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Journalism Studies

ISSN: 1461-670X (Print) 1469-9699 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjos20

Listening to Pictures

Katie Day Good

To cite this article: Katie Day Good (2017) Listening to Pictures, Journalism Studies, 18:6,691-709, DOI: 10.1080/1461670X.2015.1087813

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2015.1087813

Published online: 08 Oct 2015.

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LISTENING TO PICTURESConverging media histories and themultimedia newspaper

Katie Day Good

This article revisits the early twentieth century as an overlooked period of media mixing and tech-

nological convergence in newspapers. Comparing a short-lived audiovisual form of journalism—

the Radio Photologues of the Chicago Daily News—with contemporary audio slideshows produced

by online newspapers, it argues that newspapers have long been meeting grounds for experimental

combinations of existing and emerging media. It calls for a broader historical perspective in discus-

sions of convergence in digital journalism by drawing attention to the complex intermingling of

media forms, sensory engagements, and storytelling conventions that have appeared in newspa-

pers in times of technological transition. Additionally, it highlights the utility of textual analysis

in analyzing these ephemeral and hybrid media artifacts in journalism.

KEYWORDS convergence; media history; multimedia; radio; textual analysis; visual culture

Introduction

In the first decades of the twentieth century, the appearance of many Americannewspapers changed dramatically. With newer mass media like movies, radio, and maga-zines on the rise, consumers encountered a growing number of sources of informationand entertainment. In this competitive media market, newspapers updated their contentand format in an effort to retain readers’ attention. They streamlined their textuallayouts, dispensing with the chaotic, cascading aesthetic of the Victorian era and aimingfor greater symmetry, organization, and modernist design (Barnhurst and Nerone 2001).In addition to changing the visual presentation of text, many leading papers began publish-ing a special photogravure section on the weekends, offering readers a magazine-likespread of inky photographs to supplement the written news. On top of these visualupdates, some newspapers ventured into an entirely new medium altogether: wirelessbroadcasting. By the mid-1920s, several papers had either established their own radiostations or affiliated themselves with existing ones. Some, like the Seattle Post-Intelligencerand San Francisco Examiner, broadcast local and national news. Others, such as the ChicagoDaily News, worried that transmitting news over the radio would hurt newspaper sales, sothey focused instead on broadcasting educational and entertaining programming as a sup-plemental “public service” to listeners that, in their estimation, would double as an adver-tisement for the paper itself (Croy 1922; Stamm 2011; Cox 2013).

The efforts of newspapers to incorporate new media formats, technologies, andstorytelling conventions in the 1920s warrant closer attention in light of today’s growthof multimedia newspapers online. As more newspaper organizations shift from print todigital production in the twenty-first century, many are seeking to augment the traditional

Journalism Studies, 2017Vol. 18, No. 6, 691–709, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2015.1087813© 2015 Taylor & Francis

text-based approach to reporting with newer media formats, including digital video andphotography, slideshows, audio, maps, and infographics. Like the revamped newspaperof the 1920s, the online newspaper today draws together a range of novel audio, visual,and interactive appeals to reassert its relevance to readers in an era of multiplyingmedia options. As a result, multimedia newspapers have become key sites for the studyof “converged journalism,” or the increased cooperation and collaboration, facilitated bydigital technologies, between multiple communication formats and domains of news pro-duction, distribution, and consumption that were typically segmented in the mass mediaera (Gordon 2003; Deuze 2004; Boczkowski 2004; Jenkins 2006; Quandt and Singer 2009;García-Avilés, Kaltenbrunner, and Meier 2014).1

Despite the growing scholarly effort to account for these mixtures of media formsand practices at work in digital journalism, most research has taken a relatively ahistoricalview of the concept of convergence, approaching it as a new and unprecedented phenom-enon resulting from the popularization of the internet and proliferation of digital technol-ogies in the last few decades. But a look back to earlier media experiments by newspapers—such as the incorporation of photography in the late nineteenth century, the adaptationto radio and higher-resolution visuals in the early twentieth century, or the attempts totransmit news via television, teletext, CD-Rom, and electronic tablets in the late twentiethcentury (Molina 1997; Craig 1999; Carlson 2003; Cox 2013; Arceneaux 2014)—suggests thatthey have long been meeting grounds for old and new forms of mediated communication,yielding hybrid journalistic artifacts and “cross-media” synergies between textual andaudiovisual formats, print-based and electronic content, and paper and ether (Barnhurstand Nerone 2001; Erdal 2011, 217; Stamm 2011).

This study revisits the first decades of the twentieth century as a period of intensemedia experimentation within newspapers and an overlooked chapter in the history ofconverged journalism. It focuses on documenting a series of media experiments under-taken by one leading paper in the early twentieth century, the Chicago Daily News,which culminated in the development of a popular but short-lived audiovisual program,the Radio Photologues, in the 1920s. It closes by briefly comparing this program to amore recent hybrid media artifact, the audio slideshow, a multimedia feature producedby many online newspapers today. The aim of this comparative study is to demonstratethree things. First, the rise of convergence and multimedia production in newspaperstoday is locatable within a long and underexplored history of media transitions and inter-medial artifacts in journalism. Second, such transitions have historically involved complexnegotiations among multiple media technologies, forms, and cultures of production andconsumption, rather than a “zero-sum game” in which “new” journalistic media forms auto-matically trumped “old” ones (Thorburn and Jenkins 2003, 3). Finally, given the layered andhybrid nature of the multimedia features resulting from these transitions, a great deal canbe learned about media convergence, in both the past and present, through textual analy-sis of the media products themselves (Fürsich 2009; Jacobson 2012).

Methodology

To conduct this study, I analyzed the six-year run of the Radio Photologues in theChicago Daily News by sampling monthly issues, stored on microfilm, of the Saturday photo-gravure section from 1924 to 1930. Efforts to locate recordings of the original broadcastswere unsuccessful, so I relied primarily on textual analysis of the printed component of

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the program (the Radio Photologue program page that appeared each weekend in thephotogravure section) as well as contextual and historical evidence to reconstruct its domi-nant features and themes. Given the ephemeral nature of the Radio Photologues and scantsurviving archival evidence, this combination of textual analysis of the printed componentand contextual analysis of the newspaper’s broader media strategy offered a way to unpackthe program’s mixed references to various media formats, technologies, and practices ofproduction and consumption of the era (Fürsich 2009, 249). This approach was also motiv-ated by a desire to strike a balance between heeding Fürsich’s call for more text-centeredanalysis in journalism studies while also attending to the “total system” (241) of the pro-duction, content, and reception surrounding a given journalistic text (Philo 2007).

By drawing parallels between the presence of multiple media influences in journal-istic texts from both the 1920s and the present, this study responds to calls from scholarsto expand the study of multimedia journalism beyond the oft-studied perspectives ofindustry, digital technology, and the newsroom (Mitchelstein and Boczkowski 2009; Steen-sen 2011). As Steensen (2011) has argued, studies of online journalism are typically guidedby a “techno-focus,” following technological novelty and its implications for industry at theexpense of employing alternative theoretical or historical lenses. Similarly, Mitchelstein andBoczkowski (2009, 576) warn of a tendency in online journalism studies to “overemphasizenovelty by failing to recognize historical antecedents and evolutionary paths of contempor-ary practices.” Thinking historically about multimedia journalistic texts is challenging notonly because of their ephemerality, but also because of the multiplicity of institutionaland cultural histories and communicative conventions that shape their production andreception. The audio slideshow, for example, is a digital multimedia format, produced byjournalists and Web producers, that combines elements of documentary photography,edited audio interviews, ambient sound and/or music, and written captions. The result isan animated, sequential, and audiovisual montage that has been likened to both radioand cinema (“We Create Cinematic Narratives” 2012).

Cultural histories of emerging media provide a backdrop to contemporary definitionsof convergence by calling attention to the “unsettled” and recombinant nature of mediaartifacts that appear in periods of technological change. Throughout history, innovationsin communication technology have tended to remediate, or refashion and pay homageto, the formats and conventions of existing media technologies and cultures (Bolter andGrusin 2000). Far from comprising swift “revolutions” in communication, transitions suchas the shift from hand-lettered manuscripts to moveable type in the fifteenth century, orfrom magic lantern to motion picture exhibitions at the turn of the twentieth century,yielded hybrid media products and transitional practices of production and receptionthat bore the imprints of both existing and emergent media cultures (Thorburn andJenkins 2003; Gitelman and Pingree 2004; Staiger and Hake 2009). Relatedly, theories ofintermediality have addressed how particular media forms are shaped by, and exhibitthe influences of, diverse elements of other media forms in the surrounding culture(Herkman 2012). Together, these perspectives suggest that rather than interpret today’smultimedia newspapers as signs that media are simply converging or “melting into eachother,” we might instead recognize them as artifacts of a much longer historical processin which different types of media merge, link, or overlap with each other, all the whileretaining distinctive characteristics of production, reception, and circulation related totheir respective forms (Herkman 2012, 370). While scholars have begun to call attentionto the ways in which twentieth-century newspapers experimented with new media and

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were shaped by the broader media ecology (Stamm 2011; Arceneaux 2014), evidencingtheir “entanglement in a series of relationships” with a surrounding and rapidly changingmedia landscape (Barnhurst and Nerone 2001, 289), more work can be done to illuminatethe richness and variety of this history—particularly by attending closely to the hybrid textsthat such experiments produced.

Mixing Media in the Early Twentieth Century: The Chicago Daily NewsRadio Photologues

Though now defunct, the Chicago Daily News was one of the highest-circulatingevening dailies in the United States in the early twentieth century (Abramoske 1966). Inthe 1920s, the paper adopted new forms of audio and visual technology in an effort toexpand its presence in Chicago’s boomingmedia market (“Continually First in Rotogravure,”Chicago Daily News, November 7, 1924; Dennis 1935). In 1922 it launched a radio station,WMAQ, and began broadcasting a range of programs including jazz performances, edu-cational lectures, and children’s stories over the airwaves (Caton 1951; Linton 1953)(Figure 1). Airing limited advertising, the station focused on providing “public service”content to listeners, with the hope that the respectability of the station would increasesales of the newspaper (Dennis 1935, 390–391; Stamm 2011, 36–37, 40). Within a fewyears, WMAQ became one of the leading pre-network stations in Chicago and developeddevoted listening audiences in places as far as New Mexico and Maine. In 1923, on theheels of inaugurating the radio station, the Daily News contracted a high-resolution

FIGURE 1A listener of WMAQ, the Chicago Daily News radio station. Chicago Daily News,January 27, 1923

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rotogravure press to print a photogravure section to accompany the paper each Saturday(Chicago Daily News, August 11, 1923). Like the radio station, the photogravure offeredreaders an engaging supplement to the news, consisting of several broadsheet pagescrammed with high-quality sepia images of local, national, and international events andmass culture novelties, with premium illustrated advertising mixed throughout.

While the rise of radio and rotogravure printing were each important developmentsin their own right, one of the most interesting changes occurred when the Chicago DailyNews began combining them in a novel way. In 1924, the paper launched a weeklyprogram called the Radio Photologues in an effort to both promote WMAQ and mobilizeits popularity to increase readership of the newspaper. Each Saturday, readers openedthe photogravure section to find a full page of images devoted to a particular travel desti-nation, such as Poland, the Island of Java, or the Canadian Rockies. They were invited totune their radio sets to WMAQ at a coordinated time in the evening, usually between 7and 8:30 o’clock, and listen as a lecturer, museum curator, explorer, or prominent travelernarrated over the airwaves the series of images they held in their hands. The photographsin the photogravure ranged from picturesque landscapes to postcard-like views of land-marks, wildlife, locals, and street scenes. Images were numbered in a sequence andarranged around an illustrated map of the region, which often featured a hand-drawnarrow indicating the itinerary that the lecturer would describe. A short textual blurb intro-duced the theme of the talk, followed by instructions on how to properly view the program,as well as a preview of the photologue that would air the following week. These featurescan be seen in the following description from a 1926 episode titled “Romantic Quebec,”which focused on the theme of French Canadian winter scenes:

Quebec, perhaps the leading winter sport center of America, will be visited in a RadioPhotologue tonight by Mr. T. J. Shaughnessy, Chicago lawyer who lived many years inthe French-speaking portion of the Dominion. Five times besieged, the city of Montcalmand Wolfe occupies a pre-eminent place in the hearts of patriotic Canadians. Have thispage before you and consult the map when Mr. Shaughnessy begins his talk at 8:30o’clock at the Daily News station WMAQ, broadcasting on a wave length of 447.5meters. The numbers are printed for your convenience in following the lecturer. NextSaturday evening, Mrs. Mary Hastings Bradley, African game hunter, will give a photologueon the Eastern Congo. (Chicago Daily News, January 2, 1926)

Not insignificantly, when readers viewed the photologue images, they were also greetedwith a prominent banner at the top of the page informing them that the program hadbeen registered by the Chicago Daily News with the US Patent Office.

All of these features—the live radio broadcast, the growing roster of exotic localesvirtually “visited” each week, and the Daily News’ promotional claims that it had justinvented “the latest development in radio entertainment” (Chicago Daily News, November14, 1924)—reflected the newspaper’s broader campaign to imbue both the paper and radiostation with an aura of cutting-edge technological sophistication in the diversifying medialandscape of the 1920s. Indeed, it is tempting to read the program as a forward-thinkinganticipation of landmark audiovisual entertainments that were just over the horizon,such as the synchronized sound-on-film technology that would debut in cinemas in1927, or the episodic home-viewing experience of television that was nearly twodecades away. While the program ended after six years [shortly before the National Broad-casting Company (NBC) bought WMAQ in 1931], its basic recipe of pairing radio broadcasts

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with pre-distributed sets of mass-produced images enjoyed widespread popularity throughmultiple spinoffs and imitations among other news and civic institutions.2 Within a year ofthe Radio Photologues’ debut, the Chicago Public Schools began receiving special audio-visual geography lessons from the Chicago Daily News on Friday mornings, with broadcastsdelivered by the children’s adventure author Roy J. Snell and visuals in the form of lanternslides shipped out by the newspaper. This newspaper–radio–school partnership also pavedthe way for an early multimedia extension of museums. The Buffalo Courier-Express workedwith museums in New York to create “Roto-Radio Talks,” combining rotogravure images offine art, architecture, and regional flora and fauna in the newspaper with radio lecturesdelivered by local curators and historical societies. As late as the 1940s, radio stationslike the Cleveland Board of Education’s WBOE still produced variations on the Radio Photo-logues for schools, substituting slides for newspaper images and hailing the technology asan innovative educational broadcasting tool that was “just short of television” (Myers 1927,435; Ramsey 1938, 194–199; Horton 1946; Griffiths 2007, 74).

But despite the program’s apparent foreshadowing of later audio-cinematic or tele-visual technologies, it is important to recognize that at the time it was understood as anextension of a major metropolitan newspaper and a reflection of the existing mediaculture that surrounded newspapers in the early 1920s. The following sections trace howthe Radio Photologues drew structure and meaning from these surrounding forms, particu-larly travelogue slideshows, magazines and popular visual culture, early radio program-ming, and motion pictures. Mixing and mobilizing elements of these recognizable mediaformats in an attempt to give the program coherence and place the Daily News on the van-guard of information delivery and respectable entertainment, the Radio Photologuesprovide a useful historical comparison point for the convergent features of today’sdigital journalism landscape. The Daily News’ attempt to synchronize radio broadcastswith newspaper images resulted in a hybrid media format that is striking in its resemblanceto the multimedia features (often referred to as “multimedia packages”) that have become astaple of online newspapers today, particularly audio slideshows. This similarity invites arecalibration of claims that multimedia journalism is a challenge unique to twenty-first-century newsrooms or that it represents the “future” of journalism. As much as convergedtexts in digital newspapers may be harbingers of future developments of journalism, theyare also markers of a deeply experimental and intermedial past.

Travelogue Slideshows and Illustrated Lectures

Of the various popular media formats and technologies that the Radio Photologuesrefashioned or remediated to appeal to readers in the 1920s, the program was most clearlycast in the mold of the travelogue slideshow. Since the late nineteenth century, illustratedlectures about travel were a popular theatrical amusement for upper- and middle-classaudiences in the United States and Europe. In the travelogue tradition, itinerant pro-fessional lecturers used magic lantern projectors to dazzle audiences with exotic imagesand anecdotes of foreign people and faraway lands. While film historians have notedthat the format gradually lessened in popularity with the ascent of motion pictures, inthe 1920s it continued to command large audiences in urban areas (Barber 1993).

When the Radio Photologues appeared in the Chicago Daily News in the fall of 1924,audiences would have known to interpret the program as a newspaper adaptation of a tra-velogue for several reasons. In addition to focusing exclusively on travel themes, the name

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“Radio Photologues” straightforwardly indicated that the program would be a travelogue,or “travel talk,” presented through a combination of radio and photographs. Furthermore,the images in each photologue appeared in a numbered sequence, and came with instruc-tions urging the reader to move their gaze from one picture to the next as the lecturerspoke, thus approximating the linear presentational practices associated with the theatricalslideshow format. Third, the photologue page in the photogravure always featured a statelycutout or portrait of the lecturer, borrowing the promotional rhetoric of the theatrical tra-velogue to cast the talk as a virtual “picture journey” that would be “guided” by the voice ofthe experienced traveler.

This strategy is evident in “The Great Temple of Angkor Wat,” one of the first RadioPhotologues to air (Chicago Daily News, November 8, 1924). It was delivered by EdithOgden Harrison, a regionally renowned author of travel stories and wife of formerChicago mayor Carter Harrison, Jr. The Harrisons had just returned from a celebratedyear-long journey to Southeast Asia, making Mrs. Harrison a particularly legitimate andhigh-profile figure to inaugurate the Daily News’ radio–newspaper talks. On the photologuepage that appeared in the photogravure section (Figure 2), Mrs. Harrison is pictured as anelegantly dressed cutout superimposed over images of a Cambodian monastery and theMekong River. Smiling and grasping a bouquet of flowers, she is positioned as if at stageright, poised to narrate the images on a screen. Another link between photologue and tra-velogue is forged in the caption, which introduces Mrs. Harrison as “Speaker of the Evening,Photographed on her Return from the ‘Lands of the Sun.’” Through these visual and textualstrategies, the Daily News aligns Mrs. Harrison with the most celebrated of travel lecturers,and injects the Radio Photologue program with a sense of high-class theatricality, liveness,and spectacle associated with traditional travelogues (Barber 1993, 74).

While this simulation of the travelogue slideshow was certainly a novel feature to findin the pages of the Chicago Daily News, it was not the first time that the paper had mobi-lized this popular medium to enhance its relevance to modern, upwardly mobile audiences.The Daily News editor, Victor F. Lawson, had been aware of the popular appeal of illustratedtravel lectures since at least the late 1890s, when Chicago was embracing its newly cosmo-politan identity in the wake of the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893. At that time, thelecturer E. Burton Holmes, who would eventually coin the term “travelogue,” had justlaunched a lucrative career (which would last well into the 1950s) by offering publiclantern slide lectures at the Chicago Camera Club (Barber 1993, 79). Recognizing Chicago-ans’ growing appetite for worldly images and information, Lawson saw an opportunity forthe newspaper. In the early 1900s he created a citywide “illustrated lecture” series and pro-moted it as a free public service sponsored by the Chicago Daily News. The lectures werehosted in public schools and other civic spaces across the city and were delivered by vol-unteer lecturers using prefabricated, mail-order slides and scripts researched and written byDaily News journalists. As one of many city improvement campaigns sponsored by thenewspaper in the Progressive Era, the aims of the lecture series were ostensibly morecivic than financial. But its popularity as a respectable form of Friday-night entertainmentsucceeded at endearing the Daily News brand to large numbers of Chicago residents(Dennis 1935, 228–229).

This early off-the-page media experiment by the Chicago Daily News—and the RadioPhotologues in that were evidently inspired by it years later3—reveal a pair of interrelatedtensions that are still relevant to the world of multimedia journalism today. First, it is notclear exactly what kind of benefit these “supplemental” extensions of the newspaper

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brought to the Daily News in terms of sales or readership. The Daily News approached boththe citywide lecture series and the Radio Photologues as a public service that would boostthe paper’s image as a progressive, civic-minded source of information and cultural uplift.But as Spigel (1998) has shown in her history of early television, the “public service” label inAmerican broadcasting would, by midcentury, become increasingly synonymous withmarket-oriented brand-building and public relations. Despite the fact that the Radio

FIGURE 2The printed component of the Radio Photologue program featuring Edith OgdenHarrison. Chicago Daily News, November 8, 1924

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Photologues constituted one of only a few advertisement-free pages in the Chicago DailyNews photogravure, the program was clearly motivated by broader financial concerns atthe newspaper, particularly the question of how it could maintain its preferential statuswith consumers who enjoyed increasing choice in their sources of information and enter-tainment. Indeed, the Daily News’ emphatic promotion of the Radio Photologues, coupledwith efforts to court advertisers for the rest of the photogravure section, suggests that thenewspaper’s historic “public service” mindset, while still strong in the 1920s, was increas-ingly indistinguishable from its self-interested public relations strategy (Chicago DailyNews 1926).

A second and related tension is one that has also been a perennial issue for the news-paper industry from the late nineteenth century to today: the balancing of entertaining andeducational content. Through the production of both the citywide lecture series and theRadio Photologues, the Daily Newsmanaged to present itself to consumers as a technologi-cally advanced source of not only worldly information but audiovisual amusement. By offer-ing a combination of exotic views and digestible anecdotes about world cultures andhistory, the newspaper was able to draw a sharp distinction between itself and a host ofnewfangled media attractions, particularly movies, which were then widely regarded ascheap, mindless, and “low-brow” entertainments. As Stange (1989, 292) and Gitelman(2004, 162–163) have observed in their studies of late nineteenth-century lantern slide-shows, lectures, and technological demonstrations, these sorts of respectable, bourgeoisvisual attractions enjoyed enduring popularity among American audiences because theyfulfilled multiple cultural needs. Illustrated travel talks provided not only edifying, butalso entertaining and excursionist experiences for a growing middle class that cravedgreater geographic and social mobility. By reaching readers through the emergentmedia of the radio and illustrated newspaper, the Radio Photologues invited dispersedaudiences to feel part of an “imagined community” of similarly world-minded andmedia-savvy people (Anderson 2006).

Magazines and Popular Visual Culture

The Chicago Daily News had long prided itself as being a paper that offered some-thing for everyone, with a professed goal to “inform, enlighten, and entertain” theaverage American reader (Schudson 1979, 99). But in the exploding mass media cultureof the early 1900s, the kind of content needed to fulfill this pledge was evolving quickly.In a 1924 letter to a fellow newspaper editor, Victor Lawson wrote that there was agrowing need for newspapers to provide “fun,” a commodity that differed from themedium’s traditionally literary “humor”:

Humor in a newspaper is, of course, to be desired, but fun, I take it, is even more to bedesired, simply because it appeals to more people in any popular newspaper circulation… One-third of your readers will smile at the humor, but two-thirds will laugh at the fun.(“Letter to Mr. R. E. Stout, Managing Editor of The Kansas City Star” 1924)

One of the most obvious ways that the Daily News sought to inject “fun” into the paper wasthrough the addition of comic strips. But the photogravure section also provided a newplatform from which the paper could present itself as a source of modern leisure, fun,and visual amusement. While the main text of the Chicago Daily News tended towardsgreater organization in this period (Barnhurst and Nerone 2001), the photogravure

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offered a weekend escape from that orderliness with a dazzling hodgepodge of popularcultural images and visual curios. The defining feature of the photogravure was its “attrac-tive sepia finish” that resulted from the rotogravure printing process, producing images inrich tones of brown and grey-green that were more akin to the pictures of magazines thanthe grainy halftones of the daily newspaper. Influences of magazine culture were alsovisible in the photogravure’s layout. The pictures were formatted in varying shapes, fromdetailed cutouts to ovals and rectangular frames, and were layered in a dense collageacross several broadsheet pages.

Compared to the “newsy” and informational focus of the main paper, the photogra-vure celebrated popular culture and visual variety, with subjects ranging from movie starsto political figures, travel scenes, animals, sports, works of art, children, transportation, tech-nology, and architecture. While many of the pictures were selected for their “originality,human interest, and beauty,” a great deal were simply goofy, such as the picture of apuppy riding on the shell of a tortoise or a baby dangling in a pair of long johns hungfrom a clothesline (Chicago Daily News, November 8, 1924; November 5, 1927). For extravisual pop, the top half of the front page of the photogravure always featured a large,blown-up image, such as an action shot of a dramatic football play or an arresting aerialview of Chicago’s lakefront. It is important to note that the photogravure was designedto be wrapped around the outside of the main paper on Saturdays, so this enlargedfront-page image was the first thing that readers would see when collecting their paperfrom the doorstep or passing by a newsstand (“Letter to Mr. Strong” 1924). In theseways, the image-laden photogravure began to overtake the traditional textual logic ofthe newspaper on the weekends, swapping the typical draw of the headline with themodern, magazine-like appeal of the visual.

But more than simply appealing to readers’ eyes with rich visuals, the photogravurealso extended an invitation to readers to engage and interact with the newspaper in dis-tinctive ways. The layering of photos evoked not only a magazine but a personalizedscrapbook, with bright lines surrounding the images in a manner that would havemade it easy for users to clip and repurpose the pictures for their own collections(Tucker, Ott, and Buckler 2006).4 In another effort to engage with readers, the DailyNews built anticipation for the release of the first photogravure section in the fall of1923 by hosting a photography contest in the weeks leading up to its debut. In whattoday might be called an early effort to collect user-generated content, the Daily Newsencouraged readers to submit their snapshots for cash prizes and the chance toappear in the inaugural photogravure issue. For the first several Saturdays of the photo-gravure’s run, the pages were dominated by impressive shots sent in by readers from allparts of the United States. The winning pictures included vacation views from locales asdistant as France and China, as well as images of readers performing adventuresomeactivities like hunting, driving, swimming, or riding horses.

By launching the photogravure with this eclectic mix of clippable, collectable imagesand reader-submitted content, the Daily News created an eye-catching and playful counter-balance to the guarded, gated, and “hard news” domain of the traditional newspaper. Itblurred the lines between producers and consumers in a way that is becoming increasinglycommon today with interactive and user-generated news features. Also by emphasizingtravel, mass photography, and other consumer fads, the photogravure boosted the DailyNews’ image as the medium of choice for modern, technology-savvy, fun-loving, and geo-graphically mobile audiences.

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Early Radio Programming

The radio broadcasting station offered an entirely new channel through which theDaily News could depart from the seriousness of the main newspaper and engage withaudiences in a more entertaining way. But the management’s desire to strike a balancebetween educational “public service” content and entertainment continued to hold swayover WMAQ programming throughout the Daily News’ stewardship of the station until1931. One of the most widely cited reasons for the station’s success in the early 1920swas its diversity of programming and combination of “high” and “low” entertainments,though it is difficult to discern how much of this was intentional and how much of itresulted from the fact that the station struggled to fill the programming schedule andwas open to virtually any kind of on-air performance. Judith Waller, the original stationmanager of WMAQ, admitted to stopping “just short of kidnapping” vaudeville players,actors, hotel orchestras, boy scouts, and glee clubs to get them to donate their talent tothe Daily News airwaves (Caton 1951, 79). The majority of the planned and promotedcontent, however, strove to come off as both entertaining and instructive, but alsowidely accessible. After conducting a survey of WMAQ audiences in 1925, the Daily Newswas confident that “the public does not want to be merely amused and entertained, itdoes want to be instructed” (174). But when the paper announced that university lectureswould be broadcast over WMAQ, for example, it prefaced the schedule with the reassur-ance that “none of the talks will be of the so-called ‘high-brow’ variety” (130). With a mixof classical and jazz music; dramatic readings; “uplift talks;” children’s story hours;musical geography lessons; and how-to tutorials on driving, cooking, child-rearing, andeven lawn care, WMAQ’s initial programming was an early training ground for the “mid-dlebrow” radio and “edutainment” media that would flourish on network radio in the fol-lowing decades, and which remains a mainstay of newspapers’ art, lifestyle, andentertainment sections today (Rubin 1992). Such programming aimed to appeal tobroad audiences by entertaining them while catering to their desires for self-betterment.

But striking a balance between educational and entertaining content on the air-waves was difficult, and this tension carried over into the Radio Photologues program.Appearing within the photogravure section, the program strove to add an extra elementof adventure to the newspaper on the weekends, and promised to take readers on avirtual “picture journey” that would be as entertaining and escapist as it was enlightening(Chicago Daily News, March 15, 1925) (Figure 3). But for every lecture titled in a way thatpromised to deliver some thrills, such as “Hunting the Kodiak Bear,” or “Australia: FrontierLand of Opportunity,” there were countless others that simply offered staid, by-the-bookportrayals, with titles like “Russia,” “Finland,” or “Iowa.” Despite the Daily News’ claimsthat the Radio Photologues were a form of entertainment (November 14, 1924), textualclues within the photogravure images suggest that the program made little room for sus-tained narrative. In most episodes, there are no close-ups of people who might serve ascharacters, aside from the obligatory portrait of the lecturer. Instead, views are touristicor textbook-like. They privilege architecture, landscapes, landmarks, street scenes,animals, and curious artifacts like folkloric costumes or coins. Most talks lasted 20minutes and covered between 12 and 20 images, each with a sizeable fact-ladencaption averaging about 50 words. Thus, for all of the Daily News’ attempts to portraythe Radio Photologues as a modern Saturday night entertainment, the lectures were, byall appearances, densely informational.

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One radio lecturer recognized this problem and sought to find a solution that wouldbroaden the appeal of radio talks and place them on par with other rising mass entertain-ments of the time. Austin H. Clark was a curator of zoology at the Smithsonian and animpassioned advocate of radio’s ability to educate and uplift the masses. After deliveringradio talks for independent stations in the 1920s, Clark became concerned that the edu-cational potential of radio was increasingly being jeopardized by the rise of radio networks,serial programs, and comedy shows. In 1932 he penned an essay for Scientific Monthly thatwas a rallying cry to radio lecturers everywhere, and included a direct address to those whoparticipated in radio–newspaper collaborations like the Radio Photologues. Clark enumer-ated a series of entertainment and narrative techniques that lecturers could employ in theirtalks to add the “color” that was needed to grab the attention of modern, potentially dis-tracted listeners:

In radio talks the personal touch is always of the greatest importance … In historical talksall the individuals mentioned should be adorned with the halos—or the horns and clovenhoofs—which the passage of time has conferred upon them … Talks on distant regionspopularly supposed to be wild are most effective if they are presented as dialoguesbetween the traveler and a young lady with a voice that sounds as if she were verypretty, who asks more or less silly questions … The development of the essential“come to me” quality in the feminine, and the “here I am” quality in the masculine,voice requires practice. (Clark 1932, 354–355)

Clark’s recommendation of vivifying radio talks through characterizations of good versusevil and masculine versus feminine tropes evidences the mounting pressure that boreon producers of programs like the Radio Photologues in the late 1920s and early 1930sto maintain audiences’ attention not merely with spectacular images or curious facts, but

FIGURE 3Residents of a Chicago nursing home listen to a Radio Photologue broadcast whileviewing the corresponding images in the Chicago Daily News photogravure. Thisimage, which appeared in the following week’s photogravure to promote the RadioPhotologues, suggested that the program offered a listening–viewing experience whichcould be enjoyed either privately or communally. It also gives a sense of theprogram’s intermediality, blending elements of a live travelogue lecture with the moreindividualized, tactile activity of reading a newspaper or viewing stereograph images(Chicago Daily News, March 15, 1925)

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with an entertaining and well-crafted story. Indeed, the Radio Photologues’ lack of narrativemay have been one of the reasons why the program did survive the transfer of WMAQ toNBC in 1931. One program that NBC did pick up, it is worth noting, was the wildly popularentertainment feature that the Daily News had been broadcasting since 1928: Amos ’n’Andy.

There is some evidence, though, that as the Radio Photologues evolved in the late1920s, the program occasionally employed bolder and more sophisticated narrative tech-niques. This may be a reflection of not just the Daily News’ need to compete with the rise ofnetwork radio programming, but the growing pressure on travelogue producers to stayabreast of new trends in travel cinema. The Radio Photologues aired during a period ofrapid growth in the genre of travelogue films. According to Benelli (2006), the traveloguefilms of the late 1920s and 1930s showed an increasing tendency to balance the tradition-ally informational and realist “documentary” style, as in Robert Flaherty’s Nanook of theNorth (1922), with a more narrative-oriented structure involving characters, plot, and Holly-wood studio techniques, as in Trader Horn (1931). A 1927 Radio Photologue episode called“The Romance of the Rhine” showcases a similar tension between information and narra-tive, as it sets up an intriguing opposition between the “pleasure-loving folk” of the contem-porary Rhineland and the region’s violent past:

Before the days of Charlemagne the Rhine was a boundary between warring tribes. Oftenthe streams ran with blood and Bards sang the brave exploits of rival knights. The historicriver and the many stories that cluster about its banks and castle battlements will bedescribed tonight in Radio Photologue by Ferdinand Oudin, who will point out thehappy aspects of this region of “Gemuetlichkeit,” which is the German word for friendlyhospitality and good will [sic]. (Chicago Daily News, November 5, 1927)

Despite this intriguing lead-in, the photologue was unsurprisingly restrained in terms ofvisuals, featuring the same familiar mix of realist views of landscapes and locals that hadappeared in prior lectures. Based on the textual evidence available, it is unlikely that theRadio Photologues ever matched the narrative power of some of the adjacent radio pro-gramming or their filmic competitors, though they may have tried to emulate it in subtleways.

Cinema Culture

The ongoing difficulty of balancing entertaining and educational content in radio lec-tures, however, does not imply that the Radio Photologues or the Chicago Daily News failedentirely at emulating or aligning with the appeal of the mass entertainment world. Interest-ingly, the photologue page that appeared in the weekly photogravure was always immedi-ately followed by a full page of pictures featuring stars (mostly starlets) from the stage andthe silver screen. Compared with the museum-like, exotic displays of the photologue page,these high-drama images of costumed actors and actresses, frozen in close-ups or grand-iose poses, complemented the Radio Photologue in an arresting way, as if to suggest thatcelebrities were a different but equally important kind of worldly icon. Following the high-minded content of the radio talk, this page filled with pictures of popular entertainmentsand sex symbols offered a kind of visual reprieve. Devoted exclusively to mass entertain-ments, the page was also interspersed with multiple product advertisements—for evening-wear, makeup, radios, and amateur cameras—that created a lively commercialistic contrast

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to the educational, advertisement-free “public service” zone of the photologue page. Thus,if the newspaper used the Radio Photologues to take readers on an immersive and edu-cational virtual voyage, the rest of the photogravure provided them with a series ofmore instantly digestible visual pleasures that emphasized sexualized beauty, lifestyle,fashion, and consumption.

In all, the Radio Photologues bear the impressions and influences of a number ofpopular media formats that surrounded newspapers in the 1920s, particularly travelogues,magazines, and uplifting radio talks. Through their layout, structure, and narrative and spec-tacular elements, the Radio Photologues arguably keyed into a variety of other popularmedia practices, including scrapbooking, amateur photography, and cinema culture.Overall, the Daily News’ emphasis on sensory stimulation and variety in its experimentswith new media, particularly in the radio programming and the photogravure section,appears to have been an effort to bring the newspaper into closer alignment and compe-tition with a host of modern amusements from early mass culture. While the ostensible aimof the Radio Photologues program was to draw readers into a disciplined, bourgeois stateof concentration for the duration of the radio lecture, the range of visual attractions fea-tured on either side of the photologue in the photogravure section, and the spectrum ofaudio pleasures that bracketed the radio broadcast on WMAQ, invited the reader to lendtheir ears while letting their eyes wander.

In this way, it is not far fetched to read the Radio Photologues as a reflection of yetanother popular media form: the variety format of early twentieth-century cinema. Byencouraging readers to take in a mix of travelogues, news, sports, local images, musical per-formances, and Hollywood scenes through combinations of high-resolution images andlive sounds, the Chicago Daily News approximated the basic structure and multisensoryexperience that was increasingly becoming the purview of the movie palace. By offeringa multimodal mix of diversions to enrich the act of reading the Saturday newspaper, theDaily News enjoined readers to employ what Friedberg calls a “mobilized virtual gaze”associated with cinema (Friedberg 1993; Schwartz 1995).5 It invited readers to sit, leafthrough its pages, tune the radio dial, and be stimulated into a state of immersive andvirtual mobility by the montage of images and sounds that it served up each week.

Conclusion: Converging Media in Journalism from Radio Photologues toAudio Slideshows

The Chicago Daily News’ Radio Photologues and related media experiments in theearly twentieth century highlight the challenging position that newspapers have histori-cally occupied between traditions of journalistic information delivery, on the one hand,and a fast-changing market of novel media technologies and audiovisual attractions onthe other (Molina 1997; Mitchelstein and Boczkowski 2009). The Chicago Daily News wasone of several papers to experiment with rotogravure printing and radio broadcasting asa way to supplement, and drive up sales of, its original product: the newspaper. Theseexperiments can also be seen as a form of brand extension—producing new forms ofcontent on different platforms to take advantage of emerging technologies of informationtransmission and compete with rival content producers (Stamm 2011). As such, the RadioPhotologues can serve as a historical reference point for present-day investigations into therise of converged journalism in the digital era. They demonstrate the tricky balance thatnewspapers have long attempted to strike between traditions of news delivery and

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adaptation to novel technologies, and between informing and entertaining consumers in aclimate of multiplying and converging media options.

One of the most striking contemporary parallels to the Radio Photologues can befound in the audio slideshow, a multimedia format that has been produced by severalmajor newspapers including the New York Times, the Guardian, and the Chicago Tribunesince the early 2000s. Audio slideshows are hybrid media artifacts that are often cited asexemplary products of twenty-first-century converged journalism (Lillie 2011; Jacobson2012). They consist of a stream of digital photographs sequenced to a recorded audiotrack, itself usually a mix of first-person narrative and ambient sounds or music. Part photo-journalistic slideshow, part audio and cinematic documentary, the audio slideshow pre-sents images in a linear sequence, sometimes displaying captions, when the user clicks“play.” Since Web producers began developing the format in the late 1990s and early2000s, the audio slideshow has been widely adopted by reporters, photojournalists, andjournalism schools in an effort to reach readers in more engaging ways as newspapersmigrate online.

Despite being a prominent feature of the online news landscape, the status of theaudio slideshow as a legitimate journalistic media format remains unclear. Producershave variously hailed it as a breakthrough technology for telling stories on the Web anddiscounted it as a passing fad or a slapdash substitute for video. Like the Radio Photolo-gues, the audio slideshow is a novel, hybrid, and “unsettled” format that is viewed bysome as the salvation of journalism in the digital age and by others as an inadequate tech-nology that will not withstand the undulations of the digital media market. In another par-allel with the Radio Photologues, the audio slideshow is perhaps less understood as amedium in its own right than it is as an amalgamation of other, more recognizablemedia forms, such as radio journalism, photo slideshows, and video. The online multimediastudio MediaStorm, for example, describes its audio slideshows as “cinematic narratives”put to the service of journalism (“We Create Cinematic Narratives” 2012). When surveyedin 2009, a group of Web journalists listed the defining traits of a quality audio slideshowas “NPR-quality audio,” a “documentary sensibility,” and a story told in the subject’s ownvoice. When audio slideshows contain these ingredients, they noted, the format has thepotential to make “an emotional connection” with readers and thus give the digital news-paper an edge over the dry “reporter narrative” of traditional newspapers or local televisionnews (Lillie 2011, 359–361). Yet despite these apparent strengths, one writer at the BBCCollege of Journalism observes that some see the format as too hybrid, registering withreaders as “neither one thing nor the other: something less than video while tainting thequality of audio” (Marsh 2010). Indeed, with many newspapers moving towards video pro-duction in the last few years, even the staunchest supporters of the audio slideshow havebegun to doubt its staying power. The format may very well be, as Lillie (2011, 362) puts it, amere “bump in the convergence highway.”

When analyzed together, the Radio Photologues and the audio slideshow are instruc-tive not only as signs of projected “futures” of journalism, but also as indexes of existingunderstandings of the tangled, converging relationships between media conventionsand cultures in moments of widespread technological change. This article has attemptedto demonstrate that through textual and contextual analysis of the hybrid and ephemeralmedia objects produced by media institutions like the newspaper, we can arrive at anenriched historical view of the convergence process and the intermedial relationshipsthat bear on journalistic production in the past and the present. If history is any guide,

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these sorts of transient, intermedial forms will continue to surface in journalism, invitingclose readings to make sense of how they document and relate to the dynamic media land-scape around them.

Some may argue that the ephemerality and marginal status of objects like the RadioPhotologues or the audio slideshowmake them less important to discussions of media con-vergence than more dominant or longer-lasting media forms, but I would maintain that theopposite is true. As Gitelman and Pingree (2004, xiii) observe of history’s so-called “dead”media, “Even the most bizarre and the most short lived are profoundly intertextual, tanglingduring their existence with the dominant discursive practices of representation that charac-terized the total cultural economy of their day.” This intermedial, hybrid, and unsettlednature of multimedia objects in newspapers makes them particularly charged documentsof the broader shifts in a fast-changing, ubiquitously mediated culture. Their tendency toemerge and fade away in times of technological change, such as the rise of mass mediain the early twentieth century or of digital media at the turn of the twenty-first century,makes them readable as evidence of both the enticing journalistic possibilities openedup by new technological affordances and the weighty influences of existing media formsand practices in journalism and media culture at large.

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

There are no financial interests or benefits arising directly from the publication of thisresearch.

NOTES

1. Gordon (2003) provides a useful history of the concept of convergence in journalism,tracing its evolution through the technological changes associated with computingsince the 1960s.

2. I am grateful to Jacob Smith for bringing to my attention another application of radio–newspaper collaborations from the 1930s to the 1950s: dramatized radio readings ofnewspaper comics. See the “Comic Weekly Man,” “Club Car Special,” and “ComicParade,” in the Old Time Radio Catalog (https://www.otrcat.com, accessed July 2015).

3. The Radio Photologues were reportedly an innovation of Ellis Prentice Cole, a Chicago-areaphotographer, artist, and lecturer who had traveled extensively in the American West tocapture stereopticon images for newspapers and public lectures since the early 1900s(City Club of Chicago 1925, 7, 91).

4. For evidence that photogravure sections of newspapers were understood as material thatreaders could clip and add to their scrapbooks, see “The Red-breasted Grosbeak” (ChicagoDaily Tribune, June 3, 1928, Picture Section).

5. In her study of turn-of-the-twentieth-century visual culture, Schwartz argues that thenewspaper made a unique contribution to the cultivation of the modern, mobilizedgaze that would later become associated with cinema. Newspapers linked news narrativeswith rich visual advertisements and references to urban amusements, serving as “a printeddigest of the flaneur’s roving eye” (Schwartz 1995, 298).

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Katie Day Good, Department of Media, Journalism and Film, Miami University, USA. E-mail:goodkd@miamioh.edu

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