Effect of Self-Instructional training and Attribution retraining on the perfrance of mathematical problem-solving on boy students with

intellectual disability

Ashoori M.(M.Sc.)1, Jalil Abkenar S.(M.Sc.)2*, Pourmohamadrezatajrishi M.(Ph. D)3, Moosavy Khatat M.(M.Sc.)4, Ashoori J.(Ph. D)5

Abstract

Objective: This study compare the effectiveness of Self-Instruction training and Attribution retraining on the perfrance of mathematical problem-solving on boy students with intellectual disability in secondary schools (3rd grade) Tehran Province. Method: The experimental method by pre-test, post- test with the control group was used in this study. Fourty five (3rd grade) boy students with Intellectual disability from tree junior high school were participated in this study. The samples were chosen by cluster method. After random assignment of students in both experiment and control groups, for students of experimental groups were used Self- Instruction training and Attribution retraining in the 8 sessions instruction and the control group students did not provide a method in the same sessions. The Wechsler intelligence test was used for matching the groups in terms of IQ and also a teacher made tests mathematical problem-solving were used for measuring the mathematical problem-solving perfrance of students. The data was analyzed by using descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, frequency charts and tables) and ANCOVA and post hoc of Tukey test . Results: Analysis and comparison data of ANCOVA showed that there was a significant in mean of score mathematical problem-solving test in Self-Instruction training and Attribution retraining and control groups(P<0/001). The post hoc of Tukey test showed that score pre- test mathematical problem-solving test Self-Instruction training group was more than of Attribution retraining group. Conclusion: On the base results, Self- Instruction training compare with the Attribution retraining cause the improvement perfrance of students with intellectual disability in the mathematical problem-solving.

Key word: Intellectual disability, mathematical problem-solving, Self- Instruction training, Attribution retraining

11- Ph.D. Student of Educational Psychology, Azad University, Roudehen Branch, Psychology Department, Roudehen, Iran. (Email:ashorimohamad@yahoo.com)2*2- M. Sc. Of Psychology and Exceptional Children Education- University of Social Welfare & Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran. 3 - Ph. D. Of Psychology and Exceptional Children Education. Faculty of University of Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences.4- M.Sc. Of Rehabilitation Management, University of Social Welfare & Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran 55- Ph. D. Student of Educational psychology, Azad University, Sciences and Research Branch, psychology Department, Esfahan, Iran*Coresponding Address: University of Social Welfare & Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran. *Tel: 09127918424*Email:haneye_00@yahoo.com

IntroductionThe people who have significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior and their problems was created before age 18 will be referred to intellectual disability (1). This group of people About 2 to 3 percent of a community. In most communities, these people were instructed like normal people, but they are not successful in learning. The failure of these students to the special features (such as short-range of attention, memory and language problems) and also it relate to the teaching (2). The attention to cognitive knowledge and education of students with intellectual disability, i.e., they do not mind a good way to benefit from normal education because the reasons specific, the signs are of progress and culture of any society in system of education. the effort to identify and planning educational facilities are effective steps for students with intellectual disability in achieving the excellent goals of the education system(3). Students with intellectual disability are lower than of the same ages students in various aspects of academic performance, for example, this student have disturbances in attention, memory, language and information processing (4). Individuals with intellectual disabilities, because they cannot use memory strategies spontaneously to maintain and preserve information, have problems to identify situations or activities that contribute to the learning and memory so They are disabled in use pattern or again repeat them and also to transfer information to short –term memory and from short-term memory to long-term memory (5). If these students receive supports special training, could be acquired some levels of skills, as well as normal peers (6). One of the skills that has intimately relation with memory and learning is mathematical learning, because the observation, measurement, analysis, inference, comparison, and predicted that a communication system, helps to obtain the precise understand of data and models and arguments. Problem solving individuals need to the problem analysis, evaluation of specific information, knowledge organization, to evaluate the practical program before implemented and evaluated. These behaviors were not limited only to the knowledge thinking and organizing, and also these related revised of plan and evaluate of the results (7). One of the problems that focused in learning problem solving students with intellectual disability are their disability in regulation of mental performance for access to true responser, problem solving need the complex activities to students achieved to appropriate solution (8). Any what level of thinking is the deeper, memory problems intellectual disability students will be more than normal students, in other words, any what is the memory task more complex for the intellectual disability likely will be faced with the more problems. Since the failure in learning of calculus lesson (Learning of problem solving) cause complications such as school problems and self-concept poor and may even lead to depression and absenteeism from school and escape from the school, so the need to appropriate design educational methods to improve skills and compensatory academic skills has especially important for intellectual disability students. In many cases the causes of

disability, students in problem solving, is wrong teaching, therefore, different educational proposals are presented by experts, in recent years emphasized with teaching the aim of promoting and encouraging of self- instruction in education skills among students (9). Self- instruction to assist students with intellectual disability in organizing of thinking patterns, self-assessment, learning behaviors, and self-consciousness(10). The basic aim of self- instruction, is that learners in to independent individualist at conduct in their cognitive processes and learning toward specific objectives for the monitor and modify (11). Self- instruction is based on a set of methods to students educate in gaining of control over the task of learning and self- instruction use for self-leadership in problem solving. Self- instruction are used in a wide range of academic skills. Evidence shows that of programs based on self- instruction are effective in learning improving on intellectual disability students (12).In this educational programs are used wide range of skill areas, including academic skills (such as reading and math), classroom behaviors(eg, selective behavior attention toward task), emotional skills (such as Cause attribution) and social skills (13).Self- instruction focuses on teaching a set of self- guiding instructions on how to do a task ,While emphasis the review and coordination of activities to help students. Self - instruction a set of modeling and exercises that involve the following steps:1) cognitive modeling2) External guide reveal3) self- guiding reveal4) lowering self- guiding5) latent self- instruction (14).In comprehensive studies, the research have done on self-learning methods at different ages and different domains. Osborn (2002), with attention on researches that have done about the effectiveness of learning strategies and study, is believed that could be instructed to be students, various teaching strategies that helped them to learning and thinking act self-conscious and in dealing with different learning tasks and variety academic problems to be used of educational strategies(15). Molly and et al (2005), have done many studies about the effectiveness of using self- instruction students their research confirms that is important learning how to use strategies, these strategies, facilitates acquire of knowledge and skills and also knowledge organization in the individual(16). Results of research Brayant (2000), Teong(2003), Wiltz(2003), Slavin (2006 ) have been confirmed to the positive effects of increased use of mathematical problem-solving skills and enhance motivation for learning in students with learning disabilities(17, 18, 19, 20). Montague (2000) in their studies about the impact on self- instruction in mathematics problem solving performance of students with dyscalculia said students that had benefited from instruction of self- instruction had better performance to the peer(21). Ramezani (2000) has done research to evaluate the effectiveness of cognitive strategies and metacognition (based self- instruction) in learning problem solving of add and subtract in 9 th Grade students he in this study is used from cognitive reading strategies, the outstanding of important points, illustration and write of the problem answers to mathematical language and from metacognitive strategies based on self- instruction technique. Results showed that cognitive strategies and instruction of self- instruction have

been impact in quantitative and qualitative improvement of learning and problem solving and also continuity of learning(22). Adamzade (2001) in his study showed that self- instruction, were impacted in the writing treatment of students with learning disabilities. In this study metacognitive strategies based on self- instruction was taught to the experimental group during the 35 session in the 5 stage. Findings showed that self- instruction has been significant effectiveness in improving thewriting expression students(23). Mesrabady (2003) was showed research the effectiveness of cognitive and metacognition instruction (self- instruction) on reading speed, retention and understanding of the various texts. After performing and instruction strategies in the experimental group in 20 meeting the result was showed increased retention and understanding of the experimental group. Attribution instruction is an intervention approach that its aim is to understand students' motivational problems in learning. This approach can be analyzed students attribution theories about their success and failure in school(24). Attribution instruction program designed for instruction of students that their motivational patterns are inappropriate in their success and failure (25). The aim of attribution instruction is change in attribution style undesirable of students; This means that students who attributed their fail to the own low abilities, to learn to change their desirable attribution, which means that attributed the failure to lack of effort and success to enough effort to do. In fact, this instruction should be gave a realistic understanding of the individual's ability to them (26). One of the characteristics of individuals with intellectual disability, is low motivation and confidence, so that people with intellectual disability may be facing a lot of anxiety in the face of learning opportunities. Experiences of failure and anxiety in various situations, lowers their motivation and if failure experiences in a long time to be repeated, leading to learned helplessness and this children to be dependent on external resources and reinforcement, thus motivation reinforcement to be considered an important component in the instruction these children(5). Motivation poor of students with intellectual disability effect on the academic achievement of these students. Most students with intellectual disability stopped a work when faced with a tasks that is beyond their ability and prefer not to involve in the problem. They attribution causes of their successes and failures to external factors than they have so many problems in education. The aim of attribution reinstruction is identify the causes of success and failure of students and change their way of thinking about the failures and successes cause attributions (27). Many factors involved in success and failure of students. One of them is how to attribution, meaning that their motivation is to reduce false attribution. A theory is of cognitive theories of motivation, which its aims study of a way that people determine, and causal relationships between them (28). Should be noted that the success as to the ability, increases self-esteem and makes much expected in a person, to achieve further success and this increases probably that students dialed the next assignments with greater interest, in while the failure attribution for does not attempt makes in a person, in an motivation for more efforts. On based the above analysis, it is assumed that the change in the inappropriate causal perception students of their success and failure, improved their academic performance (29). Anderson (1983) that with changed and correction attribution styles, can make to change motivate and performance of them from way people instruction in the field of failure attribution to flexible factors such as lack of effort or weak or wrong strategy, you can create higher levels of motivation (30). Hybatollehi (1994) in research done about students

attribution style according to academic success and failure and gender based learned helplessness model, he was using from the child attribution style questionnaire (CASQ) examines the style of their attribution and results of study showed that the students failed attribution is closer to explain the depression-like style(31). Mahmoudi (1999) done the study about Cognitive of attribution styles in the successful and unsuccessful students in Tehran, on secondary school and attribution reinstruction of unsuccessful students examined. He concluded that unsuccessful students attribution, their failure to internal factors and with stable and attribution instruction to this group of students lead to changes the style of thus improve their academic performance(32). Dehghani (2007) evaluated the effectiveness of metacognitive strategies and attribution instruction on the problem solving of students with dyscalculia in the fourth grade primary school boy in the city of Isfahan. After performing the tests and determine the control and experimental groups, the experimental group during the 8 sessions, were instruction and learning strategies, overall findings suggest that instruction of metacognitive strategies and attribution instruction is positive affection the problem in the student with dyscalculia. The results of research's done in the field of instruction of self- instruction strategies and attribution reinstruction of students with learning disabilities, indicate on the effectiveness of these strategies in this group of students(33). Considering the level of mental growth students with intellectual disability 3 to 4 years later than their normal peers to reach the level of abstract thinking, and also motivational problems this students related with success and failure on academic performance. These problems have adversely affect the results of their performance. the question is whether instruction of self- instruction strategies to the students with intellectual disability in compare with attribution reinstruction lead to improve the performance of their mathematical problem solving?From the research was conducted to infer the intellectual disability students in instruction learning strategies and be used of causal appropriate attribution have problems and instruction this skills lead to improve of their academic performance, seems to be that research comprehensive in this area and is not paid compare the effectiveness of this instruction. So the assumptions made in this study include:

1 - Instruction of attribution reinstruction has effect on mathematical problem solving performance in the intellectual disability students.

2 - Instruction self- instruction has effect on mathematical problem solving performance in the intellectual disability students.

Method

Population, sample and Method of sampling

In this study population had formed of intellectual disability boys students 9th grade in the city of Tehran province had form in the 2010- 2011 year. To select the subjects was used of multi-stage cluster sampling; three cities were selected of between the cities of Tehran, and a school of the city, and also from each school, 15 boy students with intellectual disability. Due to the uses of experimental research methods is appropriate size for each group, 15 individuals (34). Exitence criteria of study were IQ between 60 to 70 and of any additional

disability only intellectual disability. The groups matched with IQ (the intelligence test Wechsler for children 6 to 16 years, 11 months and 29 days) and age they by the way randomly into three groups (two experimental groups and one control group) groups were assigned to control and the experimental by the way randomized. Wechsler intelligence test were used data collected form children (for the math group) and tests 0f the mathematical problem solving in two parallel forms. Tool:

1 - Wechsler Intelligence Test-Revised from Children: This scale was developed in 1949 and was revised in 1974 and 1986, Consists of 12 subtests and provides three IQ score: 1) verbal IQ, 2) nonverbal IQ, and 3) total IQ. To determine validity, Shahim (1993) Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale compared with this scale. The correlation coefficients between verbal, nonverbal, and total IQ scale were 0.84, 0.74, 0.850 and median the reliability coefficients of this test is obtained 0.73 (35). Before assigning students to experimental groups and control group were used the Wechsler intelligence test to be the same level of students in each group. 2- Test of mathematical problem solving in two form of parallel: These tests based on mathematical problems solving in the 9th grade from the math book is written for intellectual disability. The test consists of two parallel forms A and B, which is in the 2010- 2011 school year by the Department of Mathematics, was designed by collaboration with experienced teachers. To investigate the validity of these two parallel forms of problem-solving test were used from content validity of criterion-related tests and perspective of three teachers in this lesson. By the way that every question used in three class, useful or usefulness or necessary. By the evaluator. According to the scores mean that judges have gave to any question, that question eliminate or confirm (if two of the judges to evaluate the usefulness a question, that question will be deleted) (36). Validity coefficients obtained for the first test form equal 0.94 , and for the second test form was equal 0.91. To determine the reliability (reliability coefficient for criterion-related tests) were used from method of the experts agreed, therefore tests answers were corrected by three independent evaluator. the correlation between scores of different evaluator grades were considered reliability index. Any what agreement between evaluator is more the reliability coefficient is more, The reliability coefficient first and second form of testing were 0.87, 0.93(36). 3 – Instruction of self-instruction package: With studding background of researches (internal and external research) related with instruction of self- instruction strategies who have been effective to the, learning of problem-solving in students with learning disabilities, in this study was used from the method of proposed by Harris and Graham (1994) used was (37). 4 - Attribution reinstruction package: This package includes instruction of Attribution reinstruction programs, that it has developed by Golparvar (2009)(38).

Methods

This study is type of experimental studies that was used the pretest - posttest with control group. In this research, after from a randomly selected schools, was receive a letter for enter to schools from Tehran's city exceptional education management. After from expression the importance of the research project for manager and consultant of each school, students selected random and also assignment to experimental and control groups. This study was performed after consent obtained students parental participating in research and took cooperation of the students. For assessment problem solving ability provide two parallel forms after were calculated reliability and validity of tests. Investigator in the first instruction stages of self- instruction and attribution reinstruction to selected teachers in the experimental groups (teachers was selected with educational experts of the mathematical lesson. This three teachers were similar in the way of math teaching, characteristics and educational background), a teacher of self- instruction group was familiar with the stages of self- instruction and teacher of attribution reinstruction group were aware of stages of attribution reinstruction but teacher of control group weren’t instruction. Issues of time o'clock and money was selected from of the math book students with intellectual disability in 9th grade. According to the budgeting and goals of each part was needed the eight 45-minute session for research.

Steps:

A) The pre-test in three groups.

B) Provide the independent variables in experimental groups

The content of instruction sessions for group instruction of self- instruction: First session: to familiarize students with the instruction of the self- instruction and its application. The second and third session: implementation of stages, problem solving that including: reading, recitation or interpretations of problem by own language, image processing, the process of hypothesis, guess and review. Fourth session: cognitive models with clear external guidance by the teacher Fifth session: cognitive models with clear self- guidance by the teacher Sixth session: teacher and student collaboration, which is divided into three steps:

1. patterned with a loud voice2. forming the patterned with a quiet voice3. patterned without sound

Seventh session: self-guidance of surface: the student alone will do the provided assignment and teacher note the mistakes . Eighth session: the student should be able to, without the express of instructions to solve the problem (i.e., students should give back by the inner speech).

Retraining sessions, the content of instruction sessions for group attribution reinstruction:

First session: students familiarize and learned objectives and outcomes of programs, terms and concepts in the curriculum content. Second session: Explain the relationship between a specific event, beliefs and thoughts about the event and various behavioral and emotional consequences of the event (students with a variety of relationships between concepts and instruments are introduced) Third and fourth session: the content in these instruction sessions are completely related and complement each other. After reviewing the assignments of students to tell them that there are four reasons and we usually related success and failure in our assignments to that reasons. This causes called causal attribution for function that include:

1. ability2. effort

3. hard or easy task

4. luckFifth session: directly questioning the student's attribution. Using in this part used for modeling by showing images by instructor and image prepared to introduce a variety of attributions. Also in this section, students are given tasks to solve, this meant that during the tasks associated with them so finally the students accept that may their attributions are not suitable therefore they can by change their attributions are influence the own assignments. The sixth and seventh sessions: the content in two sessions are completely related and complement each other. During these sessions, attribution reinstruction implementation completely and thus is to help the students until in the process solve their math assignments, each other of the attributions that previously was considered negative, and on their performance negative effect, the replace with one of appropriate attributions with the help of logical arguments, and finally accepted of voluntary. Eighth session: last session includes reviewing the content of education curriculum of attribution reinstruction provides a description for the students until encouraged to learn and to follow up their tasks. It should be noted that control group received none of the instruction and was instructionthem problem solving the only as usual method.

C) performing the post- test in each three groups.

Stages of the research implementation are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Stages of research implementation

Groups Pre-test

instruction of self- instruction

instruction of attribution reinstruction

post-test

Self- education * * No education * Attribution reinstruction

* No education * *

Control * No education No education *

Results

In order to analyze the data was used, descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, variance) and inferential statistics (analysis of covariance and post hoc Tukey test) and SPSS software. For determine the effect of self-instruction and attribution instruction on the performance of students with intellectual disability in mathematical problem solving was used analysis of covariance. In a pre-test of mathematical problem solving did not differ significantly between experimental and control groups (Table 2). But after the instruction of self- instructionattribution reinstruction significant difference in post-test scores experimental group than the control group (Table 2). According to table 2 the control group in the post-test of mathematical problem solving had less achievement than the experimental group that expression of the instruction.

Table 2. Mean and standard deviation of the math problem solving experimental and control groups at pre-test and post-test

Groups Position

Average

Standard deviation

Self- instruction pre-test 3.6 1.02 post-test 17.5 0.87

Attribution reinstruction

pre-test 3.7 1.36 post-test 14.48 1.13

Control pre-test 3.5 1.36 post-test 13.40 1.23

Research Question: Instruction of self- instruction students in compare with attribution reinstruction lead to improve the performance of their mathematical problem solving? To answer this question, test scores of problem solving a math were analyzed using analysis of covariance. Result of analysis of covariance to determine effect of group membership on problem-solving test scores, are presented in table 3. In this analysis, with variable of pre-test is controlled because the correlation with post- test. According to table 3, the group has had a significant effect on test scores (p<0.001). With considering the Eta squared can said that 73% the impact of these changes is for group intervention program. Because there are three groups in this research, for comparison mean scores groups, after adjusting effect pre-test was used of Tukey post hoc test to determine are there differences of mean scores between how the groups. Table 3. Mean scores post-test a math problem solving by using analysis of covariance Source

of SS df SD F p-value Eta squared test

power Pre-test 0.443 1 0.443 0.366 <0.549 0.009 0.091

Group 135.952 2 67.97 56.126 <0.001 0.732 1 Error 49.657 41 1.21

Total 45

10514.688According to table 4, can understand that post- test scores math problem solving in the self- instruction after the group had significantly more than attribution instruction group (p<0.001). So to answer of the question is this research is positive. First hypothesis: instruction of attribution reinstruction has effect on mathematical problem solving performance in the intellectual disability students. According to table 4, The difference between these two groups is a significant (p<0.001). Second Hypothesis: instruction self- instruction has effect on mathematical problem solving performance in the intellectual disability students. According to table 4, the difference between groups is a significant (p<0.03).

Table 4. Tukey test results for compared post- test scores of math problem solving in a three groups (self- instruction, attribution reinstruction and control groups ) Target Group compared Group The

mean difference

Standard error

p-value

self- instruction attribution reinstruction 3.05 0.398 <0.001 Control 4.10 0.398 <0.001

attribution reinstruction Control 1.05 0.398 <0.03

Conclusion Analysis of covariance results (Table 3) showed that there are solving math in three groups significant differences between post-test scores of math problem solving. therefore, can be concluded that attribution instruction and self -instruction have a positive effect in improve of performance intellectual disability students in mathematical problem solving. Tukey post -hoc test (Table 4) also determined that instruction of self -instructionmore impact than the attribution reinstruction on the performance of mathematical problem solving. The results this study is consistent with results of the studies , Brayant (2000), (2001), Desoete (2001), Elisabeth (2003), Harris and Graham (2003), Bashavrd (2000) based on instruction of self -instruction and also is consistent with research Hybatollehi (1994), Mahmoudi (1999), Chapin and Dyke (2002) and Forsterling (2004), Dehghani (2007) and Golparvar (2009) that base on impact of attribution reinstruction on improving the academic performance of student in different groups(17, 11, 8, 12, 39, 37, 31, 32, 30, 26, 33, 38). Tukey post hoc test results in Table 4 showed that test scores of math problem-solving in instruction of self- instruction group had has more impact math than the attribution reinstruction group. The results indicate that development of learn skills lead that students related their succeed and achievement to the own learning and understand that for the own efforts. The first teachers in instruction of self- instruction used of the modeling process of thinking aloud voice with by way openly gradually students learned to use the model. Therefore they alone and without supervision, are controlled on their mental processes. Process of instruction to intellectual disability students with considering to the limitations of mental and intelligence these students, including repeated applications of educational materials and provide programs with the emphasis on memory. So instruction that to be able to pay the educational objectives is effective on the learning skills enhance students.

instruction of self- instruction is form programs that can improve memory problems of these students (40). Bandura (2001) believe that, students learning strategies and their attribution styles are associated each other. Attribution styles refers individual difference variables such as personality and motivation(41). Weiner (2000) believes that students have attention ability, effort, hard and luck as the main causes of the academic results(25). In particular, students that related academic achievement with their personal efforts. better use of learning strategies and processes are issues deeper. During instruction, the intellectual disability students that through each step to success on their ability to trust and this will lead to positive results in their academic performance. So can said that in instruction of intellectual disability students is The first step awareness increase of their ability that improve their attribution style and direct impact this awareness is important on the attribution style. By examining the performance mean of math problem solving in the pre-test and post- test of control group and attribution instruction group understand differences these two groups is on instruction effect. The results indicate that instruction of attribution reinstruction lead to change of the attribution style in the students. which means that if students their fail related with to do not enough try of and external factors of the unstable, for achieve to success had done more efforts that This lead to more confidence in them. Chapin and DykeForsterling (2004) believed that lack of knowledge of the role of attribution styles lead to the students are passive in learning(30, 26). If we instruction students to control of the thinking style, remarkable achievement will have in the instruction. With analyses the pre-test and post- test scores mean on math problem-solving in two groups of the self-instruction and attribution reinstruction to the conclusion that use of thinking skills help to acquisition and preserve basic math facts Thus, without direct instruction of learning strategies intellectual disability students, they often do not use these strategies. While those students who have learned these strategies have shown high performance on mathematical problem solving test, reality has that students with high self-instruction skills to better do the math problem solving (42). To summarize the results in this study will support the important role that learning theories give to instruction attribution and use of learning and study strategies. Instruction of learning and study strategies make important and significant achievements in science use and control math problem solving strategies in the intellectual disability students. Results of this study have a useful hints for all parents and educators in the education system in relation by how learning and attribution styles forming in the students . Any type behavior that creates this belief in students that their academic success is not related to themselves and others in this success have been effective, leading they to be passive. Therefore are not use more effective strategies in their study and learning and would not have deeper learning, learning process and academic achievement in the limit of expected. So to create awareness in parents and educators relation with create core inner beliefs of success in their children and emphasis on role of beliefs have the great effect improving behaviors and academic performance of students. According the study results suggest that effectiveness of the first instruction of self -instruction and attribution reinstruction analysis simultaneously and in different groups of student with special educational needs and compared their results on the different groups. In addition give important to examining the role of gender in instruction. For coincided with the

implementation of the classroom for students, instruction sessions were compressed, time of study was limited and then during the instruction sessions were not provided an opportunity for follow-up test. In addition, teachers are not sufficient familiar with methods and length of time that was spent on teacher instruction were, including restrictions that existed in this study.

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