involving manage-

ment and intercultural communication. During

the course they gained their first experiences in

(project-) management and leadership skills, and

were able to acquire an improved understanding

of collaboration in an increasingly globalized world.

Dr Anne Satiranne.satir@empa.ch

pa On the Road» –e at the University oflied Sciencesthwestern Switzerlandrugg

Nobel laureateProfessor Richard Ernstin conversation withparticipants atthe PhD Symposium

«EmherAppNorin B

Science in Dialog

2006 – dedicated to the spirit of dialog

Over the past year Empa has increasingly dedicated itselfto fostering the dialog with various stakeholders from theeconomy and society. One particular highlight in this regardwas the NanoConvention, organized by Empa and held forthe first time last June. The event aimed at stimulating andkicking off a broad discussion about the opportunities andrisks associated with nanotechnology. But this was certainlynot the only occasion to demonstrate to visitors the fascinatingresults Empa scientists conjured up last year. There wasthe NanoPubli in St.Gall, the annual Media Conference, thetraveling science exhibition named «Empa on the Road» andof course numerous visits such as those by the SwissNational Council’s Committee for Science, Education andCulture (CSEC) and the Swiss Association of ScienceJournalism (SASJ).

«Science in Dialog» – this could have been Empa’s

motto for the past year. In the course of numerous

events Empa presented to its fascinated and

sometimes astounded guests innovative research

projects and developments «à la Empa», while at

the same time addressing questions raised by the

public. The NanoConvention in late June was a first

highlight. About 200 «nano-interested» persons

took up Empa’s invitation to talk about the key

technology of the 21st century and discuss its ef-

fects on science, the economy, health, the envi-

ronment and society at large. As CEO Louis

Schlapbach put it, the meeting was intended to

«kick-start a Nano-Dialog in Switzerland above

and beyond the boundaries of individual scientific

disciplines.»

The enthralling lectures – among others by Don Ei-

gler, an American researcher considered to be one

of the founding fathers of nanotechnology – and

lively discussions laid the groundwork for consis-

tently positive reactions to the Empa initiative. «The

Empa quite simply has to repeat this event,» said,

for example, Hans-Joachim Güntherodt, the then

head of the University of Basel’s National Compe-

tence Center «Nanoscale Science». With pleasure

– on 28th/29th June 2007 the second edition of the

Swiss NanoConvention will take place at the same

venue, this time a two day event to give partici-

pants more time and opportunity for exchanging

ideas and debating among themselves.

The main speakers and the first NanoConvention (l to r)Harald Krug, Don Eigler, Louis Schlapbach and Ortwin Renn.

50 51

el

The packed hall at theNanoConvention,held at the Kursaal Bern.

How does a scanningtunnel microscopework? This questionwas answered at theNanoPubli in St.Gall,with the help of a modgiving an impressivedemonstration.

Cells under a light micro-scope - the NanoPublibrought science closer toa wide public.

Nanotechnology was also in the limelight at

NanoPubli, held for the second time in the Olma

Exhibition Center in St. Gall as part of the NanoEu-

rope specialist exhibition. The visitors were given a

chance to experience nanotechnology close up

through talks, presentations, video films and exper-

iments. In addition thirteen organizations and com-

panies active in the field of nanotechnology offered

information on products and applications

based on the new technology. Public inter-

est was intense, as might have been expect-

ed, particularly amongst the younger gener-

ation of visitors.

At the annual media conference there was also

great interest in Empa activities, and the attending

journalists took advantage of the opportunity to re-

port on a range of projects. A visit by members of

the Swiss Association of Science Journalism al-

lowed the media representatives to satisfy their cu-

riosity in greater detail, and a guided tour through

the Empa laboratories spawned ideas for quite a

few riveting articles.

Equally impressed were the members of the Swiss

National Council’s Committee for Science, Educa-

tion and Culture (CSEC) who paid a visit to Empa

on September 14th 2006. In the convincing words

of Kathy Riklin, the committee’s President, «soon-

er or later generous investment in education and

research pays dividends.» Nanotechnology, ultra-

light inflatable «Tensairity» supporting structures,

environmentally friendly concepts for tomorrow’s

combustion engines, state-of-the-art building

technologies or innovative wood research – the

variety of Empa’s research activities and the

breadth they cover led to animated discussions

between the politicians and the scientists. The

guests at the «Empa on the Road» traveling exhi-

bition were presented with a similar R & D potpour-

ri during the second half of the year (see Academy,

pg. 48/49). The goal was to establish new con-

tacts and to initiate new partnerships with region-

al industrial organizations and research institutes in

the country’s three language areas by flying the

Empa flag locally.

Looking back at these numerous enjoyable en-

counters, one thing is clear from Empa’s point of

view: The dialog between science and society will,

once more, be intensively cultivated in 2007, as

demonstrated by the second edition of the Nano-

Convention and the continuation of «Empa on the

Road». There is no shortage of fascinating topics to

choose from, and in the first year following its 125th

birthday, Empa is still infused with the spirit of the ju-

bilee leitmotif – «Research that inspires.»

Dr Michael Hagmannmichael.hagmann@empa.ch

Technology Transfer

From Empa research toinnovative products

Knowledge and technology transfer – that is, the making availableof research results and technological advances to industry inorder to commercially exploit them – has always been a high priority forEmpa. In 2005 a centralized Technology Transfer (TT) office wascreated in order to expand technology transfer activities in afocused and customized manner. Now in 2006 a «portal» functionhas been established with the aim of facilitating industrialcooperation. This allows firms interested in some form of collaborativework with Empa to simply and quickly be put in contact with theappropriate in-house specialists

One of the main duties of the TT office, among oth-

ers, is the search for commercially exploitable

knowledge and new technologies – «technology

scouting» as it is known. Others are advising Em-

pa staff on questions relating to safeguarding in-

tellectual property and the exploitation of their

knowledge and research results. This includes

the evaluation, patenting and marketing of in-

ventions as well as the drawing up and reviewing

of contractual agreements with external parties.

By efficiently transferring knowledge and new

technologies out of Empa and into industry (and

society in general) the institution is making a sig-

nificant contribution to enhancing the level of in-

novation in Switzerland.

«Made by Empa»: two patentsgranted and 20 applications pending In its second year of existence the TT office has

taken a total of 328 projects under its wing, of

which 192 were new and 136 had already begun

in 2005, continuing into 2006. In the course of

these projects Empa staff reported 22 inven-

tions to the TT office, which then resulted in 20

national or international patent applications. Al-

so in 2006 two previously applied for patents

were granted.

In addition the TT team closed 168 contracts with

partners in academia, industry and research pro-

motion agencies. Of these 19 alone were agree-

ments covering the commercial exploitation of in-

novative ideas signed between Empa and the Inno-

vation Promotion Agency (CTI) of the Swiss Federal

Office for Professional Education and Technology

(OPET). There were also nine EU consortium con-

tracts and ten option and licensing agreements.

Successful transfersOne example of the successful transfer of an

Empa-developed technology to industry is «Jun-

Funori». This is the name of a binding agent made

from red algae of the genus Gloiopeltis, which is

found in a traditional Japanese adhesive called

Funori, used primarily in the restoration of old

works of art such as murals, frescos and paintings

that have suffered damage. The proprietary rights

for this product were sold to a company specializ-

ing in the manufacture of artists’ pigments and

products for the restoration of works of art.

Another technology developed by Empa is used to

cool particular parts of the body. In patients suffer-

ing from multiple sclerosis (MS), for example, cool-

ing helps to alleviate symptoms, thus improving

their quality of life and extending their mobility. The

«cooling pants», or rather the technology on which

they are based, was recently transferred to a Swiss

SME and products are expected to be on the mar-

ket soon. In December Serono, the Geneva-based

biotechnology company, honored the developers

of the technology with the award of its «Charity

Grant» valued at CHF 25000.

Already being marketed are regulated oscillation

dampers for cable-stayed bridges. These magne-

torheological dampers, as they are technically

known, protect a bridge’s structure from damage

due to excessive oscillation or swaying. A German

firm has taken over the world-wide marketing of this

Empa development, which was distinguished with

the award of the first ever Empa Innovation Prize in

November 2006.

Currently the income generated by the TT office

from licensing agreements, for example, or the

transfer of proprietary rights to industrial partners

already covers more than half its outgoings. The lat-

ter consist of renewal fees for existing Empa

patents as well as those for new applications. In

certain particularly profitable cases, the exploitation

of an innovative technology actually generates

more income than expended on the related costs.

52 53

Successful technology transfer:Bruno Waller of Serono PharmaSuisse (left) hands Markus Rothmeierthe cheque to fund the furtherdevelopment of cooling garments forMS patients.

Cooling garments can help toalleviate the symptoms of MS patients.

1 external polyester membrane2 water layer3 internal polyester membrane

Skin

Water vapor

1

2

3

Strategic expansion ofthe Technology Transfer officeIn addition to overseeing the administration of nu-

merous projects the TT office has also been focus-

ing on the strategic further development of the

technology transfer process. Empa staff are being

given an insight into the fundamentals of the patent

system as well as instruction in the use of patent

databases through training courses and interac-

tive workshops organized by the TT office in coop-

eration with the Swiss Federal Institute of Intellec-

tual Property in Bern.

The newly established «portal» function has given

the Empa an additional means of enhancing the

efficiency of its technology transfer efforts. The

«portal» acts as an interface between Empa and

industry – «from Science to Business». It is in-

tended to facilitate the contact between com-

mercial organizations (above all SMEs) interested

in doing business with Empa and the appropriate

Empa specialists – and of course their know how

and experience (see Marketing, pg. 46). Quite a

few visits to and by renowned companies have

already taken place as a result of such contacts.

In addition, numerous links with potential part-

ners were established in the course of the travel-

ing technical show «Empa on the Road» (see

Academy, pg. 48/49), which paid visits to five

technical universities and was oriented towards

regional industrial enterprises and other similar

organizations.

Dr Heidrun Flaadtheidrun.flaadt@empa.ch

Facts and Figures

Facts and Figures

160

180

200

220

240

2

Dok

torie

rend

e

SC

I/E

-Pub

likat

ione

n

153

2

191

Scientific Output

The number of SCI(E) publications rose slightly

last year from 271 to 275, whereby the number of

SCI publications rose from 166 to 215. After the

sharp increase in recent years in the number of

peer reviewed scientific publications written by

Empa staff, the emphasis has now shifted to fur-

ther raising their quality. Significant progress in

this respect has been achieved, measured by the

so-called «impact factor». The paper in «Nature»

on the subject of «chiral organic surfaces», which

drew considerable international attention, can be

viewed perhaps as the highlight in this context.

In addition there were several Empa-authored

papers published in applications-oriented journals

listed among the ten articles most frequently down-

loaded from the internet over the long term.

Empa staff also made 802 scientific contributions,

of which 359 were as invited guests or keynote

speakers, at national and international conferences

and scientific symposia. They were also active as

organizers or co-organizers at 36 conferences.

Empa is involved in 48 EU projects in total (47 in

2005). With 28 projects financed by the Swiss Na-

tional Science Foundation (32 in 2005) and 67 by

the CTI (66 in 2005), Empa once again demonstrat-

ed an excellent success rate at a national level.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1997 1998 1999 20

140

14 138 5

26

4651

In recognition of their outstanding work, Empa

scientists were the recipients of 25 prizes and

awards. Dr. Klaus Richter was honored with the

Josef Umdasch Research Prize by the University of

Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vi-

enna, for his research work on a «Model to Evalu-

ate Strategies for Optimized Forest and Wood

Exploitation to Minimize Climate Change». Empa

Fellow Prof. Dr. h.c. Urs Meier was honored by the

International Institute for FRP in Construction (IIFC)

for his lifelong scientific achievements.00 2001 2002 2003

16

6067

30

90

2004 2005 2006

99

132

67

120

SCIENTIFIC OUTPUT

2006 2005

SCI(E)-publications 275 271

thereof SCI publications 215 166

Scientific contributions 802 761

Doctorates completed 22 11

Patent applications 20 18

Patents granted 2 4

License agreements 10 4

Spin-offs/Start-ups 2 3

Empa-Academy

Events 84 114

Number of participants 5000 6000

Prizes / Awards 25 30 0

50

100

150

300

200

250

SCI/SSCISCIEDoctorates completed

Doctorates continuing Publications

16

67

30

67

120132

271 275

153

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

191

9990

DEVELOPMENT IN NUMBERS OF

DOCTORAL STUDENTS AND SCI/E PUBLICATIONS

A

56 570

20

40

60

8

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Dok

torie

rend

e

SC

I/E

-Pub

likat

ione

14 138 5

16

26

4651

6067

30

2004 2005 2006

67

1

0

50

100

150

300

200

250

16

67

30

67

120132

271

15

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

191

9990

SCI/SSCISCIEPhD submitted

PhD in progress Publications

35

%

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

. . . .

. . . .

ETHZ

EPFL PSI

EAWAG

Empa

WSL

UniSG

UniBer

n

niZü

rich

KOF/ETH STUDY: INDUSTRIAL PARTNERSHIPS

(in percent of the interviewed enterprises)

Survey by KOF/ETH

U

Teaching / Dissemination ofKnowledge / Technology Transfer

During the past year Empa has significantly ex-

panded its teaching activities, increasing from

2400 hours of educational courses in the previ-

ous year to 2960 in 2006. In addition, for exam-

ple, the institution has established a new «Privat-

dozent» lecturer’s post at the Institute of Terres-

trial Ecology, ETH Zurich, as well as expanding its

teaching program in the field of Movement and

Sport Science.

In cross border cooperation in the Euregio Lake

Constance a second Master’s degree course –

«Micro and Nanotechnology» – was launched in

collaboration with several Universities of Applied

Science in Switzerland and Austria. A further focal

275

3

point was the «International PhD School Switzer-

land – Poland», which in 2006 saw its second in-

take of half a dozen highly qualified graduate stu-

dents. The leadership seminar «Research Man-

agement», oriented towards senior management

in the research field, was organized for a second

time also, and was once again fully booked.

Empa also extended its role as a bridge to indus-

try and the economy in 2006. As a study by the

Swiss Economic Institute (KOF) of the ETH Zurich

published in December 2005 showed, Empa is al-

ready one of the most important partners for Swiss

industry in terms of science and technology trans-

fer. This transfer process is to be encouraged and

enhanced by further measures.

Together with the Association of Universities of

Applied Science of Eastern Switzerland and in

cooperation with the University of St. Gall and

the ETH Zurich, Empa has proposed a Network-

ing Initiative to the ETH Council. This initiative

aims to improve the accessibility of SMEs in East-

ern Switzerland to the expertise and skills available

in the academic partner organizations, as well as

other institutions in the ETH Domain.

In autumn 2006 Tebo, the Technology Center for

the Euregio Lake Constance, established a second

site near to the Empa’s St.Gall premises, where the

occupying firms are primarily production oriented.

Tebo not only makes floor space available, it also

offeres a wide range of services tailor made to suit

the requirements of its tenants. Currently 17 young

entrepreneurs are taking advantage of these facili-

ties.

Facts and Figures

Personnel

The trend in personnel numbers with the aims of a)

encouraging a greater proportion of creative, re-

search-oriented staff, b) approximately one third of

all employees being on fixed-term contracts and c)

about 100 doctoral students has continued in

2006.

At the end of the year the Empa had 863 members

of staff (832 in 2005), equivalent to 781 full time po-

sitions as of reference date 31.12.2006. The rise in

head count is due primarily to the increase in doc-

toral students, whose numbers rose from 92 to 109

on reference date 31.12.2006 (in total 153 over the

year). The number of permanent staff dropped from

541 to 503 persons, while the number of employ-

ees with fixed-term contracts rose from 291 to 360.

During 2006 two new professorial positions were

established at Empa and in addition three mem-

bers of the scientific staff were awarded professor-

ships, thus bringing the total number of professors

to 13 (after taking departures into account).

The number of scientific personnel was significant-

ly higher than at the end of 2005 with 444 staff (then

417). Technical and administrative staff numbers

remained practically constant (up to 419 from 415).

The number of female staff increased slightly from

214 to 227, and with the naming of two women sci-

entists as heads of the newly created Solid State

Chemistry and Catalysis Laboratory and the Bio-

materials Laboratory, the number of female staff

holding middle management positions rose to a

total of five. The number of non-Swiss staff rose

R

from 238 to 267 persons, and the number of un-

dergraduates working on final year projects fell

slightly to 78 (93). On the other hand the number of

students on internships more than doubled from 42

to 88. The number of apprentices sank slightly, from

39 to 36.

A staff questionnaire was conducted in 2006, and

staff were also given the opportunity to evaluate

their immediate superiors as well. In general a rea-

sonably high degree of satisfaction was recorded –

on a scale of 1 to 5 the staff questionnaire gave a

mean score of 3.9 and the management evaluation

gave a score of 4.1 points. Based on the findings of

the two surveys a list of measures has been com-

piled which will be implemented in the coming

months and years.

The new salary system (NLS) which was introduced

at the start of the year has taken effect, with person-

al performance and relevant experience being new

components in determining individual salaries.

Third-party funding27.1 Mio.CHF 66%

Income from services rendered11.7 Mio.CHF 29%

Miscellaneous1.7 Mio.CHF 4%

Personnel88.2 Mio.CHF 67%

Operating expenses31.5 Mio.CHF 24%

es. set aside for future commitments 7 Mio.CHF 5%

Holiday allowance adjustment0.3 Mio.CHF 0.5%Materials

4.7 Mio.CHF 3.5%

Fixed assets10.7 Mio.CHF 73%

Movable assets3.7 Mio.CHF 25%

Information technology0.3 Mio.CHF 2%

INCOME 40.9 Mio.CHF 100%

EXPENDITURE 131.7 Mio.CHF 100%

INVESTMENTS 14.7 Mio.CHF 100%

Financial income0.4 Mio.CHF 1%

STAFF

December 31, 2006

CATEGORIES 2006 2005

Scientific staff 444 417

of which professors 13 10

of which PhD students 109 92

of which sci. staff excl. profs. & PhD students 322 315

Tech./admin. staff 419 415

of which apprentices 36 39

Total (incl. part-time staff) 863 832

58 59

INCOME STATEMENT

In millions of Swiss Francs

2006 2005

Revenue

Federal funding contribution 85.6 83.7

Settlement of building investments 7.1 6.9

Third-party funding 27.1 20.7

Income from services rendered 11.7 11.8

Miscellaneous 1.7 2.1

Financial income 0.4 0.3

Released from reserves for projects 0 1.4

Total revenues 133.6 126.9

Expenditure

Personnel 88.2 85.7

Holiday allowance adjustment 0.3 1.2

Materials 4.7 4.8

Operating expenses 31.5 25.3

Reserves set aside for future commitments 3.5 10.2

Reserve increase for current projects 3.5 0

Total expenditure for current activities 131.7 127.2

Balance (Revenue-Expenditure) 1.9 -0.3

Investment

Fixed assets 10.7 5.2

Movable assets 3.7 5.6

Information technology 0.3 0.3

Total Investment 14.7 11.1

Finances

Total revenues in 2006 amounted to CHF 133.6 million, consisting of CHF 85.6

million in federal funding (previous year CHF 83.7 million), a settlement of CHF 7.1

million for investment in buildings, plus combined income from services rendered

and third party funding of CHF 38.8 million (prev. year CHF 32.5 million) and mis-

cellaneous revenues of CHF 1.7 million (prev. year 2.1 million). Revenues from ser-

vices rendered, including miscellaneous revenues, amounted to CHF 13.4 million,

or about CHF 0.5 million lower than the previous year’s figure of CHF 13.9 million.

For the first time the federal funding contribution includes the income from the

project-oriented fund allocation made by the ETH Domain Competence Centers

(CHF 0.4 million). Compared to the previous year the income from third party fund-

ing for R & D projects rose by 30.9% (+ CHF 6.4 million) to a total of CHF 27.1 mil-

lion. Funding allocation for research promotion was CHF 4.9 million, within which

the income from the Swiss National Funds (incl. NCCR) rose by 30.8 % to CHF

1.1 million and the CTI income totaled CHF 3.8 million (prev. year 3.6 million). Re-

search contributions from private funding sources came to CHF 7.7 million, and

the income from European research projects, in total CHF 5.6 million, rose signif-

icantly (+101% compared to the previous year). Also significantly higher was in-

come from departmental research, rising from the previous year’s value of CHF

6.3 million to CH 7.7 million (an increase of 21.9%). In addition the Empa received

a one million Swiss franc bequest in 2006 to be used for encouraging spin-offs

and start-ups. Third party income of total CHF40.5 million covered approximate-

ly 30.7% of total expenditure and represented 47.3% of the federal financial con-

tribution.

Total expenditure reached CHF 131.7 million (CHF 127.2 in 2005), with the single

largest item being personnel costs. Compared to the previous year these in-

creased by CHF 2.5 million to CHF 88.2 million. Of the remaining expenditure a

sum of CHF 31.5 million was disbursed to cover operating expenses and CHF

4.7 million was used to purchase materials. Reserve funds set aside to cover

pending third party projects and those for already contracted investment in build-

ing works, teaching and research projects and other future commitments in-

creased by CHF 3.5 million each.

Investment in buildings and equipment amounted to CHF 14.7 million in total in

2006 (CHF 11.1 million in 2004), with construction rising to CHF 10.7 million (CHF

5.2 million). Investment in movable assets decreased to CHF 3.7 million (CHF 5.6

million). Investment in information technology remained constant at CHF 0.3 mil-

lion. The final balance was CHF 1.9 million (-0.3).

Facts and Figures

Organs of Empa

Equal opportunities

One matter which continues to be of particular

concern to Empa is the reconciliation of profes-

sional and family life. A review by the «Und»-Bu-

reau confirmed Empa’s exemplary approach to

this subject. A further cornerstone of the institu-

tion’s effort in this area is the newly built joint Empa-

Eawag child care center which began operation

in mid-2006. In both educational and construc-

tional terms it is state of the art and affords 33 chil-

dren an excellent level of care during their parents’

working day.

In order to awaken the interest of the younger gen-

eration for matters scientific and technical at an

early stage, the Empa Summer Camp was orga-

nized once again. This time a visit to the Paul

Scherrer Institute was on the program, giving the

children a good peek into various technical and

scientific professional fields.

The joint Empa/Eawag child care center moved intoits new premises in 2006.

Construction / Operations

Over the past year there has been a great deal of

building activity at Empa. Investment in this cate-

gory came to CHF 10.7 million, and for building

maintenance a further CHF1.3 million was ex-

pended. The most important building projects

were the renovation of the shells of both the Lab-

oratory and Administration buildings. This work

will be completed in 2007. In addition, users took

up occupation of both the new Eawag building

«Forum Chriesbach» (Empa participation in this

project being in the framework of the common li-

brary) and the Children’s Pavilion (the day care cen-

ter built in collaboration with Eawag).

Empa’s Environmental management office, which

is considered a part of the Federal Program «Rum-

ba» (Resource and Environmental Management

in the Federal Administration), defined as a focal

point in 2006 the systematic gathering of data on

the use of resources in the organization. A system

was conceived and implemented to measure and

analyze the consumption of electric power, heat,

cooling energy and water. As a first step the analy-

sis of Empa’s electrical power use was contracted

out. The results should show where the potential

for saving electrical energy exists and how this po-

tential might best be exploited. Initial measures

should be implemented in 2007. In parallel to this

work, the renovation in terms of energy saving of

the existing Empa buildings was continued.

Roland Knechtleroland.knechtle@empa.ch

60 61

Advisory Commission

A body of leading personalities which advises the

Empa management on fundamental concerns.

Chairman

Peter Loew

Dr, Basel

Members

Thomas Hinderling

Dr, Neuchâtel

Markus Oldani

Dr, Baden

Max Oppliger

Dr, Zurich

Fiorenzo Scaroni

Dr, Zurich

Walter Steinmann

Dr, Bern

Thomas von Waldkirch

Dr, Zurich

ETH Council

The ETH Council has overall responsibility for

the management of the ETH domain, which in-

corporates the two Federal Institutes of Tech-

nology (ETHZ, EPFL) and the four federal re-

search institutes (PSI, WSL, Eawag and Empa).

Chairman

Alexander J.B. Zehnder

Prof.Dr, Zurich

Vice-Chairman

Ernst Buschor

Prof.Dr, Zurich

Members

Patrick Aebischer

Prof.Dr med., Lausanne

Adriano Aguzzi

Prof.Dr med., Zurich

Monica Duca Widmer

Dr, dipl. Ing.ETH, Manno

Ralph Eichler

Prof.Dr, Villigen

Paul L. Herrling

Prof.Dr, Basel

Beth Krasna

Dipl. Ing.ETH, Lausanne

Thierry Lombard

Genf

Konrad Osterwalder

Prof. Dr, ETH, Zurich

Markus Stauffacher

Dr, ETH, Zurich

Research Commission

The Research Commission advises Empa’s

Board of Directors on general questions of re-

search, on the choice of R&D spectrum and is

involved with the evaluation of internal R&D pro-

jects, amongst its other activities. In addition to

selected Empa senior staff, it consists of the fol-

lowing researchers and heads of Swiss and for-

eign institutes:

Robert W. Cahn

Prof.Dr, University of Cambridge,

Great Britain

Jürg Dual

Prof.Dr, ETH, Zurich

Herbert H. Einstein

Prof.Dr, MIT, Cambridge, USA

Walter Giger

Prof.Dr, Eawag, Dübendorf

Teruo Kishi

Prof.Dr, Präsident National Institute for

Materials Science, Ibaraki, Japan

Karl Knop

Dr, CSEM, Zurich

Erkki Leppävuori

Prof.Dr, Direktor VTT, Finnland

Peter Marti

Prof.Dr, ETH, Zurich

Klaus Müllen

Prof. Dr, Director of the Max-Planck Institute

for Polymer Research, Mainz, Germany

Yves Petroff

Prof.Dr, ESRF Grenoble, Frankreich

Viola Vogel

Prof.Dr, ETH, Zurich

Alexander Wokaun

Prof.Dr, PSI, Villigen

Facts and Figures

International PhD School Switzerland – PolandDr. Jolanta JanczakPaul W. Gilgen

Empa Academy Dr Anne Satir

Master of Micro and Nano-technology (MNT)Dr Pierangelo GröningPaul W.Gilgen

Programs for Education and Continuous Training

Director General DeputyProf.Dr Louis Schlapbach Dr Peter Hofer

Materials and EngineeringDr Giovanni Terrasi

Mechanics for Modelling and SimulationProf. Dr Edoardo Mazza

Structural EngineeringProf.Dr Masoud Motavalli

Road Engineering / Sealing ComponentsProf.Dr Manfred Partl

WoodDr Klaus Richter

Building Technologiesa. i. Mark Zimmermann

Concrete / Construction Chemistrya.i. Dr Andreas Leemann

Adaptive Material SystemsProf. Dr Edoarda MazzaProf. Dr Paolo Ermanni (ETH Zurich)

High Performance CeramicsDr Thomas Graule

Functional PolymersDr Frank Nüesch

nanotech@surfacesDr Pierangelo Gröning

Nanoscale Materials ScienceProf.Dr Hans Josef Hug

Mechanics of Materials &NanostructuresDr Johann Michler

Materials TechnologyProf.Dr Lukas Rohr

Joining and Interface TechnologyDr Manfred Roth

Corrosion and Materials IntegrityOliver von Trzebiatowski

Empa Fellow Prof. Dr h.c. Urs Meier

Advisory Commission Dr Peter Loew, Präsident

Advanced Materials and SurfacesDr Pierangelo Gröning

Civil and Mechanical EngineeringDr Peter Richner

Materials and Systems for the Protectionand Wellbeing of the Human BodyMarkus Rüedi

GENERAL MANAGEMENT

DEPARTMENTS

Research programs

NanotechnologyProf. Dr Hans J. HugProf. Dr Karl-Heinz Rieder (Advisor)

Protection and PhysiologyDr René Rossi

Advanced FibersDr Manfred Heuberger

Materials-Biology InteractionsProf. Dr Harald Krug

BiomaterialsDr Linda Thöny-Meyer

LABORATORIES LABORATORIES LABORATORIES

Organizational Chart

62 63

Technology Center for theLake Constance Region TEBOPeter Frischknecht

Center for Synergetic StructuresEmpa-FESTODr Rolf Luchsinger

Reliability NetworkDr Urs Sennhauser

Center for Technologyand Start-ups Thun Prof. Dr Lukas Rohr

Public Private Partnerships

Materials for Healthand PerformanceMarkus Rüedi

Technosphere – AtmosphereDr Peter Hofer

Materials for Energy TechnologiesDr Xaver Edelmann

Intelligent Load Bearing SystemsProf. Dr Peter Marti (ETH Zurich)Dr Peter Richner

Technology and SocietyProf.Dr Lorenz Hilty

Media TechnologyProf.Dr Klaus Simon

Electronics / Metrology / ReliabilityDr Urs Sennhauser

AcousticsKurt Eggenschwiler

Internal Combustion EnginesChristian Bach

Air Pollution / Environmental TechnologyDr Brigitte Buchmann

Analytical ChemistryDr Heinz Vonmont

CommunicationDr Michael Hagmann

Human ResourcesMadeleine Heim

InformaticsDr Christoph Bucher

Finances / Controlling / PurchasingHeidi Leutwyler

Mechanical Engineering / WorkshopStefan Hösli

Construction / InfrastructurePaul-André Dupuis

Marketing, Technology Transferand Knowledge ManagementGabriele Dobenecker

Solid State Chemistry and CatalysisDr Anke Weidenkaff

hydrogen@empaProf. Dr Andreas Züttel

Information, Reliability andSimulation TechnologyDr Xaver Edelmann

Mobility, Energy and EnvironmentDr Peter Hofer

SupportRoland Knechtle

LABORATORIES LABORATORIES SECTIONS

Contactportal@empa.chTel. +4144 823 44 44www.empa.ch/portal

ISSN 1660-2277 Annual Report Empa

© Empa 2007

IMPRINT

Publisher

Empa

CH-8600 Dübendorf

CH-9014 St.Gallen

CH-3602 Thun

Editors

Editorial Group, Empa

Design/Layout

Graphics Group, Empa

Printing

Bader & Niederöst AG, Kloten

2ForewordClimate neutral energy supplies for tomorrowand the sustainable use of our resources –two core topics for Empa

4Research programs

6Nanotechnology8Adaptive Material Systems10Technosphere – Atmosphere12Materials for Energy Technologies14Materials for Health and Performance

Contents

The technical-scientific report

«EMPA Activities 2006»,

previous Annual Reports and further

documentation are available

directly from:

Empa

Communication

Überlandstrasse 129

CH-8600 Dübendorf

contact@empa.ch

jabe06_e_c.qxp 12.6.2007 15:35 Uhr Seite 2

Empa

CH-8600 DübendorfÜberlandstrasse 129

Phone +41 44 823 55 11Fax +41 44 821 62 44

CH-9014 St.GallenLerchenfeldstrasse 5

Phone +41 71 274 74 74Fax +41 71 274 74 99

CH-3602 ThunFeuerwerkerstrasse 39

Phone +41 33 228 46 26Fax +41 33 228 44 90

www.empa.ch

Annual Report 2006

jabe06_e_c.qxp 12.6.2007 15:35 Uhr Seite 1