INTERNATIONAL WROCLAW MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2015

UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL

STUDY GUIDE

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Table of contents

Welcome Letter………………………………………………………………………………………………3

Introduction to United Nations Security Council 4

Topic A: Spread of Islamic Radicalism across Europe and the World: ISIL

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………..5

Terms and Concepts…………………………………………………………………………………5

Background……………………………………………………………………………………………...6

Past International Action………………………………………………………………………….8

Possible Solutions…………………………………………………………………………………….9

Further Research……………………………………………………………………………………10

Topic B: Situation in South Sudan

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………….11

Background……………………………………………………………………………………………11

Past International Action………………………………………………………………………..12

Possible Solutions…………………………………………………………………………………..13

Further Research……………………………………………………………………………………14

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Welcome Letter Honourable Delegates, Allow us to begin by welcoming you to the Security Council - the mightiest committee of them all. We are glad to have you on board and are looking forward to our great debates during IWMUN 2015! Rest assured that you are in good hands - both of us have for long been interested in world politics, and especially in conflicts and problems that we will be covering with you. We promise that our input will be both professional and full of excitement. The topics for this year will focus on the Spread of Islamic radicalism in Europe and the World, and the situation in South Sudan. With terrorist threats on the rise and the emergence of the self-proclaimed „Islamic State”

abroad, the first issue is more than just an issue of global importance. With each and every attempt to radically impose their rules on the societies that the „Islamic State” chooses to infest, their methods are becoming even more inhuman, requiring swift and decisive input from the United Nations. The independent South Sudan is located on a soil that could be envied by many other countries: although landlocked, it has oil, strong current of White Nile, cultivable land and plenty minable resources. The North has the necessary infrastructure and a long coastline. Clearly, the conflict, running for the last 60 years with variable intensity, has prevented both countries from flourishing. It has devastated both the states and individual lives – UN Office for Humanitarian Affairs reports 2 million people have been displaced since it began. Today, a few years after the emergence of South Sudan as not only autonomous but also an independent

entity, the Security Council is given the chance to assist in preventing any more unnecessary deaths and misery and empowering South Sudan as a state, under a just and effective resolution. This booklet should be your first-stop for research on the topics to be covered in UNSC at IWMUN 2015. Mind you, that means that this is just the beginning of the preparation you should perform prior to the conference, provided that you want to take active part in the debate. We are well aware that the topics are broad and require a lot of work to be understood, but we hold firm the belief that all of you – the chosen fifteen – are just the ones to face the challenge! In case you have any questions about this booklet, your work in the committee, etc., feel free to get in touch with us via e-mail.

Chairs of the Security Council

Maciej Białas and Piotr Kaczyński

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Introduction to UN Security Council

Whenever the United Nations is concerned with peace and security, they turn their heads towards the Security Council: it has the power to authorize peacekeeping operations with UN mandate and impose international sanctions. It is one of the six main organs established under the UN Charter in 1946. The main difference between UNSC and other organs of the UN is that it has the power to make binding decisions (other organs can only make recommendations) that all the member states are obliged to respect (under Article 25 of the Charter). The Council consists of 15 members with one vote each: 10 non-permanent and 5 permanent (UK, France, USA, Russia, People’s Republic of China), which hold the veto power. The non-

permanent members are elected by the General Assembly for a two-year term. Council’s meetings are not regular; it gathers when the need arises, under a rotating presidency (each month another member holds the presidency). Emergence of threats to peace and acts of aggression, settling disputes by peaceful means, and adjusting settlements - all of these are within the competences given to the Security Council. In some cases, this body can also impose sanctions or allow the usage of force to induce and maintain peace. Its decisions are brought into life by UN peacekeepers, military forces voluntarily provided by member states. In addition to that, the Security Council can also recommend the appointment of the Secretary-General and the admission of new Members to the UN. It also elects judges of the International Court of Justice, albeit together with the General Assembly.

You can read more about the Security Council here.

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Spread of lslamic Radicalism across Europe and the World: ISIL INTRODUCTION Operating in Syria, Iraq, Libya and other areas of the Middle East, the Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham, ISIL for short, has been on everyone’s lips for quite a while now. Their main goal is plain and simple – caliphate: claiming religious, political and military authority over all Muslims worldwide. The means of achieving this are brutal executions, many of which are televised, and terrorist actions, which have resulted in the United States, the European Union, Australia, Canada, Indonesia, Malaysia, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Syria, Egypt, India, and Russia calling ISIL a „terrorist organization”. ISIL emerged in 1999, and was later renamed to what came to be known as al-Qaeda. Using the unstable situation in Iraq - Iraqi Insurgency, March 2003 invasion against Saddam Hussein’s

government (when Iraq was invaded by combined force of troops from USA, UK, Australia and Poland) and finally the Iraq War (2003-2011) - they have established themselves in the country, making important connections for the future. A delegate group also established itself in the civil-war torn Syria, exploiting the weakness to infest yet another country with the Sunni Islamism ideology. In February of 2014 al-Qaeda separated fully from ISIL, itself a division of the larger group, and on 29 June 2014, the group finally renamed itself as the „Islamic State”. In early 2014 ISIL began offensives in Iraq, gaining territory within the country. As a result, the government of the country nearly collapsed, drawing US military forces back to Iraq, and showing the foreign policy failure of the superpower. The Islamic State has ever since been condemned for inhuman actions, such as executions of journalists and aid-workers, as well as using child soldiers in their actions. ISIL became notorious for its web and social media

propaganda, which includes Youtube videos of the beheadings, as well as the deliberate destruction of cultural heritage sites. Attacks such as the ones in Paris or the recent one in Kenya, for which militant group Al-Shabaab claimed responsibility, are occurring more frequently than ever (Al-Shabaab is not a part of ISIL, it is however a yet another example of Islamic radicalism). The Islamic world is not eager to support ISIL in any way, greatly criticizing their ideology and claiming that they are everything but a representation of Islam as a whole.

TERMS AND CONCEPTS Islam - monotheistic religion regulated by the Qu’ran - the holy book believed to be the word of God, Allah. According to Muslims „God is one and incomparable”, and that the purpose of existence is „worshipping god”. The religion is based on five pillars - testimony, prayer, alms-giving, fasting and pilgrimage. One element of the religion is Jihad, the struggle to moral and religious perfection, which is often used to denote the attempts to exert religion on non-believers in a military way. Islam is spread all across the word - having originated in the Middle East, it is expanding due to immigration in several regions, for example in Europe. Most Muslims are of two denominations: Sunni (75–90%) or Shia (10–20%).

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Sunni Islam - largest branch of Islam, „people of the tradition of Muhammad and the consensus of the Ummah”. World’s second largest religious body after Christianity, largest denomination in the world. Caliphate - a form of an Islamic government. It is led by a Caliph, a person believed to be the successor of prophet Muhammed, thus a leader of the whole Muslim community. At one point nearly all Muslim states (hereditary monarchies) have claimed to be caliphates. Sunni Islamists believe that the Caliph should be elected by the Muslims or their representatives. Genocide - extermination of a certain group of people based on racial, ethnic, religious or national premises. Examples include the Holocaust, Rwandan genocide and the Bosnian genocide. Jihadists - representatives of extreme, armed military Jihad movement. The term was first used in the 2000s, and has since become more prevalent along with the Jihadists actions. It now covers both Islamic Insurgency, as well as terrorism related activities (Al-Qaeada can be connected with it as well). Overall, it is the Sunni Islamist struggle to enforce the „Will of God” on the non-believers. Terrorist Group - a group engaged in violent acts, that aim to create terror (fear) amongst a group of people for political, religious or ideological reasons. Depending on the classifying body, we can distinguish organizations such as Al-Qaeda or ISIL. Militia - a fighting force composed of non-professional fighters.

BACKGROUND What is the problem? The abuse of human rights, radical view and representation of Islam, no acceptance for deviations from the ideology, armed operations - all of these things constitute the problem of the Islamic State, whilst at the same time being its building blocks. The problem is also connected with the fact that ISIL has been linked to terrorist organizations worldwide, which leads to further destabilization of many nations around the world. Who or what is causing the problem? It is hard to classify the members of ISIL. It is important to remember and keep in mind that

one cannot generalize that Islam is causing the problem of ISIL. The Islamic State does not represent the religion, it merely proclaims it does.

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Whom does the problem

impact? As of now, ISIL impacts the Middle East as a whole. With armed operations, abductions, public killings, etc., the Islamic State is constantly a threat to the people in the countries being impacted. The most affected are Iraq and Syria, forcing them to focus on yet an another problem after (or

during) a period of civil war and disorientation. ISIL is not only limited to the Middle East though. With its connections to the terrorist world, some have already

felt their breath on their back in Europe and beyond. When did this become a problem? ISIL first emerged in 1999, but has become of greater importance to the global political and military scene in 2014. It was not until then that they began actual decisive operations, some

of which have led to great destabilization, for example in Iraq. Why is this problem continuing? With lack of decisive actions against the Islamic State from military superpowers, and a greatly unstable political situation in Iraq and Syria, ISIL has a perfect foundation to build upon. They act as leeches, feeding on the weak systems to not only make their radical beliefs appealing, but also to call for direct action against their targets. Indecisiveness in actions to some extent allows for the further spread of ISIL. What are the subissues that the committee should solve? - Illegal weapons in Syria and Iraq,

- Military action in Iraq, - Countering terrorist operations worldwide.

What will happen if we don’t solve the problem? It is hard to make assumptions about the future of ISIL as of now, but we can be sure that without stopping, their radical methods will continue. Besides that, chances of additional

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territorial attacks and acquisitions are possible, leading to further destabilization of Iraq,

Syria and posing a threat to security worldwide, currently prominently Europe. PAST INTERNATIONAL ACTION United Nations Adopted unanimously by the Security Council in August 2014, Resolution 2170 „condemned gross, widespread abuse of human rights by extremist groups in Iraq and Syria.” The resolution placed six people on the terrorist sanctions list, and called on „Member States to take national measures to prevent fighters from traveling from their soil to join the groups reiterating obligations under previous counter-terrorism resolutions to prevent the movement of terrorists, as well as their supply with arms or financial support.” The Security Council also demanded that ISIL and others put an end to violence and disarm. Statements

of individual nations can be found here. A more holistic counter-terrorism Resolution 2178 adopted in 2014 is also relevant for this issue. A Russian-drafted Resolution 2199 was accepted unanimously by the Security Council in February 2015, giving it direct ability to impose economic sanctions on states trading oil with ISIL. Military force usage authorization was not granted. An article on the resolution can be found in a Reuters release here. USA

The US has been bombing ISIL targets in Iraq six months before Obama’s request that he has sent to Congress in February. The President asked for the authorization of military action against „the terrorists”, whilst at the same time claiming to want to avoid a full-blown ground war. It is also known that such operations would be limited to three years, making this a somewhat limited campaign primarily aimed to destroy the most dangerous targets and to rescue Americans, whose lives have been put at stake by ISIL actions. This might go either way, as both the Democrats and Republicans seem rather crossed at the sight of this proposition from the White House. Obama Asks Congress to Authorize Military Force against ISIS, Earle G., New York Post, 2015 For further information and statements see this article:

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POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS With ISIL ever eager to violate basic human rights in quest to reach its objectives, the United Nations has to take steps to counter their actions. In the most optimistic version, the solution would be to annihilate the Islamic State as a whole, which would include breaking up their ties in the Middle East and destroying their militia, along with the weapons that they have at their disposition. This scenario though is highly unrealistic, as it would not only require massive input of military and intelligence services, but would also mean that ISIL would need to be „wiped” entirely - something widely impossible given their current spread and reach around the world. When looking for actual solutions that could impact ISIL, it is important to look back at the past actions of the UN and nations such as the United States. The UN already has imposed sanctions of the economical and personal nature, doing so in an attempt to strike down the power of ISIL. When this is looked upon from today’s perspective, it seems as if these actions had no real effect, as ISIL and their actions are not quite displaying signs of being weakened. Whether this is a weakness of the actions undertaken is a subject of debate for Member States. When it comes to the United States and Obama’s recent request sent to Congress, time will show if the authorization is granted. Given the fact that even some Democrats are expressing opposing views at this stage, it is hard to believe that this will take place. An important question to ask here is this: Can direct military action solve the problem of an armed organization such as ISIL? The answer seems to fall on the lines of a dispute whether force is the effective method against force, and that is naturally determined by the power balance and the sides participating in the discussion. Looking for a compromise between ‘weak’ actions (such as the ones taken already) and the forceful ones (possible US military action) seems necessary; so does keeping in mind that the most radical options are often the most damaging. With ISIL comes a handful of additional issues that should be covered and taken into consideration prior to the debate. Here is a suggested list: - Backchannel shipments of weapons into Syria and Iraq, - Terrorist activity in the Middle East and Europe, - ISIL and Civilians - limiting and avoiding casualties, - Stabilizing Syria - what can be done at this stage? - Foreign Aid and political assistance for Iraq as a means of limiting ISIL influence in the

country. Keep in mind that these issues are just a short list of many that you can and should address in the debate. They are vital to the topic as a whole, and in some cases, act as its building blocks.

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FURTHER RESEARCH Articles and studies

A background guide ‘What is ISIS?’, Welby P., Tony Blair Faith Foundation, 2015 An article on genocide possibly committed by ISIS: ‘ISIS may have committed genocide

against Iraqi minority: UN report’, Steinbuch Y., New York Post, 2015 The famous article ‘What ISIS really wants?’, Wood G., The Atlantic, 2015 Reuters release summarizing Resolution 2199 Current news on ISIL on Guardian

Resources

Encyclopaedia Britannica’s entry on Islam

Full text of Resolution 2170, 2014 Full text of Resolution 2178, 2014 Full text of Resolution 2199, 2015

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Topic 2: Situation in South Sudan INTRODUCTION

Dramatically underdeveloped region of South Sudan suffered from a recurring conflict with Khartoum ever since the country of Sudan was created. The cultural and ethnic divisions are accompanied by uneven distribution of resources: oil-rich south and much less abundant North. Not surprisingly, Khartoum, struggling also with the Darfur conflict, gave up the attempts keep the country unified. The referendum over the independence of South Sudan was promised in 2005 and executed in 2011.

Almost unanimously, the Southern Sudanese decided to leave the union with North. The new country has to resolve several problems with the North, border

issues and cooperation in production and transit of oil being the most important ones. While the peacekeeping mission, established by UN in 2011, partially shields the civilians from the effects of conflicts, a landlocked country of South Sudan (as well as the Republic of Sudan) may have trouble in returning to the stable growth path without the key foreign issues addressed. BACKGROUND Historical background

The country of Sudan was granted the right to self-determine in 1953 and eventually announced independence from British-Egyptian rule in 1955, with hardly any opposition from London and Cairo. The country was thorn by long and deadly civil wars between Khartoum and Southern Separatists since then (two Sudanese Civil Wars, killing up to 500,000 and up to 2,000,000 people respectively). In 2011, the government agreed to a referendum over the independence of South Sudan. 98.83% approval rate gave way to the division of the formerly biggest country in Africa. Social Background Sudan has a very low value of Human Development Index1 (0.473, very low developed country)2. There are no official estimations for HDI in South Sudan but the HDI level is very likely lower there. While the ethnic reality of Sudanese Society is quite complicated, the North

is predominantly inhabited by Arab Muslim population and the South by Black Christians. The period of colonial rule de facto assumed dual (Southern and Northern) type of administration

1 ‘The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and income indices

used to rank countries into four tiers of human development. It was created by in 1990 and was published by the United Nations Development Programme.’ Wikipedia, 2015 2 http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-1-human-development-index-and-its-components, UNDP 2013

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enforced and generated grounds for division3. South Sudan received much less attention from

the government, yet was actively separated from surrounding political entities. Darfur War (please bear in mind the Darfur War but do not focus on its resolution during this committee) The Darfur War is another conflict, destabilizing Sudan since 2003. Although South Sudan is not a side of the War (which has outbroken between separatist groups in Western Sudan, allegedly supported by Chad and Eritrea and Khartoum government), UNSC should bear in mind the issues of Darfur and South Sudan interrelate with each other. Any decisions on South Sudan may affect the situation in Darfur and vice versa. Border determination issues and potential inspiration for demands made by Darfur rebels should be considered.

PAST INTERNATIONAL ACTION Under the international pressure, before South Sudan gained its independence, two peace agreements have been signed with the aim of putting an end to the conflict. While they are certainly indicatory of the issues relevant for both sides, they failed to reach all their aims: - Addis Ababa Peace Agreement (1972) The Addis Ababa Agreement's established the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region. It allowed a degree of autonomy, ending the First Sudanese Civil War. Although a decade of relative

peace has followed, it turned out to be a temporary resolution only – the tensions that were at the bottom of the conflict have remained. ‘Resource infringements and marginalisation by the north’ caused the south to become increasingly unrest at the beginning of 1980s. In 1983 the Agreement was officially broken when the President declared all Sudan (including the non-Islamic majority, theoretically autonomous Southern region) an Islamic state. The Southern

3 http://www.insightonconflict.org/conflicts/sudan/conflict-profile, Peace Direct, 2014

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Sudan Autonomous Region was hence abolished, initiating the Second Sudanese Civil War

(1983-2005) - Comprehensive Peace Agreement (or the Naivasha Agreement, 2005), signed between Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and the Government of Sudan. Its aims were to end the Second Sudanese Civil War, establish democratic governance both in the North and in the South and develop a system of sharing oil revenues. It also scheduled a date for an independence referendum for Southern Sudan, which was carried out in 2011. Neither of the acts is legally in force after the 2011 referendum. Since 2011, under Resolution 1996, UN mission is involved in South Sudan. The mission is supposed to protect civilians from disruptions that may occur in a young state. The mission is not involved in border disputes. Also, after Khartoum temporarily stopped transiting oil, the UN pressure made the Sudanese government withdraw from their decision – a situation that can

be treated as an indicator of the effect international pressure may exert on this issue. In 2012, following two years of negotiation, 9 agreements were signed by Sudan and South Sudan (the link provides summary). The most important of these nine are the Agreement between Sudan and South Sudan on Oil and related Economic Matters and the Agreement between Sudan and South Sudan on Border Issues. In 2014, the African Union Commission established the African Union Commission of Inquiry

on South Sudan to ‘investigate the human rights violations and other abuses committed during

the armed conflict in South Sudan’ and to ‘make recommendations on the best ways and

means to ensure accountability, reconciliation and healing among all South Sudan

communities.’4

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

The independence of South Sudan caused new problems: a) political instability in South Sudan5, b) several border disputes and the dispute over the control of and share of revenues

from oil rigs.

4 http://www.au.int/fr/content/commission-inquiry-south-sudan , African Union, 2014

5 http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?mot2783, Sudan Tribune

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Explanation:

a) This Council does not have the mandate to engage in the internal political relations in Sudan. However, this council might wish to establish a procedure preventing the impact of domestic instability on the relations with the North. b) The border between South and North Sudan is not clearly determined. Especially the regions important for the oil industry are vulnerable to conflict, as in case of 2012 Heglig Crisis6. While most of oil rigs are is located in South Sudan, oil is transported through the North Sudan territory. The Comprehensive Peace Agreement from 2005, which split the revenues from oil export between Khartoum and South Sudan, is no longer valid after 2011 Referendum. This Council should establish a just and acceptable enabling for determination and control over the North-South and Darfur-South border, promoting effective and uninterrupted production of oil and preventing synergy effects of the South-North conflict and internal conflicts in both

countries. FURTHER RESEARCH Articles and studies:

An article on the Heglig Oil Conflict, providing extensive background insight on the situation: The Heglig Oil Conflict: An Exercise of Sovereignty or an Act of Aggression? by Nicasius Achu Check and Thabani Mdlongwa, 2012

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs on South Sudan, providing information on the current situation from a humanitarian perspective: UNOCHA South Sudan

A highly extensive study of the situation published in Africa Report: Sudan and South Sudan’s Merging Conflicts, International Crisis Group, 2015

Resources:

Full text of the Addis Ababa Peace Agreement, 1972

Full text of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, 2005

Full text of the Resolution 1996, 2011

Summary of the 9 agreements of 2012

Full texts of all peace agreements signed by Sudan

Full text of the Announcement of the African Union Commission of Inquiry on South Sudan

6 ‘The Heglig Crisis was an armed conflict between the countries of Sudan and the South Sudan in 2012 over oil-

rich regions between the South Sudan's Unity and Sudan's South Kordofan. South Sudan invaded and briefly

occupied the small border town of Heglig before being pushed back by the Sudanese army. Small-scale clashes

continued until an agreement on borders and natural resources was signed on September 26, resolving most

aspects of the conflict.’ Wikipedia, 2015