Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology
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Transcript of Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology
Introduction to
Anatomy & PhysiologyHeadings
Vocabulary
Important Info
•Anatomyoscience of
structureorelationships
revealed by dissection imaging techniques
•Physiologyoscience of body
functions
Clinical Observational Techniques•Palpation
ofeel body surface with hands pulses and breathing
rates
•Auscultationolisten to body sounds
with stethoscope abnormal fluid in lungs
•Percussionotap on body surface and
listen to echo air in intestines
Levels of Organization
•Chemical
•Cellular
•Tissue
•Organs
•System Level
•Organismic Level
Levels of Structural Organization•Chemical Level - atomic and molecular level
•Cellular Level - smallest living unit of the body
•Tissue Level - group of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together on one task
•4 basic tissue oepithelium
omuscle
oconnective tissue
onerve
•Organ Levelogrouping of 2 or more tissue types into a recognizable structure
with a specific function.
•Organ Systemocollection of related organs with a common functionosometimes an organ is part of more than one system
•Organismic Level - one living individual.
Interactions of Body Systems•Example: Integumentary System & Skeletal System
oSkin produces vitamin D needed for CA absorption and bone
growth
oBone marrow produces cells which help the skin resist
infection.
Life Processes•Metabolism = sum of all
chemical processesobreakdown of large
molecules into small obuilding new structural
components (proteins)oproviding chemical energy
for cells
•Responsivenessodetect & respond to changes
in internal or external environment
osome typical responses muscle contraction, electrical
signals, hormone or glandular secretion
•Movement oany structural levelobody, organ, cell or cell
component
•Growthoincrease in number or size
of cells or the material found between cells
•Differentiationospecialization of cells
for a specific functionostem cells give rise to cells
that specialize
•Reproductionoformation of new cells or
new individuals
Autopsy•Postmortem examination of body by dissection
•Purposeoconfirm or determine
cause of deathosupport findings of
other testsoprovide info on effects
of drug usageoeducate healthcare
studentsoreveal congenital defects
Homeostatis•Maintaining the internal
environment within physiological limits (internal balance)
•First described by French physiologist, 1813-1878
•Process named by Walter Cannon, 1871-1945
•Exampleoblood glucose level is kept
within narrow range 70-110/100ml
Homeostasis of Body Fluids•Delineation of fluid compartments
•Intracellular Fluid (ICF) = w/i cells
•Extracellular Fluid (ECF) = o/s cells
Intercellular Fluid = tissue fluid =
interstitial fluid
Plasma = fluid portion of blood
•Composition of fluids change as substances move between compartments
onutrients, oxygen, ions and wastes move in both directions across capillary walls
Control of Homeostasis•Homeostasis is continually
being disrupted by:oExternal Stimuli
intense heat, cold , and lack of oxygen
oInternal Stimuli psychological stresses exercise
•Disruptions are usually mild & temporary
•If homeostasis is not maintained, death may result
Neural and Endocrine Controls•Maintaining a controlled
conditionosensory receptors detect change
in a monitored variableonervous system and/or endocrine
system responds
•Ex: Control of blood gas leveloexercise increases blood CO2
levelsosensory receptors detect changeonervous system increases heart
and breathing rates to remove excess CO2
oadrenal gland releases epinephrine to increase heart and breathing rates
Components of Feedback Loop•Receptor omonitors a controlled condition
•Control Center odetermines next action
•Effectororeceives directions from the
control center
oproduces a response that changes controlled condition
Negative & Positive Feedback Loops•Negative Feedback Loopooriginal stimulus reversed omost feedback systems in the body are negativeoused for conditions that need frequent adjustmentobody temperature, blood sugar levels, blood pressure
•Positive Feedback Loopooriginal
stimulus intensifiedonormal childbirth
Homeostasis of Blood Pressure•Pressure receptors in walls of
certain arteries detect an increase in BPoBlood Pressure = force of blood on
walls of vessels
•Brain receives input and signals heart and blood vessels
•Heart rate slows and arterioles dilate (increase in diameter)
•BP returns to normal
Positive Feedback during Childbirth
•Stretch receptors in walls of uterus send signals to brain
•Brain releases hormone (oxytocin) into bloodstream
•Uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully
•More stretch, more hormone, more contraction etc.
•Cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease in stretch
Homeostatic Imbalances•Disorder = abnormality of function
•Disease = homeostatic imbalance with distinct…oSymptoms: changes in body function felt by patient such as nausea oSigns: changes in body function that can be observed by doctor
such as rash or fever
•Diagnosis: skill of distinguishing one disease from another
•Epidemiology: how disease is transmitted
•Pharmacology: how drugs used to treat disease
Basic Anatomical Terminology
•Regions of the body
•Anatomical position
•Anatomical planes, sections and directional terms
Anatomical Position
•Standardized position describing directional termsostanding upright
ofacing the observer, head level
oeyes facing forward
ofeet flat on the floor
oarms at the sides
opalms turned forward
•Prone Position = lying face down
•Supine Position = lying face up
Common Regional Names
•Clinical terminology based on a Greek or Latin root word.
•Fill in worksheet to help remember the terms
She is standing in the Anatomical Position
Planes & Sections
•Plane: imaginary flat surface that passes through the body.
•Section: one of the 2 surfaces (pieces) that results when the body is cut by a plane passing through it.
Sagittal Plane•Sagittal Plane
odivides the body or an organ into left and right sides
•Midsagittal Planeoproduces equal halves
•Parasagittal Planeoproduces unequal halves
Other Planes and Sections
•Frontal or Coronal Planeodivides the body or an organ into front
(anterior) and back (posterior) portions
•Transverse or Horizontal Planeocross-sectional
odivides the body or an organ into upper (superior) or lower (inferior) portions
•Oblique Planeosome combination of 2 other planes
Planes and Sections of the Brain(3-D anatomical relationships revealed)
•Horizontal Plane
•Frontal Plane
•Midsagittal Plane
Major Directional Terms
Superior & Inferior•Dorsal or Posterior
oBack of the bodyoBrain is posterior to the
forehead.
•Ventral or AnterioroFront of the bodyoSternum is anterior to
the heart.
•Superior
oTowards the head
oEyes are superior to mouth.
•Inferior
oAway from head
oStomach is inferior to the
heart.
•Dorsal & Ventral
Medial or Lateral•Medial
onearer to midline of bodyoHeart lies
medial to lungs
•Lateralofarther from midline of bodyoThe thumb is on the lateral
side of the hand.
•Proximalonearer to attachment of the limb
to the trunkoThe knee is proximal to the
ankle.
•Distalofarther from attachment of the
limb to the trunkoThe wrist is distal to the elbow.
Proximal or Distal
•Brain is posterior to the forehead.•Eyes are superior to mouth.•Stomach is inferior to the heart.•Sternum is anterior to the heart.•The knee is proximal to the ankle.•Heart lies medial to lungs
•The wrist is distal to the elbow.•The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand.
Dorsal Body Cavity•Near dorsal surface of body
•2 subdivisionsoCranial Cavity
holds the brain formed by skull
oVertebral or Spinal Canal contains the spinal cord formed by vertebral
column
•Meninges (system of membranes) line dorsal body cavity
Ventral Body Cavity•Near ventral surface of body
•Visceral Organs (viscera): A group of internal organs housed in the ventral cavity
•2 subdivisions
oThoracic Cavity: above diaphragm
oAbdominopelvic Cavity: below diaphragm
•Diaphragm = large, dome-shaped muscle
•Organs called viscera
•Organs covered with serous membrane
Abdominopelvic Cavity
•Inferior portion of ventral body cavity below diaphragm
•Encircled by abdominal wall, bones & muscles of pelvis
Thoracic Cavity
•Encircled by ribs, sternum, vertebral column and muscle
•Divided into 2 pleural cavities by mediastinum
•Mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except lungso"middle" section of the chest cavity
Mediastinum
•Area behind the breastbone
•Midline wall of tissue that contains heart and great vessels, esophagus, trachea and thymus.
Serous Membranes•Thin slippery
membrane lines body cavities not open to the outsideoparietal layer lines
walls of cavities (outside)
ovisceral layer covers viscera (internal organs) within the cavities
•Serous fluid reduces friction
Pleural & Pericardial Cavities
•Visceral Pleura: clings to surface of lungs
•Parietal Pleura: lines chest wall
•Visceral Pericardium: covers heart
•Parietal Pericardium: lines pericardial sac
Peritoneum
•Visceral Peritoneum --- serous membrane that covers the abdominal viscera (organs)
•Parietal Peritoneum --- serous membrane that lines the abdominal wall
Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants
•Describe locations of organs or source of pain
•Tic-tac-toe grid or intersecting lines through navel
Medical Imaging•Allows visualization of structures without
surgery
•Useful for confirmation of diagnosis
•Examples of imaging techniques
Conventional Radiography•A single burst of xrays
•Produces 2-D image on film
•Known as radiography or xray
•Poor resolution of soft tissues
•Major use is Osteology: study of bones
Computed Tomography (CT Scan)
•Moving x-ray beam
•Image produced on a video monitor of a cross-section through body
•Computer generated image reveals more soft tissue detailokidney & gallstones
•Multiple scans used to build 3D views
Digital Subtraction Angiography(DSA)
•Radiopaque material injected into blood vessels
•Before and after images compared with a computer program
•Image of blood vessel is shown on a monitor
Ultrasound (US)•High-frequency sound waves
emitted by hand-held device
•Safe, noninvasive & painless
•Image or sonogram is displayed on video monitor
•Used for fetal ultrasound and examination of pelvic & abdominal organs, heart and blood flow through blood vessels
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)•Body exposed to high-energy magnetic field
•Protons align themselves relative to magnetic field
•Pulse of radiowaves used to generate an image on video monitor
•Can not use on patient with metal in their body
•Reveals fine detail within soft tissues
Positron Emission Tomography(PET)
•Substance that emits positively charged particles is injected into body
•Collision with negatively charged electrons in tissues releases gamma rays
•Camera detects gamma rays & computer generates image displayed on monitor