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POST HARVEST HANDLING OF FOOD CROPS IN A

CHANGING CLIMATE: AN OUTLOOK ON FOOD

RESEARCH IN IAR&T

Ashaye, Olukayode Adebayo (Ph.D)

Institute of Agricultural Research &Training

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ibadan

Being a Lead paper delivered at the 2018 Annual In-House Review

Exercise of the Institute of Agricultural Research &Training , Moor-

Plantation Ibadan

April, 2018

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The Executive Governor of Oyo state, The Vice Chancellor (Obafemi

Awolowo University), The Executive Secretary ARCN, Director of the

Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Dean Faculty of

Agriculture, Provosts-Federal colleges of Agriculture and colleges of

Animal Health and Production Technology, Managers of the ADP,

Professors, Heads of Programmes and Units of the Institute,

distinguished scientists, Gentlemen of the Press, Ladies and Gentlemen.

It is a great privilege to be called upon to deliver this year In-house

review lead-paper of the Institute, I feel humbled. I sincerely thank the

management under the leadership of Prof J.A. Adediran, the Executive

Director of the Institute and I also wish to thank all those that are present

here.

The bed rock of a progressive economy is not unconnected to sufficiency

in food production and availability. The clarion call is Food sufficiency,

but what do we have in the nation today? an array of backlashes in food

sufficiency due to climate change and lopsided handling of foods at

postharvest stages. The overdependence on oil based commodities had

rewritten the economy of this nation from developing to about to spring

up from the cradle. There is therefore a need to revisit the gloominess in

our Agricultural sector in order to proffer solution that would make

Nigeria great again.

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As a food scientist with an attendant thrust in food processing and quality

control and having a fundamental passion to reduce post harvest losses,

my wealth of experience coupled with stints in post harvest programmes

at University of Ibadan, Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel,

Wageningen University and Research in Netherlands and Universidal

Nacional Agraria-La Molina Peru will in no small way create awareness

and proffer possible solution to post harvest losses of foods in Nigeria.

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INTRODUCTION

The accessibility to quality, nutritious, and safe food to meet the demands of

a growing global population is one of the grand challenges of our time. With

a projected global population increase from more than 7 billion in 2012 to 9

billion in 2050, it is estimated that food production must increase by more

than 70% to meet future demand. However the problem of climate change

may pose a set back to this projected food production.

Climate change is one of the most serious environmental threats facing mankind

worldwide. Much of the research on global climate change and the impact on

food systems focuses on the effects of climate change on agricultural

production—such as the impact on land use, pollution and biodiversity—at the

expense of post-harvest value chain issues such as storage, processing and

packaging. The effect of climate change on postharvest value chains cannot be

ignored in Nigeria. This is not unrelated to different reports of annual huge

amount of food losses along the post harvest value chain. For example, higher

temperatures as a result of climate change will reduce shelf-life of stored

products while lower temperatures will extend the shelf-life. This will have

serious post-harvest implication on all crops, especially perishable foods which

easily spoil with increases in temperature. Furthermore, the proliferation of

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pests and crop disease can increase due to temperature increases and pose a

great threat to effective storage which may cause constraint in food quality and

security. The resultant effect may lead to cases of Protein-Energy Malnutrition

(PEM) and the various micronutrient deficiency disorders including vitamin A

deficiency (VAD), nutritional anemias due to deficiencies of iron, folic acid and

vitamin B12, and iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) which remain important

public health problems. PEM, VAD and IDD have profound consequences on

growth and mental development of children; apart from its damaging

consequences on the eye (xerophthalmia and night blindness), it is a major

contributory factor to the high rates of child and maternal morbidity and

mortality. It is estimated that about 50% of perishable food commodities

including fruits, vegetables, roots and tubers and about 30% of food grains

including maize, sorghum, millet, rice and cowpeas are lost after harvest.

Based on the above evidence, it is clear that there is a need to address the effects

of climate change on storage, processing and packaging of agricultural products.

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CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change, also called global warming, refers to the rise in average surface

temperatures on Earth due primarily to the human use of fossil fuels, which

releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the air. The gases trap

heat within the atmosphere, which can have a range of effects on ecosystems,

including rising sea levels, severe weather events, and droughts that render

landscapes more susceptible to wildfires with concomitant adverse effect on

agricultural production. This is evidenced in the tropics, particularly Nigeria, by

the overall trend in the maximum and minimum temperatures increasing. It

creates shifts in rainfall patterns leading to floods as well as droughts with poor

and unpredictable yields. Pests and crop diseases migrate in response to climate

variation and pose a potential threat to the agricultural system and could trigger

pre and post-harvest losses. (FAO, 2011, FAO 2013)

POST HARVEST

Postharvest begins when the process of collecting or separating food of edible

quality from its site of immediate production has been completed. The food

must be separated from the medium that produced it by a deliberate human act

with the intention of getting it to the table. The post harvest ends when the food

enters the mouth (Aworh, 2005, Ashaye , 2009)

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Effect of climate change on crop quality

What we have released into the atmosphere in the form of carbon pollution is

affecting what‘s happening on the ground and what we eventually consume.

The critical negated scenarios that occur on our crops as a result of increased

carbon pollution are

As atmospheric CO2 levels rise, plant quality declines.

The surge in this greenhouse gas triggers changes in the composition of

plants‘ leaves, stems, roots, fruits and tubers.

The natural sugar-to-nutrient ratio is disrupted.

Increased CO2 increases plants‘ carbohydrate content but diminishes

other vital nutrient levels.

CO2 emissions could lead to an 8 percent drop in mineral content, on

average; protein content in rice could drop 8 percent and 6 percent in

wheat

Between 1950 and 1999, riboflavin content in crops dropped by a margin

of 38 percent.

Protein content of major food crops is very likely to decline significantly

as atmospheric CO2 concentrations increase to between 540 and 960 parts

per million

Rising CO2 levels are very likely to lower the concentrations of essential

micro- and macroelements such as iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium,

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copper, sulfur, phosphorus, and nitrogen in most plants (including major

cereals and staple crops).,,,,,

An increase in dietary carbohydrates-to-protein ratio can have unhealthy

effects on human metabolism and body mass ( Olayemi, 2016)

Climate change and stored foods

In stored food ecosystems there are complex interactions between abiotic and

biotic factors including pest immigration and emigration and changes in

inter‐granular atmosphere. Poor postharvest storage management can lead to

significant dry matter loss and accumulation of mycotoxins. (Magan et al.,

2011). Thus, there is a need to consider the potential impacts that climate

change may have on this ecosystem. Grain silos for example can harbour pests

which could multiply more rapidly under elevated temperature producing more

metabolic water. The resultant increase in condensation and wet pockets can

initiate spoilage mould activity with the possibility for increased contamination

with mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A, aflatoxins and perhaps trichothecenes in

damp grain. The potential for increased spontaneous heating of such stored

products may well be exacerbated under such conditions.. The potential for new

emerging mycotoxins may also increase.

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Bacterial populations and sudden decline in the nutritional properties of foods

can also increase during food storage as a result of prevailing changes in

humidity and temperature.

Climate and weather extremes, such as flooding or drought, can reduce water

quality and increase the risk of pathogen transfer during the handling and

storage of food following harvest. (Atanda et al 2011)

Climate change and Nutrition

Changes in climate factors, such as temperature, precipitation, and extreme

weather are key drivers of pathogen introduction, food contamination, and

foodborne disease

The impact of climate on nutrition occurs through multiple pathways. Changes

in air and water temperatures, weather-related changes, and extreme events can

shift the seasonal and geographic occurrence of bacteria, viruses, pests,

parasites, fungi, and other chemical contaminants. For example:

Higher temperatures can increase the number of pathogens already

present on produce.,

Sea surface temperature is directly related to seafood exposure to

pathogens

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Precipitation has been identified as a factor in the contamination of

irrigation water and produce,,,, which has been linked to foodborne illness

outbreaks.,

Changing environmental conditions and soil properties may result in

increases in the incidence of heavy metals in the food supply.,,

While sufficient quantity of food is an obvious requirement for food security,

food quality is essential to fulfill basic nutritional needs. Globally, chronic

dietary deficiencies of micronutrients such as vitamin A, iron, iodine, and zinc

contribute to ―hidden hunger,‖ in which the consequences of the micronutrient

insufficiency may not be immediately visible or easily observed. This type of

micronutrient deficiency constitutes one of the world‘s leading health risk

factors and adversely affects metabolism, the immune system, cognitive

development and maturation—particularly in children. In addition, nutritional

deficiencies of magnesium, iron, selenium, and other essential micronutrients

can occur in overweight and obese individuals, whose diets might reflect

excessive intake of calories and refined carbohydrates but insufficient intake of

vitamins and essential minerals.,,,

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Interactions of Rising CO2 and Climate Change on Nutrition

(Carrington, 2014)

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Climate change and food packaging

Food Packaging Roles and Materials

The principal roles of food packaging are to protect food products from outside

influences and distribution damage, to contain the food, and to provide

consumers with ingredient and nutrition information. Traceability, convenience,

and tamper indication are secondary functions of increasing importance. The

goal of food packaging is to contain food in a cost-effective way that satisfies

industry requirements and consumer desires, maintains food safety, and

minimizes environmental impact.( Ashaye, 2011)

Package design and construction play significant roles in determining the shelf

life of a food product. The right selection of packaging materials and

technologies maintains product quality and freshness during distribution and

storage. Materials that have traditionally been used in food packaging include

glass, metals (aluminum, foils and laminates, tinplate, and tin-free steel), paper

and paperboards, and plastics (Aworh, 2010, Osunde 2008, Fasoyiro et al 2010)

¨ Packaging is optimal, if it fulfills the service expected, in a favorable way, for

both the producer and the consumer; while using the least amount of material

and energy

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¨ Apart from the protective function, packages have a very important

intermediate role in modern marketing. Being a link between production and

consumption, the package carries a message from the producer to the consumer.

The overall negative image of packages derives from their relatively high

percentage in the household waste. This, however, indicates rather the level of

consumption than overpackaging. Packages are never made for themselves. The

major basis of its existence is the delivery of the product to the consumer

Types of packaging materials

Plastics have the most negative image, albeit of being lightweight and sturdy,

thus giving the advantage of maximal service with minimal resource use. It is

especially true for composites, which combine several materials for better

protection, while using minimal amount of the individual materials. Plastics and

composites are optimal packaging materials, and can therefore, be considered as

environmentally preferable. If their utilization and disposal are closely

monitored

¨ Paper uses a renewable source, thus can and will continue to be used widely

for packaging purposes. On the other hand, recycling of paper requires fossil

sources, because of transportation demand, and reprocessing.

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The use of glass for packaging is popular in the country because of its easy way

of handling and the method of packaging. It also a common fact that these

bottles are reuseable...

Aluminium, for its light weight, and the high savings offered with its recycling,

can also be an effective packaging material

The expansion of steel use in packaging is restricted to a narrow horizon of

goods, such as perishable food (fish, meat, vegetables, fruits). Considering their

lightweight, and the expansion of other packaging materials usage, the

percentage rate of steel use may probably decrease.

The use of refill packages, and other specific packages such as vacuum

packagings, aseptic packagings, which offer longer shelf-life is expected, to

further promote an ever higher service.

The use of big packs could also spread, they can be used just for such products,

which have a long life, and are frequently in use. The danger of bigger packs is

that the product looses its quality during the long storage, and finally will be

discarded, thus resulting higher wastage than what was saved with packaging

material. Another problem is their higher weight, difficult handling and larger

space requirement

Reclamation of packaging wastes from the highlighted packaging materials is

an accepted way of reducing the packagings‘ environmental impacts.

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Reclamation, and in particular recycling, however, are also industrial activities,

and have resource demand, and result emissions. Recycling could increase

green house gases (GHG).

Present trend in post harvest handling of foods in Nigeria

The capacity to reduce food loss and enhance its aesthetic appeal is directly

related to the level of technological development and variability in climate. The

slow progress in upgrading traditional food processing and preservation

techniques with prevailing climatic conditions in Nigeria had contributed to

food and nutrition insecurity. Traditional technologies of food processing and

preservation date back thousands of years and, unlike the electronics and

other modern high technology industries, they long preceded any scientific

understanding of their inherent nature and consequences. Traditional foods and

traditional food processing techniques as part of post harvest handling of

perishables, form part of the culture of the people. Traditional food processing

activities constitute a vital body of indigenous knowledge handed down from

parent to child over several generations. Unfortunately, this vital body of

indigenous knowledge is often undervalued. Regrettably, some of the traditional

food products and food processing practices i n N i g e r i a have undoubtedly

been lost over the years and h a s ma d e t h e c o u n t r y poorer for it (. In

most cases, the traditional methods of food processing and preservation in

Nigeria remain at the empirical level. They are still rather crude, are not

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standardized, and are not based on sound scientific principles making them, in

their present form, unsuitable to large-scale industrial production. The processes

are often laborious and time consuming and invariably the quality of the

products require substantial improvements (Ashaye and Adeleke 2009, Ashaye

et al 2001, Aworh, 2008). However a number of successes have been recorded.

Some of these include the mechanization of gari production, the production of

instant yam flour or flakes, the production of soy-ogi, the industrial production

of dawadawa, production of complementary foods from perishables, upgrading

of soyabean, maize and roselle based processing methods. Even with the

mechanization of some of these food processing methods, Nigeria still loses2.7

trillion naira annually as a result of Post harvest food losses due to climate

change and obsolete infrastructural facilities .(Ogugbuaja, 2017)

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Annual Post Harvest Losses of some Food Crops in Nigeria

Food Crop %Loss General comment

Grains 15 Losses are higher

in rural

communities due

to lack of

adequate basic

infrastructure and

facilities.

Roots and Tubers 35

Fruits and

Vegetables

50

Source Ogugbuaja 2017.

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Food Research in Product Development Programme IART

The Product Development Programme of the Institute of Agricultural Research

and Training gives priority to demand driven research to reduce food losses,

alleviate poverty and improve nutritional livelihood of the people.

Major Objectives:

(i) To improve and develop value added agricultural products using

enhanced indigenous food processing technologies

(ii) To assess physical, nutritional, biochemical and microbial properties of

agricultural produce

(iii) To ensure food safety through unique food systems quality control

approach

(iv) To conduct training for local farmers and processors in collaboration with

extension agents on new technologies for enhance productivity

(v) To improve the revenue generation activities of the Institute through

commercialization of developed products and processing technologies.

Achievement

(i) The programme has been able to tackle some of the nutritional

imbalances caused by changes in the climatic condition of the environment and

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other factors by developing shelf stable products high in quality protein,

nutrients with a concomitant high percentage of digestibility. Examples are

more than 25 soy-based products: these include cheap and nutritious exotic

drinks and snacks of soybean or its flour blended with other local staples such

as soymilk, soy yoghurt, soy cheese, tofu sausage and tofu stick meat.

(ii) More than 15 maize based products, high quality protein weaning diet

with high digestibility ‗Propam‘ and ‗Prowena‘ have also been developed.

Some other product such as Soy-corn milk, soy-kokoro, tortilla snacks ‗abari

and others ‘are also developed.

(iii) Ten (10) other legume-based products: these include indigenous local diets

like ‗akara‘, ‗moinmoin‘ from whole or blended legume flours have been

developed from cowpea and pigeon pea flours. Snacks such as cake, buns and

biscuit have been contrived from whole or composite flours of cowpea and

pigeon pea (Ashaye et al 2015). Processing technology of local fermented

condiment ―iru‖ from soybean, pigeon pea and lima bean has been established.

Convenience foods such as whole processed Ogi fortified with pigeon pea is

also well documented.

(iv) Roselle-based products: such as tea, jam, wine and fruits-flavoured

drinks are also produced (Ashaye et al 2008, Ashaye and Adeleke, 2009)

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Most of these processing technologies have been disseminated to women

groups and local processors at IAR&T adopted villages and in South-west

Nigeria to reduce postharvest losses as a result of climate change and for

improved livelihood and income generation activities. We also conduct

trainings on income generating opportunities for the unemployed youths in

Nigeria in collaboration with Division of National Food Reserve Agency,

Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources. The programme also

develop recipe book, guides and training manual. and has also secured several

grants from International Donor agencies (DFID/British Council, IDRC, USDA

and IFS) to facilitate post harvest based research activities.

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Pictures of some of our developed products

Spiced soyogi

Soymilk

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Soychinchin and Soy biscuit

Soybread

Lima bean dawadawa

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Cocoyam Bambara-groundnut biscuit

Flavoured Roselle drink

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Roselle wine

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STRATEGIES IN REDUCING POST-HARVEST FOOD LOSSES

In cereal and legume grains

Most grains have a single annual harvesting season, although in bimodal

rainfall areas there may be two harvests. Farmers normally harvest grain crops

once the grain reaches physiological maturity (moisture content is 20-30%)

(FAO, 2011). At this stage the grain is very susceptible to pest attacks. Poor

farmers sometimes harvest crops too early due to food deficiency or the

desperate need for cash. In this way, the food incurs a loss in nutritional and

economic value, and may get wasted if it is not suitable for consumption.

Quality cannot be improved after harvest, only maintained; therefore, it is

important to harvest at the appropriate time.

Drying: Most farmers in Nigeria, both small and large, rely almost

exclusively on natural drying of crops by combining sunshine and movement of

atmospheric air through the product; consequently, damp weather at harvest

time can be a serious cause of postharvest losses. Grains should be dried in such

a manner that damage to the grain is minimized and moisture levels are lower

than those required to support mold growth during storage (usually below 13-

15%). This is necessary to prevent further growth of fungal species that may be

present on fresh grains. The harvested crop may be dried in the yard or in a crib

Threshing/shelling: For some grains, particularly millet and sorghum,

threshing may be delayed for several months after harvest and the unthreshed

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crop stored in open cribs. In the case of maize, the grain may be stored on the

cob with or without sheathing leaves for some months, or the cobs may be

shelled and grain stored. Some machinery suitable for small small-scale

operation exists such as: maize shellers;

In roots and tubers

When harvesting roots and tubers, care must be taken to avoid mechanical

injury, If they are bruised or otherwise damaged during harvesting,

consideration of improved handling or packaging is not likely to be worthwhile,

since an early infestation with moulds and virus will occur and rotting will have

started. If harvesting operations are correctly undertaken there is greater scope

for later introduction of improved methods. Provision of the proper tools and

equipment for harvesting and training workers in their correct use should be a

priority prevention of food loss activity.

Handling: The skin of roots and tubers is an effective barrier to most of the

opportunistic bacteria and fungi that cause rotting of the tissues. Breaking of the

skin also stimulates physiological deterioration and dehydration. Careful

digging and movement of roots and tubers significantly reduces post harvest

losses.

Packing: Among the various types of packaging material that are available:

natural and synthetic fibre sacks and bags as well as moulded plastic boxes

seem to be more suitable and have greater promise for packaging roots and

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tubers and for their transport to distant markets. However packing of the roots in

the field should be done with utmost care.

Transportation: Temperature management is critical during long distance

transport, so loads must be stacked to enable proper air circulation to carry away

heat from the produce itself as well as incoming heat from the atmosphere and

off the road. In Nigeria traditional baskets and various types of trays or buckets

are used for transporting produce to the house or to village markets. These are

usually of low cost, made from readily available material and serve the purpose

for transport over short distances. But, they have many disadvantages in large

loads carried over long distances (i.e. they are difficult to clean when

contaminated).

Storage: The following three things must be done to ensure successful

storage of fresh roots and tubers.

i) Carefully select only top quality roots and tubers without any signs of

handling or pest or disease damage for storage.

ii) Keep them in specially designed stores.

iii) Check the stores at regular intervals. Many farmers do not routinely store

fresh roots and tubers, but leave them in the ground until required. It is possible

to store fresh roots successfully in specially constructed pits or in mounds, or

clamp stores. For example, when storing potatoes, a field storage clamp is a low

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cost technology that can be designed using locally available materials for

ventilation and insulation.

Processing: Root and tuber crops (cassava, sweet potato, yam etc…) are both

important household food security and income generating crops. Overcoming

the perishability of the crops, improving marketing, enhancing nutritional value

and adding economic value through processing are the main strategic areas in

reducing postharvest losses. Processing such as peeling and washing, grating,

pressing/fermentation should be done timely without any delay in processing

and this depends on end product.

In Fruits and Vegetables

Harvesting: Harvesting should be carried out as carefully as possible to

minimize mechanical injury such as scratches, punctures and bruises to the

crop. The time of the day when harvesting is done also affects produce quality

and shelf-life. In general, harvesting during the coolest time of the day (early

morning) is desirable; the produce is not exposed to the heat of the sun and the

work efficiency of the harvesters is higher. If harvesting during the hotter part

of the day cannot be avoided, the produce should be kept shaded in the field to

minimize product weight loss and wilting.

Handling: Mechanical injury provides sites for pest attack and increases

physiological losses. Therefore, avoid mechanical injury to the crop while

handling. Because of their soft texture, all horticultural products (fruits and

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vegetables) should be handled gently to minimize bruising and breaking of the

skin. The skin of horticultural products is an effective barrier to most of the

opportunistic bacteria and fungi that cause rotting of the tissues. Breaking of the

skin also stimulates physiological deterioration and dehydration. Reducing the

number of times the commodity is handled reduces the extent of mechanical

damage.

Packaging: Proper packing is essential to maintain the freshness of leafy

vegetable. Packaging should be designed to prevent premature deterioration in

product quality, in addition to serving as a handling unit. Use clean, smooth and

ventilated containers for packaging. This is a very important factor in cutting

down losses in these crops during harvesting, transportation, marketing and

storage. Use containers that are appropriate for the crop.

Transportation Minimizing losses during transport necessitates special

attention to vehicles, equipment, infrastructure, and handling.

The use of clean and well-ventilated vehicle covered at the top for

transportation is very critical. Harvested crops should be transported during the

cool part of the day by driving carefully to minimize damage to crop. Fresh

produce must not be watered prior to loading, as this will lead to decay, rotting,

and extensive losses. Major causes of losses are improper handling during

loading and unloading.

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Storage: Only crops with high initial quality can be stored successfully; it is

therefore essential to ensure that only crops of the highest quality (mature,

undamaged) are stored. Shelf life can be extended by maintaining a commodity

at its optimal temperature, relative humidity and environmental conditions.

Processing: Processing is an important value-added activity that stabilizes and

diversifies food supplies and creates employment and income opportunities. It

can minimize the high perishability problem of leafy vegetables. Processed

products are also more stable, have improved digestibility, and permit a better

diet diversity, giving consumers access to a wider choice of products and a

wider range of vitamins and minerals

RECOMMENDATIONS

Food control systems should be developed and operated in accordance

with fundamental principles including a food chain approach, risk

analysis, transparency and the involvement of all the concerned

stakeholders.

Marketing companies and cooperatives are essential for handling

produce and reducing postharvest losses by providing facilities for

accumulating, preparing and transporting produce to markets;

by coordinating marketing activities; and by distributing profits equitably to

members

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It is important to select the technologies that are appropriate for the size

of each postharvest enterprise.

Price efficiency inducing policies designed to increase the responsiveness

of the marketing system to consumer direction by improving market

information and establishing consumer grades and standards.

Structural policies designed to modify the behaviour of the middlemen so

as to improve market performance through the establishment of co-

operatives. Infrastructural policies necessary for the development of

capital-intensive (roads, silos, irradiation facilities, warehouses,

processing equipment, etc.), capital-extensive (post-harvest market

extension services, agricultural research, etc.), and institutional

(subsidies, tax dispensation, etc.) infrastructures. These policies are

necessary if we are to improve the efficiency of our post-harvest systems

Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) approach along the food

chain should be closely monitored.

The need to refocus on food fortification is also very critical in order to

improve on nutrient disproportions by climate change.

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Acknowledgement.

First and foremost I give God all the honour, glory and adoration for his ever

sustaining help and for aiding me to what and where I am today.

I will also want to acknowledge my late doctoral supervisor Prof J.O Aina for

his thoroughness and for contributing positively to my academic career. May his

gentle soul continue to rest in peace.

I wish to thank my mentors Prof Mrs Olusola. Omueti, now of Adekunle Ajasin

University Akungba ,Ondo State, Prof J.O. Akingbala of Bowen University

Iwo, Prof O. C. Aworh, Prof G.O. Adegoke, and Prof A.O. Olorunda all of the

department of Food Technology University of Ibadan for their priceless support

in my career. The unflagging efforts of Prof Salomon Helfgott of Universidad

Nacional Agraria La Molina Peru, Dr Irene Koomen of Wageningen University

and Research, Holland, Prof Zippora Gershon of Hebrew University of

Jerusalem and Prof G.B. Oguntimehin of Morgan state University, U.S.A. are

also appreciated. God bless you in all your undertakings

I wish to express my gratitude to Prof J.A Adediran, the Executive Director of

Institute of Agricultural Research and Training and other eminent professors in

the Institute for their numerous assistance and encouragement at all times.

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I sincerely appreciate my wife Mrs Awujoola Ashaye and my wonderful

children for their support. To my parents and siblings, I say God bless you all.

I also acknowledge with thanks the programme staff of Product Development

Programme for their support

Thank you all.

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