Innovative Methods of Technical and Vocational Education 89

8/10/2019 Innovative Methods of Technical and Vocational Education 89

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INTERNATIONAL

BILDUNGWISSENSCHAFTInnovative Methods

of Technical and Vocational

Education2/89

Report of the UNESCO International SymposiumHamburg, June 5-9, 1989

Der Bundesminister fr Bildung und Wissenschaft yyyy ReferatPresse- und ffentlichkeitsarbeit yyyy Postfach 20 01 08 yyyy 5300 Bonn 2


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REIHEBILDUNG - WISSENSCHAFT - INTERNATIONAL 2/89

Innovative Methodsof Technical and Vocational Education

Report of the UNESCO International SymposiumHamburg, June 5-9, 1989

Bonn 1989

Published by theFederal Ministry of Education and Science


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This publication has been compiled and edited on behalf of the Federal Ministry of Educationand Science by Hans Krnner, Berlin


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Foreword

From June 5-9, 1989, the Federal Ministry of Education and Sciencejointly with Unesco held an International Symposium on "InnovativeMethods of Technical and Vocational Education" at the Unesco Insti-tute for Education in Hamburg, Federal Republic of Germany.

It was preceded by the first Unesco International Congress on"Development and Improvement of Technical and Vocational Educa-tion" held in Berlin/German Democratic Republic, in 1987. At theoccasion of that event, a follow-up meeting was suggested to exchangeexperiences concerning innovative methods of technical and vocationaleducation, with special regard to concepts of out-of-school vocationallearning.One of the major objectives of the Symposium was to define elementsof close cooperation between schools and enterprises both at the levelof the education system and of the process of vocational learning.Furthermore, the Symposium was intended to foster internationalexchange of experience in technical and vocational education.

I am particularly glad to present this publication immediately prior tothe 25th General Conference of Unesco which will be opened in Parisin October 1989. This General Conference will have to take importantdecisions on the future role of technical and vocational educationwithin Unesco's programme. Hopefully, the results of the Hamburgexpert meeting will facilitate the decisions to be taken by member

states.The Federal Republic of Germany, as many other member states, hasbeen striving for a more prominent place of technical and vocationaleducation within Unesco's programme. I therefore welcome theopportunity arising only a few months after the Hamburg Symposiumto decide on future actions Unesco might undertake in this field. TheFederal Republic of Germany is willing to contribute actively to thisdecision-making process.

Jrgen W. MllemannFederal Minister of Education and Science


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United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

The Federal Ministry of Education and Science, Federal Republic of Germany

Unesco International SymposiumInnovative Methods of Technical and Vocational EducationHamburg, Unesco Institute for Education, Federal Republic of Germany, June 5-9, 1989

C om pan y M od el J a p a n

S c h o o l M o d e l Sw eden

C oop era t ive M ode l( s c h o o l a n d e n t e rp r i se )

G erm an D em ocra ticR e p u b l i c ,

F e d e ra l R e p u b l i cof G erm any

C oop era t ive M ode l(cen tre and en te rpr ise )

B ra z i l

M E S S y s t e m In t e rn a ti o n a l L a b o u rO rgan iza t ion

O n- the - job lea rn ing N igeria ,

E g y p t

P a r t 2M icrosystem s

of Techni cal andVocat i onal E ducat i on

P a r t 1M acrosystem s

of Techni cal andVocati onal E ducat i on

Pro jec t Ins t ruc t ion Fed era l R epub l icof G erm any

C o u rs e In s t ru c ti o n F r a n c e

L e a rn i n g i ns c h o o l - ru n e n t e rp r is e s

C h i n a ,S i n g a p o r e

Illustration 1Structure of the Symposium


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Contents

Foreword........................................................................................................................................3

Contents ......................................................................................................................................... 5Introduction................................................................................................................................... 7

Opening addresses ........................................................................................................................8

Report .......................................................................................................................................... 11

Contributions .............................................................................................................................. 15

Part 1: Macrosystems of Technical and Vocational Education ........................................... 15

An International Comparison of Systems of Technical and Vocational Education - An Attempt at Classificationby Wolf-Dietrich GREINERT........................................................................................................................................... 15

The Japanese Market Model - A Comparison of Japanese Qualification Strategies with those of Other Countriesby Walter GEORG ........................................................................................................................................................... 19

The Swedish System of Technical and Vocational Education by Lennert NILSSON...................................................... 22

The Cooperative Model of Technical and Vocational Education in the German Democratic Republicby Michael GUDER ......................................................................................................................................................... 25

Brazil: The Entity Called SENAI by Guimares Roberto BOCLIN............................................................................... 28

Part 2: Microsystems of Technical and Vocational Education ............................................ 33

An International Comparison of Didactic Models in Technical and Vocational Education by Gnter WIEMANN........ 33

The Concept of Modules of Employable Skills (MES) Training by Eckhart CHROSCIEL ............................................ 41

Recent Trends in Industrial Technical and Vocational Education in the Federal Republic of Germanyby Harald W. BONGARD ................................................................................................................................................ 43

Course Instruction: The French Example by Andr BRUYRE...................................................................................... 45

Learning in School-Run Enterprises by MENG Guang-ping ........................................................................................... 46

The German-Singapore Institute - A Centre for Multifunctional Transfer of Training and Technologyby Klaus KRGER........................................................................................................................................................... 49

List of Participants...................................................................................................................... 53

Index.............................................................................................................................................57


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Introduction

Background and purpose of the Symposium

For some years now, a number of Member States of theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Or-ganization (Unesco) have been making increasing effortsto give higher priority to Unesco's programme in the field

of technical and vocational education.This has certainly been a major reason for Unesco to con-vene its first International Congress on the Developmentand Improvement of Technical and Vocational Educationwhich took place in Berlin/German Democratic Republic,in 1987. One of the items dealt with was the cooperationbetween institutions and administration of technical andvocational education on the one hand, and agriculture, in-dustry, trades and services on the other.

Many participants of the 1987 Congress felt that fosteringsuch cooperation might be instrumental in view of theincreasing pace of technological development at theworkplace that technical and vocational education is

having to face. There was, however, an obvious need tointensify an exchange of experience in this field, particu-larly since Unesco's programmes and terminology in tech-nical and vocational education have often been dominatedby school-based concepts.

Systematic vocational learning in enterprises has a longtradition in Germany. Hence, the Federal Republic ofGermany offered to organize a Symposium to deal withsuch concepts and experiences. Basically, the purpose ofthe Symposium was to acquaint participants withdifferent frameworks of and didactic approaches tointentional vocational learning in school as well as out ofschool:

On the macro level, different basic models of technicaland vocational education systems were developed byWolf-Dietrich Greinert, followed by case studies fromJapan (presented by Walter Georgin the absence of aJapanese participant), Sweden (Lennert Nilsson), theGerman Democratic Republic (Michael Guder), andBrazil (Guimares R. Boclin). There was an additionalcase study on the Federal Republic of Germany, butsince it was presented in the form of two films,including it in this publication was not possible.

On the micro level, different didactic approaches totechnical and vocational education systems were in-troduced by Gnter Wiemann, followed by case studiesfrom the International Labour Organization (EckhartChrosciel), the Federal Republic of Germany (HaraldW. Bongard), France (Andr Bruyre), China (MengGuang-ping), and Singapore (Klaus Krger). Twoadditional case studies were presented at theSymposium about on-the-job training (Nigeria, by Olu

Aina; and Egypt, by Abdel Razek Abdel Fattah); sincethey are not available in writing, they are not includedin this publication either.

Organization of the Symposium

The Symposium was then organized by the Federal Min-istry of Education and Science in co-operation withUnesco and held at the Unesco Institute for Education inHamburg, Federal Republic of Germany, from 5-9 June1989. Twelve participants from Algeria, Brazil, China,Egypt, Federal Republic of Germany, France, GermanDemocratic Republic, Hungary, India, Mexico, Nigeria

and Sweden attended, as well as eleven observers, six ad-ditional experts, and a representative of the InternationalLabour Organization.

For a complete list of participants, please refer to page 53of this publication.

The meeting elected the following officers:Chairman Prof. Dr. Gnter Wiemann

Institute for Vocational Education,University of Hanover,Federal Republic of Germany

Vice-Chairmen Prof. Guimares R. BoclinNational Service for Industrial Train-ing (SENAI), BrazilDr. Michael GuderCentral Institute for VocationalEducation,German Democratic RepublicMr. Yashwant SinghDirector of Apprenticeship Training,Directorate General of Employmentand Training,Ministry of Labour, India

Rapporteur Dr. Olu AinaAssociate Professor, Department ofVocational and Technical Education,Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria

About this publication

Detailed information on the proceedings of the Sympo-sium is given in Horst Biermann's Report on page 11.Both the basic lectures and the case studies are to befound in the section entitled "Contributions". For reasonsof space, it was necessary to condense some of themanuscripts and to limit the number of illustrations.Also, an attempt was made to adapt the educational ter-minology found in the contributions to Unesco's usage.

Acknowledgements

This publication could not have been prepared without

the help of the participants and experts who willingly sub-mitted their manuscripts. The editor therefore extends hissincere thanks to all of them, especially to Mr. Olu Ainawho, as the Rapporteur of the Symposium, hasundertaken tremendous efforts to record the discussions,thus making it possible to compile the proceedings of thisSymposium.


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Opening addresses

Alfred HardenackeFederal Ministry of Education and Science,BonnLadies and Gentlemen,I welcome you cordially to this Symposium which hasbeen organized jointly by the Federal Ministry of Educa-tion and Science and Unesco within the framework of ahost country agreement. I should like to thank theHamburg Ministry for School, Youth and VocationalEducation, who made the local arrangements. Thanksalso to the Unesco Institute for Education for letting ususe its premises.

Invitations have been extended to all of the five Unescoregions: Africa, the Arab States, Asia/ the Pacific region,Europe and Latin America. We may thus expect inter-

esting contributions on the subject of this Symposium.Two years ago, Unesco's First International Congress onthe Development and Improvement of Technical and Vo-cational Education was held in Berlin/German Demo-cratic Republic. During that congress, it was suggestedthat, in a follow-up meeting, experience be exchangedconcerning concepts of technical and vocational educa-tion which involve a sizeable degree of systematic learn-ing at enterprise level.

The Federal Republic of Germany presented this idea tothe 24th General Conference of Unesco, where the pro-posal met with general approval. The programme for thisSymposium was then drawn up.

Investment in vocational qualification is as important ascapital investment. Our enterprises share this view andare therefore prepared to provide considerable funds forin-house vocational education.

In fact, without a considerable contribution by the enter-prises, it would not be possible to provide adequate voca-tional education, because

the public education system would probably be unableto provide a majority of young people with practice-re-lated specialized knowledge for a broad range of occu-pations, and

it would not be possible for the government to always

provide the funds required.But it is also in industry's own interest to provide techni-cal and vocational education itself in accordance withgeneral government regulations: In this way, the enter-prises train the number of young workers they need andthus remain competitive in the market.

This Symposium has two parts:

Part 1 deals with four macromodels of technical and vo-cational education, which differ with regard to the maintraining providers. Vocational education provided exclu-sively in the enterprise is compared and contrasted withtechnical and vocational education at school. Betweenthese two extremes, there are two other variants which,although in a different way, combine enterprise trainingwith additional external technical and vocational educa-tion. A case in point is the dual system of the FederalRepublic of Germany with its part-time vocationalschools.

Part 2 deals with certain didactic micromodels, which dif-fer with regard to the methods applied; whether technicaland vocational education is provided in the enterprise orin school can be ignored in this context.

The growing interest in systems and methods of technicaland vocational education worldwide is underlined byUnesco's increasing concern with issues of technical andvocational education, in particular with enterprise and

out-of-school training, a development which is highlyappreciated and strongly supported by the Federal Re-public of Germany.

In this connection, I should like to mention a problemwhich we have encountered when cooperating withUnesco in the field of technical and vocational educationand which has not yet been solved to our satisfaction: Atthe 24th General Conference of Unesco, the FederalRepublic of Germany pointed out that Unesco's terminol-ogy in technical and vocational education wasmisleading. For example, it is not clear why the termsout-of-school education and non-formal education arelargely synonymous in Unesco usage. Like numerous

other countries, the Federal Republic of Germany has asystem of formal technical and vocational educationwhich, nevertheless, includes major out-of-schoolelements. Fortunately, Unesco's statistics were correctedin this respect a few months ago. I hope that this Sympo-sium will help us arrive at further conclusions in this re-spect.

We are meeting here at the Unesco Institute for Educa-tion, which has given major impulses to literacy cam-paigns in recent years. This month, the Institute housesnot only our present Symposium, but also a Unescoconsultation on the interaction of education and produc-tive work. The Federal Republic of Germany has, in re-

cent years, considered literacy and technical and voca-tional education to be priority issues in the Unesco pro-gramme.

Coming to the end of my address, I wish you an inter-esting discussion and hope that this Symposium will be asuccess. Thank you.

S. R. SamadyUnited Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization, ParisDr. Hardenacke, the representative of the Federal Min-istry of Education and Science; Ladies and Gentlemen,

It is a great pleasure for me to welcome the participantsfrom Member States, the representative of the ILO andobservers from non-governmental organizations to thisSymposium on Innovative Methods in Technical and Vo-cational Education, which has been organized, in cooper-ation with Unesco, by the Federal Ministry of Educationand Science and the German Commission for Unesco. Iwould like to express Unesco's gratitude to the authori-ties concerned in the Federal Republic of Germany forhosting this international meeting and for contributingsignificantly to its preparation and organization. I am de-lighted that this Symposium is held here in the city ofHamburg, an important cultural and economic centre, and

at the Unesco Institute for Education, which is an ex-panding international cooperative project in the field ofeducational research and quality of education.

The importance of technical and vocational education forsocial and economic development has been widely recog-


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nized. The demands of the economy affect both industri-alized and developing countries. In particular the needfor technical personnel in developing countries is crucialand places great pressure on systems for technical and vo-cational education and the limited national resources. Inmany industrialized countries, the training and retrainingof large numbers of skilled workers and technicians tomeet requirements of new technologies and changes in

the employment structure have become an urgent task.Worldwide trends in the development of education showthat considerable efforts have been made by many coun-tries to expand and modernize technical and vocationaleducation. A statistical report on technical and vocationaleducation in the world published by Unesco in 1983 indi-cates that student enrollment in full-time secondary insti-tutions of technical and vocational education had risenfrom 15.7 million in 1970 to 24.3 million in 1980, whichrepresents a growth of rate of 54 %, while the rate of in-crease in general secondary education during the sameperiod was 45 %. More recent figures confirm this rapidgrowth in enrollment of young men and women invarious branches of technical and vocational education.The development of part-time technical and vocationaleducation and training has also been very significant,especially in the industrialized countries.

In Unesco's programme, technical and vocational educa-tion has been an important area of the Organization's ac-tion. Unesco's policy in technical and vocational educationhas been guided by the Recommendation concerning Tech-nical and Vocational Education which was adopted by theUnesco General Conference in 1962 and revised in 1974.Under objectives, the Revised Recommendation refers tothe contribution of technical and vocational education tosociety's goals of greater democratization and social, cul-tural and economic development; at the same time, it refersto developing the potential of individuals for active partici-pation in the life of the community. It has been suggestedthat technical and vocational education should exist as partof a system of lifelong education and that it should beginwith a good foundation in general education and a broadbasic technical and vocational education, in order tofacilitate horizontal and vertical articulation within the edu-cation system and between school and employment as wellas adaptation to scientific and technological progress.

During the last three decades, Unesco has cooperated withits Member States in improving and developing technicaland vocational education. In collaboration with otherUnited Nations agencies and funding sources, Unesco has

participated since the early 1960s in setting up a largenumber of national institutions for the training of engi-neers, technicians and technical teachers. Unesco has alsocarried out studies on curricula and teaching methods andpromoted innovations and exchange of information and ex-perience around the world. In 1987 Unesco organized anInternational Congress in the German Democratic Republicon the Development and Improvement of Technical andVocational Education which reviewed major trends andsuggested strategies for the development of technical andvocational education including the promotion of interna-tional cooperation in this field. Unesco is currently in theprocess of preparing its Medium-Term Plan for 1990-1995

and the programme and Budget for 1990-1991. Technicaland vocational education will continue to have an impor-tant place in Unesco's future programme.

Despite the efforts made by most countries to developtheir systems of technical and vocational education, anumber of problems remain, among them the cost and ef-

ficiency of technical and vocational education, adaptationof training to technological developments and to struc-tural changes in the economy as I mentioned earlier, andprovision of qualified teachers and adequate facilities andmaterials to ensure the quality of technical and vocationaleducation.

An important question related to the efficiency of techni-cal and vocational education is the methodology and rele-

vance of training which is the subject of this Symposium.As you know, different models of training and modalitiesof cooperation involving educational institutions andenterprises have evolved in accordance with social andeconomic conditions and the systems technical and voca-tional education of the countries concerned.

A study carried out by Unesco in 1986/87 on the ap-plication of the Revised Recommendation concerningTechnical and Vocational Education revealed that meas-ures for coordination between technical and vocationaleducation institutions, industries and employment aretaken by most of the countries. In this connection, a va-riety of mechanisms and modalities have been developed.

These include joint advisory boards and school/ industrycommittees, cooperative education and training pro-grammes, return to industry and summer practice, mod-ular systems, etc. The need for reinforcing such coopera-tion depends on national legislative measures and regu-lations as well as the potential and willingness of theenterprises to ensure appropriate training consistent withthe broad educational and training objectives.

I believe this Symposium will provide a good opportunityfor an exchange of information and experiences con-cerning the different approaches and training models fortechnical and vocational education. The annotatedagenda of your meeting has outlined a few models. This

will be supplemented by country reports during themeeting this week. It is important that the different train-ing modalities be examined carefully in relation to theconditions required for their effective application. Thepurpose of this Symposium is to learn about innovativemethods of training and to benefit from available experi-ences in the participating countries, particularly from ourhost country, the Federal Republic of Germany, whichhas undoubtedly one of the most developed systems oftechnical and vocational education in the world.

In conclusion, ladies and gentlemen, I would like to thankyou for having accepted to participate in this Symposiumand for your contribution to it. I am confident that you

will have an interesting and useful week of special pres-entations and discussions, as well as visits to industrialand training institutions which will contribute to betterunderstanding of the different ways of organizing techni-cal and vocational education and the philosophy and tra-dition behind them. Finally, I would like to assure youthat any suggestions you may wish to make to Unesco, asa follow-up to this Symposium, for the improvement oftechnical and vocational education and promotion of in-ternational cooperation in this field, will be carefully con-sidered in the light of our future programmes.

I wish you a very successful meeting.


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Ravindra DavUnesco Institute for Education, HamburgDr. Hardenacke; Ms. Ehmke and other representatives ofthe Federal Ministry of Education and Science; Dr.Samady; Professor Wiemann; Mr. Blom; Mr. Krnner;fellow participants and friends,

I have great pleasure in associating myself in extending a

very warm and hearty welcome to all of you to this In-stitute, and especially to this programme. I am happy thatDr. Hardenacke and other representatives of the FederalMinistry of Education and Science are here, and I havegreat pleasure in extending a cordial welcome to them.Moreover, this Symposium has created an important op-portunity for my colleague Dr. Samady to visit theUnesco Institute for Education, and I am extremely happyto welcome him to the Institute.

My colleagues and I are glad that the Federal Ministry ofEducation and Science and Unesco decided to associatethe Unesco Institute for Education with this importantinternational Symposium and to hold it at our Institute.

This has helped us in strengthening our cooperation withthe Federal Ministry of Education and Science and otheragencies and individuals connected with this programme.The theme of the Symposium is not only significant andtimely for Unesco Headquarters in Paris, especially in thecontext of the Third Medium-Term Plan, but also for theprogrammes and activities of the Unesco Institute forEducation, and we are looking forward to profiting fromyour valuable deliberations.

The Unesco Institute for Education, as you may know, isan international research centre functioning under the largeumbrella of Unesco. Its activities include research,research-based training and orientation programmes, pub-lications, documentation and dissemination. Its pro-grammes are for both industrialized and developing coun-tries, and are closely aligned to the overall goals and objec-tives of Unesco. But all its activities are developed with aconceptual framework of lifelong education, and focusedmainly on the content, methods and other qualitative as-pects of education. It is the concept of lifelong education,on which the Unesco Institute for Education has broughtout a large number of publications, and the specific focusof activities in the framework of this concept that bringsthis Institute closer to the theme of this Symposium.

According to the comprehensive concept of lifelong edu-cation, learning is not confined to the school alone, but italso occurs in the home, in the community, and especiallyat the workplace, which is significant in the context ofthis Symposium. Furthermore, lifelong education is notconfined to general and liberal education only, but in-cludes technical and vocational education as well in orderto achieve occupational development hand in hand withthe personal and social development of individuals andtheir communities for the purpose of ensuring a higherand better quality of life. The concept of lifelong educa-tion also encompasses both initial and continuing educa-tion through formal, non-formal and informal learning ar-rangements especially in the contemporary context of theexplosion of knowledge in science and technology on theone hand and rapid obsolescence of existing knowledge,

skills and related occupations on the other.It is for these reasons that the Unesco Institute for Educa-tion is interested in the "Innovative Methods of Technicaland Vocational Education" that will be discussed in theSymposium in an international and comparative per-spective. The Institute has done some selective work in

this direction which is of relevance to this theme, and asyou are here at our Institute, I may share some informa-tion very briefly with you. For example, last year withthe active cooperation of Dr. Psacharopoulos of theWorld Bank and a number of other specialists from dif-ferent parts of the world, we brought out a special numberof our quarterly journal, the International Review of Edu-cation, on the organizational, structure, sociological and

economic issues of technical and vocational education. Italso contains concise case studies of China, India andNigeria, besides incidental examples of Costa Rica,Colombia and some other countries. This year we havecompleted an international investigation on curricula forlifelong vocational education based on specific experi-ences in technical and vocational education selected fromseven countries, namely, the Federal Republic of Ger-many, the Netherlands, Poland, Sri Lanka, Tanzania,USA and Venezuela. The final report came out just a fewdays ago, and we shall be happy to share it with thosewho are interested in this publication. In fact, we are justin the process of distributing it to various agencies and in-stitutions for dissemination purposes.

Furthermore, we have developed a fairly large-scale pro-ject on post-literacy and continuing education in theframework of lifelong education, for developing coun-tries, and under this project also, we have specificallyemphasized the acquisition of technical and vocationalskills for income generation in order to fight the problemsof poverty, besides ignorance and related issues. As partof this project, we have brought out between 1984 and1988 some 20 case studies carried out in different regionsof the world. They are published in English, French,Spanish and Arabic, and if any of you are interested, weshall be happy to share them with you. There are severalother programmes and activities that the Unesco Institute

for Education has undertaken in this important field ofeducation for vocational development.

Thus, from the Institute's point of view, we are interestedin learning from your valuable experience, sharing ourhumble work done so far in this field, connecting and in-terlinking the ideas to be generated by this Symposiumwith other activities and meetings of Unesco and the In-stitute, such as the one to be held here in the last week ofthis month, where the interaction between education andwork will be one of the issues to be discussed in the con-text of secondary education curriculum. We shall con-tinue to work in this field through research, follow-up ac-tion and other activities towards the promotion of har-

monious progress of both general and technical and voca-tional education for better development and a better quali-ty of life for individuals and their societies in all MemberStates of Unesco.

It is in this spirit that I wish this Symposium a great suc-cess. Thank you.


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Report

by Horst BIERMANNThis report is based on the country reports submitted, thepapers given, oral contributions made at the Symposium,and the Draft Summarizing Report prepared during the

meeting.Whereas the international Unesco Congress 1987 inBerlin/German Democratic Republic was held on

Development and Improvement of Technical and Voca-tional Education, the 1989 Symposium was primarilyconcerned with the associated innovations and methods.

It was held with a relatively small attendance of expertsconcerned with the theory, planning or practice of voca-tional education, coming from universities, institutes fortechnical and vocational education, ministries, and edu-cational institutions. The discussions, including those onthe fringe of the Symposium, were heavily influenced bythe possible consequences of new technologies on the

content and structure of vocational education.The programme was divided into two parts: Part 1 (macro level), and

Part 2 (micro level) of technical and vocational edu-cation.

At the macro level, criteria for the classification ofsystems of technical and vocational education were to bedeveloped; the micro level aimed at a classification ofteaching and learning methods in vocational education.The Symposium was supplemented by country reportsand case studies.

Part 1:Macrosystems ofTechnical and Vocational Education

Discussions at the macro level were inaugurated by akeynote paper of Professor Wolf-Dietrich Greinert fromthe Technical University of Berlin (cf. page 15 of thispublication). The purport of these remarks was to clas-sify systems of technical and vocational education and todefine basic forms. Beyond this analytic function, thetypes identified and the associated criteria should fa-cilitate communication. Specifically with regard to tech-nical and vocational education the problem had alreadyarisen at the 1987 Berlin Congress of conceptualizationand this of comparability.

In the development of criteria for the basic types, thespeaker dissociated himself from pragmatic and static ap-proaches. Particularly the mere description of places oflearning in technical and vocational education provesinadequate. Rather it is necessary for example also to in-clude the institutions, so that social structures and inter-ests are taken account of. As a principle of classificationGreinert took the role of government in technical andvocational education as a starting-point, and arrived atthree basic types: market model, school or bureaucraticmodeland cooperative model.

Model 1: The Market Model

The government plays a minor rolein vocational qualification processes

These models are based essentially on liberalist philoso-phy. As a consequence of market mechanisms there is fre-quently a decoupling from the general education system,

and the students are to a large extent university-oriented.Technical and vocational education is left largely to the in-dividual and the recruitment needs of enterprises. Since asa rule the state does not lay down any framework provi-sions, control and financing of training also remain a mat-ter for the enterprises. The position of major enterprises isdominant in this system.As a case study, Professor Walter Georgfrom the Univer-

sity of Hagen, Federal Republic of Germany, presented theJapanese system of technical and vocational education (cf.page 19 of this publication) in which in particular the mi-nor role taken by the state is clear. The other features, suchas recruitment of training personnel and staff, are evidenceof this allocation, too.Large enterprises offer in-house qualification, thus bindingemployees to the enterprise and making them relativelyimmobile in the external labour market. The general edu-cation system is not put in question by the enterprises, al-though it is not oriented towards technical and vocationaleducation.

Model 2: The Bureaucratic Model

The government is responsiblefor technical and vocational education

This type of system of technical and vocational educationis based on the responsibility of the government for the de-tailed planning, organization and control of technical andvocational education and often also for its operation.School-type models are characteristic of this. Greinertalsoassigned to this classification - not without disagreement indiscussion - the approach to in-company technical andvocational education in socialist countries.Characteristics of state-organized technical and vocationaleducation are, among others, the high degree of bureau-cratization, the close connection between general and

technical and vocational education (school careers), and thecomparability of educational standards and qualifications.The role of enterprises in such systems can becomemarginal and be restricted for example, to making placesavailable for practical experience.Sweden is today regarded as the archetypal example ofschool-type technical and vocational education, as Dr.

Lennart Nilsson, Docent at the University of Gteborg,Sweden, made clear in his presentation (cf. page 22 of thispublication). Up to 90 % of under-nineteens go to sec-ondary comprehensive schools. These form an integratedschool system with a general and a vocational emphasis.Both general and technical and vocational education are

publicly financed. About one-half of the students completea vocational line, which comprises various vocationalgroupings, and are thus qualified for employment in morethan just one specific enterprise. The school-type technicaland vocational education was introduced with the aim ofovercoming traditional training forms.

Model 3: TheGovernment-controlled Market ModelThe government provides a frameworkfor technical and vocational educationin private enterprises or institutions

The state merely sets framework conditions for theproviders of training, as a rule in the form of vocationaleducation acts. This type can be classified as a state-con-trolled market model. Characteristically, forms of cooper-ation emerge between public vocational schools and pri-vate training enterprises or inter-company training centres.Small and medium-sized enterprises participate in thisform of training predominantly.


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Typical features are the market-controlled recruitment ofstudents, the orientation of training objectives and content topractical applicability, and the influence of social groups ontraining (e.g. vocational structure, financing, control, ex-aminations). It can be seen that a cooperation of individualplaces of learning or of training providers does not by anymeans result in a dual system or a basic model in Greinert'sdefinition.

The dual system in the Federal Republic of Germany as anexample of a cooperative model was presented by the Fed-eral Ministry of Education and Science with the aid of films.Whereas the first film showed the institutional guidelinesand sharing of responsibilities at the two places of learningin the dual system, the second explained the work and roleof the in-company instructors.On the question of cooperation between schools and en-terprises,Dr. Michael Guder, Deputy Director of the CentralInstitute for Vocational Education outlined the system oftechnical and vocational education in the German Demo-cratic Republic (cf. page 25 of this publication). Clearly thestate was responsible for all forms of education. From an in-

stitutional point of view, technical and vocational educationof young people is only a part of the overall education sys-tem.There are also state-run municipal vocational schools whichprovide theoretical training in the case of certain vocationsand certain sizes of enterprise. In both cases theory andpractical training in workshops, laboratories and shop-floorare closely coordinated. The lifelong stages of learning,training, work and continuing education are harmonizedsimilarly. The traditional dual systems has thus been de-terminedly overcome. What has arisen is an organized train-ing system providing systematic qualification with equaltraining standards for basically all young people.

By way of a further move for cooperation the BrazilianServicio National de Aprendizagem Industrial(SENAI) wasintroduced by Prof. Guimares R. Boclin(cf. page 28 of thispublication). SENAI is an institution for which there is onlya skeleton agreement on the part of the government. Coop-eration in training is restricted to the industrial sector. Thisinstitution is governed by a National Department and re-gional subdivisions who have the task of running the trainingunits and cooperating with the local firms involved.

The financing of SENAI is by means of a contribution basedon the enterprise's payroll, scaled according to enterprisesize, of all industrial, transport, communications and fishprocessing enterprises. Various levels of training are offered

depending on prior education of the young people in ques-tion. The training takes place in factories, mobile units, or intraining centres, according to circumstances. The SENAIinstitution has been able to maintain autonomy both from thegovernment and the various factories. Stress must be laidupon the social function of this institution in preventingdrop-outs.

Concerning the macrosystems with their examples, discus-sion confirmed Greinert'sposition that all three basic modelshave been made possible by the industrialization of thecountries involved. The reports from these countriesshowed, however, that none of the theoretical models can befound in reality. Normally mixed typed predominate, withvarious schemes alongside restricted by sector, region ortraining area.It does not seem to be sufficient to compare countries withcertain models, in particular in view of the structureswhich have grown up historically and socio-economicallyfor education, training and further education. And so

Greinert argued that the dual system in the Federal Re-public of Germany did in fact predominate in initial tech-nical-industrial training but not, however, in the caring orlaboratory professions and not either in the field of con-tinuing technical and vocational education.

The contributions from Mr. Andr Bruyre showed sim-ilarly that in the last decade a system of courses on thebasis of business cooperation had grown up alongside

typical school education. Although general interest hadbeen expressed in the dual system of technical and voca-tional education, the discussion made clear that an iso-lated transfer of one of the three models from industrial-ized nations to those in the process of industrialization didnot seem feasible in view of the complex mixture of sys-tems.

The classification according to function rather than thecustomary descriptive differentiation of learning insti-tution met with good response as the division of responsi-bility practised hitherto in institutions was becoming in-creasingly difficult as a result of new technologies andtransformations in labour organization. The formulation

of basic models of technical and vocational education canonly be accepted as a first step to highlight the trend ofthe analysis. Further work should aid the development ofcomparative criteria based on this.

The attempt to classify the case studies of the three theo-retical models and the additional country reports broughtthe discussion to the general conclusion that many coun-tries have not developed professional statistics. Thus or-ganized systems of technical and vocational educationoriented empirically to the labour market often lack thenecessary basic information. Likewise, despite all thestatistical basis, educational and training forecast hadproved to be a problem in the traditional industrial na-

tions.The transition of graduates from technical and vocationaleducation at school to the labour market also frequentlypresented problems, both quantitatively and qualitatively.Graduates worldwide from schools with general educa-tion seem to have difficulties when faced with the choiceof different educational careers, to orientate themselvestowards technical and vocational education. The be-stowing of certificates can result in students being over-qualified in academic fields - as was shown in theMexican example - in relation to the real requirements ofthe labour market, however, they turn out to be misquali-fied.

The request was made, therefore, in the discussion thatfurther analyses of the three basic models presentedshould be designed with the principal object of contrib-uting to the respective country's structures.

Part 2:Microsystems ofTechnical and Vocational Education

Professor Gnter Wiemann from Hanover University,Federal Republic of Germany, introduced the second partof the conference with an international comparison of di-dactic models in vocational education (cf. page 33 of thispublication). As in Part 1 of the Symposium, the various

methodical approcaches in technical and vocationaleducation were classified according to a specific criterion:their relation to real work situations. Four basic forms ofdidactic models of vocational learning were classifiedinto two main groups:

training in situations of natural life and work and


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training under artificial conditions.One of the oldest and most natural forms of beginningwork is on-the-job training. Wiemannexplained the crite-ria of learning organization with the aid of examplestaken from history and from other cultures. The aim is toproduce for an actual situation, for a market. There is ahigh degree of job responsibility. The trainer knows hissubject and his job. As a rule he is not a teacher.

Through the work process the apprentice grows into hisprofessional reference group too. The form of training isfound in particular in what is called the informal sector;in the formal sector it is bound by the technical standardsand work organization of the job.Learning in course instruction, project instruction, and inschool-run enterprises are quoted as examples of artificialsystems of learning. The course instruction method hasbecome important worldwide for the training of industrialworkers. This was particularly clear in the examplesfrom the metalworking field. Courses, in this context, arehere considered to be methods in vocational teachingrather than institutions. This is a sequential attempt as

complex requirements from actual work situations areisolated and separated into small elements and steps builtup from one another. Today objective learning goals as arule assist in the structuring of courses and in evaluatingthe standard of the qualification acquired at the end of thelearning unit. The advantage of course instruction lies inthe apparent similarity of the pedagogic method to indus-trial production methods hitherto. The advantages anddisadvantages of course instruction do not differ greatly.It is largely a closed system, and hence problems arise inpractice faced with demands of real-life work situationsand also problems of acceptance of necessary innovation.Project instruction is based in principle on the attempts ofreform pedagogy at the turn of the century. It was re-discovered for technical and vocational education as a re-sult of the anticipated requirements for skilled workers asa result of the new technologies. According to this prin-ciple it is important to simulate the actual complex worksituation in factories as closely as possible. The aim is apolyvalent skilled worker who can autonomously detect,analyze and solve problems in groups or alone. Thischanges the role of the teacher for theory and practicealso. As resulted from the discussion, a shift from courseinstruction to project instruction can lead to problems forthe teaching staff with regard to their technicalqualification as well as to their identity and acceptance.One peculiar feature in the typology of the didactic

models is the school-run enterprise, as in this organizationall other forms of learning can be carried out. In principleit is a matter of combining the advantages of systematiclearning in schools and productive work in factories. Thesponsor may be a school, could also, however, be afactory or an independent institution. It is hoped that thisSymposium will contribute to the development of a the-ory of school-run enterprises.Examples of the different didactic models could be foundin all countries, as was shown by the country reports anddiscussion, although with differing degrees of importanceand incidence. In the opinion of Mr. Eckhard Chroscielstress should be laid on the concept of the International

Labour Organization (ILO) due to its worldwide sig-nificance.After extensive research, the ILO has developed a con-cept for technical and vocational education replacing thetraditional learning form with a modular system (cf. page41 of this publication). This module system is flexible, is

adapted to the regional and socio-cultural conditions, andis oriented to the employment situation. The Module ofEmployable Skills (MES) system is available for all coreoccupational areas. MES consists essentially of threeareas: the concept itself, e.g. documents for developing

curricula, job analysis etc., instruction material in the form of learning elements,

and a staff development programme.More detailed information on the actual state of the MESsystem which was begun 15 years ago are given in theILO handbook to be published at the end of 1989. Thisconcept proved particularly productive in countries andsectors with no sufficient infrastructure in terms of enter-prises, schools and qualified manpower. It is relativelyquick and inexpensive to start up. The limits are cur-rently seen where semi-skilled workers become super-fluous and the demand is for technicians.Mr. Harald W. Bongard introduced the new concept ofproject instruction of Volkswagen AG, Federal Republicof Germany, for the training of skilled workers (cf. page43 of this publication). He pointed out that the socialbackground for the new training programme went beyondtechnical and organizational change and included changesin values and the democratization of society. Volk-swagen's aim is the prevention of breakdowns in pro-duction, this being possible by employing qualifiedpersonnel. Work quality control should be a part of allemployees' work processes. Creativity and a responsibleattitude are demanded as learning objectives in training,to meet the new demands. It is necessary to reorganizelearning, content, targets and methods in training. Hereprojects in conjunction with other more open methods,

such as instruction texts, have replaced the traditionalbasic courses. Young people learn largely through theirown study, in groups or with tutors. Whereas the newrole of the student demands an active learning and work-ing style, the instructor's activity is based more on moder-ation, consultation and preparation of the learning situa-tion. In the discussion it was stressed that the apprenticesshould learn under actual work conditions and not arti-ficially, falling behind in matters of technology, work or-ganization, and the use of material, machines and tools ofthe trade. A note of criticism made to the effect that theprevious certification and examination system cannot dojustice to the new training form and is also questionableas a prognosis for job preservation. It was also clear thatin view of the high costs involved in this training it wasapplicable only to the elite in major industries. It wasquestioned as to whether the concept could not be suit-ably adapted and converted under simpler basic condi-tions.If, on the other hand, one considers the portrayal of theschool-run enterprises in China as presented by Mr.MengGuang-ping from the State Education Commission inBeijing (cf. page 46 of this publication), one is struck bythe variety of approaches in various sectors, enterprisesizes and sponsors. It is necessary to make use of all re-sources due to the need for qualifications. In this way itis possible to train at various levels by one's own efforts,

i.e. without international support. Essentially only the fi-nancing of the training is state-controlled. Enterprises re-ceive appropriate tax concessions and schools can makeprofits with their production. The Chinese examples ofschool-run enterprises highlight the flexibility and adapt-ability of these projects.


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The question of cost and application was raised in theexample of the school-run enterprise of the GermanSingapore Institute (GSI) which was presented by GSIDirector Klaus Krger (cf. page 49 of this publication).The work of the GSI concerns not only the training ofskilled workers but also, for example, consultation by en-terprises and further education. The centre of activities isin the field of industrial metal-working. There was a

deliberate emphasis on new technologies as far as cur-riculum and equipment were concerned. The middletechnical level in particular was not in evidence, inkeeping with the qualifications and infrastructure of thecity state. It follows, therefore, that the Institute sees it-self as a training institution of key personnel who in turndevelop a considerable multiplier effect.

In contrast to traditional school projects, projects in theGSI are developed as production tasks and are harmo-nized closely with the economy through institutionalizedcooperation. New technologies, automation and in-dustrial design are considered important subjects from theoutset and are included in the project tasks.

ProspectsThis first Symposium with participants from Unescomember countries on the didactics and methodology oftechnical and vocational education can be considered asuccess. Observations and discussions both at the macroand the micro level produced classifications of systems oftechnical and vocational education and of forms of voca-tional learning.

The concept of the school-run enterprise in particularfound a strong following as it does not represent a rigidmodel, either institutionally or as regards the learningmethod, but rather represents an open system and so canbe adapted regionally and sectorally to the technical stan-dard, qualification and economic requirements of the re-spective countries.

Didactically both the MES system of the ILO and tra-ditional course instruction or project instruction can beincorporated into the school-run enterprise concept. Thusthis concept seems appropriate not only for elitisttechnical and vocational education, but also for thedevelopment of a professional infrastructure. Only as aconsequence does the question of complex full-timeschools or dual systems of technical and vocationaleducation arise.


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Contributions

Part 1:Macrosystems of Technical and

Vocational Education

An International Comparison of Systems ofTechnical and Vocational Education -An Attempt at Classification

by Wolf-Dietrich GREINERTThis Symposium deals with the question of how systemsof technical and vocational education may or should re-spond to new developments in the field of production,distribution and information technologies as well as tochanges in work organization by adopting new qualifica-tion methods.

When considering this question on a national level, it suf-fices to look at the training methods as such, i.e. themicrosystem of technical and vocational education. If wewish to consider the question in a wider framework (asthis Symposium intends to do), we must also include thesystemic and organizational level, i.e. the macrosystem,as there are relations between the micro- and macrolevelsof systems of technical and vocational education whichcannot be ignored.

In the following, I shall propose a classification for sys-tems of technical and vocational education, because it ishardly possible to compare the large number of complexnational systems of technical and vocational education,for example from the aspect of training method reform.My paper consists of three parts: The prerequisite:

A reliable criterion for classification. The intermediate result:

Basic types of formal technical and vocational educa-tion.

The final result:National systems of technical and vocational educationas variants and/or combinations of the basic types.

1 The prerequisite:

A reliable criterion for classificationIf we wish to assign the numerous national systems oftechnical and vocational education to a few basic types,we have to establish a criterion for such classification.The selection of a suitable criterion presents difficulties.This is obvious from the attempts made by four Germanauthors in recent years to identify basic types of technicaland vocational education: Lauterbach compares twelve countries and distin-

guishes between technical and vocational education byenterprises, at school, and the dual system, and mixedsystems.

Maslankowski distinguishes between the dual system,

technical and vocational education at school, MEStraining, national services, and on-the-job training.

Hegelheimer compares seven European countries anddistinguishes between three types: dual systems, full-time school, and mixed systems.

Zedler, following Hegelheimer's classification, distin-guishes between four basic types: the dual system,full-time vocational school, mixed systems, and on-the-job training.

Despite their pragmatic orientation, these four clas-sifications must be viewed with a critical eye. Even afirst glance reveals that there are contradictions. For ex-ample, Maslankowski's MES training is a training

method, which is used where a training system does notexist.

Lauterbach's, Hegelheimer's, and Zedler's basic type of"mixed systems" is a lapse in logic, as a mixed type can-not be a basic type.

The pragmatic character of the four classification systemsis above all borne out by the absence of an explicit classi-fication criterion. It becomes clear from Lauterbach's ex-planations that the crucial question is: In what place(s) oflearning (school, enterprise, training workshop, etc.) doesthe greater part of technical and vocational education takeplace? All four authors identify a school-based systemand a dual system, with three of them naming also the

purely enterprise-based type of on-the-job training.Maslankowski's basic type of national services for techni-cal and vocational education does not, however, fit intothis concept. We may note: The main place of learninghas become a generally accepted criterion for classifyingsystems of technical and vocational education. At anyrate I could not find any other approach in the relevantliterature.

The place of learning may be a plausible criterion forclassification, but its value for analysis is limited. On theone hand, the term is not sufficiently precise and, on theother hand, it is used to denote a (new) pedagogical cate-gory. Places of learning are traditionally defined by the

German Education Council (Deutscher Bildungsrat) asplaces which can be distinguished by their pedagogicalfunction. Each place of learning is characterized by itsfunctions in the learning process.

An aspect which is apparently excluded here quite delib-erately is the question of responsibility, i.e. the questionwhat social or political agents determine the structure andfunctions of the individual places of learning. This im-plies that systems of technical and vocational educationare above all the result of considerations on what is ex-pedient from the pedagogical standpoint. A brief look atthe historical development of such systems, however,shows that they are first and foremost the result of a con-

flict between economic and political interests; they reflectthe distribution of power in society. What should belearned at what place of learning seems to be a rather hy-pothetical question in that respect.

For this reason alone, the place of learning is not a suit-able criterion for classifying systems of technical and vo-cational education. Furthermore, the notion of the placeof learning has a static dimension, which means that,while it may serve to describe and analyze structures, itdoes not indicate how the system functions. Modernsystems theory must, however, be a means for relatingstructure to function.

My approach to classifying systems of technical and vo-

cational education is therefore based on a criterion whichis both political and dynamic: The role of the govern-ment. How does the government define its own role inthe process of vocational qualification of the majority ofits citizens?


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2 The intermediate result:Basic types of formal technical and vocationaleducation

When analyzing the numerous national systems of techni-cal and vocational education while applying the abovecriterion, we obtain the following three basic models:

0DUNHW0RGHO

The government plays a minor role or no role at all in vo-cational qualification processes.

%XUHDXFUDWLF0RGHO

The government is the sole authority responsible for theplanning, organization and control of technical and voca-

tional education.

*RYHUQPHQW0&RQWUROOHG0DUNHW0RGHO

The government provides a more or less tight frameworkfor technical and vocational education in private enter-

prises or other private training institutions.

Illustration 2

Classification of systems of technical and vocationaleducation according to the role of government

Model 1:The government plays a minor role or no role at all invocational qualification processes

This model could be called liberal. It is, however, betterto term it a market economy system or market model.Such systems can be found in the United Kingdom, in theUSA and in Japan.

Although the systems of technical and vocational educa-tion in these countries differ considerably, above all their

socio-economic origin has been entirely different, theyhave one thing in common: Vocational education is notrelated to general education, for example in the form ofvocational schools, nor is there a separate system whichwould guarantee minimum vocational qualifications forthe majority of young people.

The above-mentioned countries have well-developedgeneral education systems which, as a rule, involve 11 or12 years of compulsory schooling and are rather stronglyinfluenced by the government. All young people in thesecountries attend what is called a high school. The numberof high school graduates going on to college and universi-ty is very high in these countries as compared with thesituation in the Federal Republic of Germany.

Technical and vocational education for its greater part isnot, however, under government influence. It is directlyrelated to the productive factor of work and to the labourmarket. Its development and organization is left to thecitizen's own initiative and to the commitment of enter-prises, local authorities, and other training providers whooffer and organize, practically without having to complywith government regulations, vocational education andtraining geared to practical work situations.

There are usually also school and government pro-grammes (for marginal and problem groups) providingvocational qualification; however, the historically

evolved traditional structures still dominate. Enterprisesare major training providers. Above all, big enterprisesusually achieve an outstanding position in the marketowing to their economic superiority, as is the case for ex-ample in Japan.

What are the mechanisms responsible for the functioningof these market-oriented systems of technical and voca-tional education? The following is a list of mechanisms,which does not, however, claim to be complete:

The market model determines the quantitative relationsbetween qualification requirements and vocational edu-cation. Vocational qualifications are providedaccording to demand. Demand is determined by the

customers, i.e. the enterprises. The type of qualification (qualitative aspect) is deter-

mined exclusively by the presumed applications in theenterprises. Inter-company qualification transfer de-pends on the market, but it is usually not very strong.

The market mechanism of vocational qualificationfunctions best when the potential customers providetraining themselves and control the results.

In this case, training is financed by the customers, i.e. itis governed by the principle of cost minimization. Itwill usually be related more to productive than topedagogical principles (on-the-job training).

Providers of vocational training select the traineesirrespective of superior social values (e.g. equal oppor-tunities); trainees, in principle, have the same legalstatus as regular workers.

Model 2:The government is the sole authority responsible forthe planning, organization and control of technicaland vocational education

For logical reasons, this model should be termedbureaucratic; in view of its predominantly institutionalform it may, however, be called the school model. It canbe found in France, Italy and Sweden and also in various

countries of the Third World. Bureaucratic systems oftechnical and vocational education can, however, also befound in socialist countries, where enterprise trainingplays an important or even central role (e.g. in theGerman Democratic Republic, in Poland and inHungary).

School-based systems of technical and vocational educa-tion are similar to a great extent in structure and origin.Their special feature is a graded vocational school systemclosely linked with general education, in developed coun-tries always at the upper secondary level.

Access to the different training courses which providequalification at clearly defined levels is determined by the

applicant's completion of lower secondary level educa-tion. This link between school education and technicaland vocational education is also demonstrated by anotherfeature of the system, namely the direct connection ofschool leaving qualifications with vocational quali-fications (often included in wage agreements), which mayeven result in a real double qualification (e.g. universityentrance and skilled worker qualification).

School-based systems of technical and vocational educa-tion are in principle hierarchical elite systems and are to befound mostly in countries with a centralized administration.Owing to their elitist character, they usually involve aneducation monopoly in the field of technical and vocational

education which virtually precludes the development ofcompeting forms of training, e.g. "dual" systems.

Private enterprise does not play a role in such systems oftechnical and vocational education, except perhaps asprovider of places for students who are required to spendpractical work periods in industry. The stronger the gov-


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ernment's claim to the sole responsibility for technicaland vocational education, the more the bureaucratic sys-tem of planning, organization and control is closed.Nevertheless there are cases in which enterprises cooper-ate indirectly in these systems: In France, for instance,the major chambers operate vocational schools which aresubsidized by the government and therefore required toobserve the training rules and regulations issued by the

government.What are the mechanisms underlying such schoolsystems? In the following, some important mechanismsare listed:

The quantitative relations between qualification re-quirements and technical and vocational education aredetermined by public planning authorities. Demand-oriented planning is most efficient when it refers to alimited number of established basic occupations.

The type of vocational qualification (qualitative aspect)is not primarily determined by practical worksituations, but usually also takes account of individualand social requirements. The more the vocational

schools are related to general education including itsperformance and selection criteria, the more their tech-nical qualification function is influenced by the sys-tem-related problems encountered by general schools.

Planning, organization and control of the process oftechnical and vocational education are determined to agreat extent by bureaucracy; the implementation of therelated universal principles tends to guarantee theprovision of systematic training strongly influenced byteaching theory.

School-based technical and vocational education isfinanced from public funds. Since such funds are, bydefinition, limited, there are usually no national train-ing models aiming to provide vocational qualificationfor an entire age group.

School models function best for occupations and occu-pational fields which do not involve much training ofpsychomotor skills, e.g. commercial occupations.

Model 3:The government provides a more or less tightframework for technical and vocational educationin private enterprises or other private traininginstitutions

This system could be called a government-controlledmarket model; however, it is precisely what we call a dualsystem. It can be found in the Federal Republic ofGermany, in Switzerland and in Austria.

Such systems are commonly called dual because twoplaces of learning, enterprise and (government-supported)vocational school, cooperate with the common aim ofproviding the trainees with vocational qualifications. Thedual structure may, however, vary. South American dualsystems of technical and vocational education, forinstance, mainly involve inter-company training centresas the second place of learning; these centres are financedby the enterprises as a whole. The system of technical

and vocational education which German industry intend-ed to establish in the 1920s and 1930s, apprenticeship inindustry involving instruction at a (private) industrial vo-cational school, can also be considered a "dual" system.

Government-controlled market models are characterizedby the strong dividing line drawn between the system oftechnical and vocational education and the public generalschool system. This is demonstrated above all by the ex-istence of a more or less detailed specific technical andvocational education law, which cannot be categorized asschool law. The legal responsibility for technical and vo-cational education under such systems therefore lies, as a

rule, with the department of economics or labour.Government-controlled market models of technical andvocational education can be found above all in placeswhich have traditionally had an advanced trade culture.Small businesses and the tradition of training provisionby the crafts are not, however, indispensable prerequisitesfor dual technical and vocational education. As isdemonstrated by the German example, the system canalso be adapted by industry. What is essential for themodel's functioning is neither the place of learning nor aspecific enterprise structure, but rather the existence of atraining sector which is designed according to privateenterprise (i.e. free-market) rules and which can bemodified by rules issued by the government.

The dual system can be defined as a system involving twoplaces of learning only with regard to its institutionalform. With regard to function, the dual character dependson the integration of two different sets of regulationsgoverning technical and vocational education. This in-tegration is reflected most clearly by the law on technicaland vocational education, e.g. by the 1969 VocationalTraining Act of the Federal Republic of Germany(Berufsbildungsgesetz, BBiG),which, in a target-orientedapproach, combines the private law sphere of the marketwith the public law sphere of the government.

What functional criteria can be derived from this basic

pattern? The following are important: The quantitative relations between qualification re-

quirements and technical and vocational education de-pend on the market (which provides the training oppor-tunities); however, enterprises which offer trainingaccept government-issued rules.

The type of vocational qualification (qualitative aspect)is determined primarily by practical work situations inthe enterprise. The definition of qualification goalsinvolves not only the enterprises but also the govern-ment and other interest groups (e.g. trade unions, pro-fessional associations).

The enterprises are the training providers. However,vocational training processes have to be organized ac-cording to government rules and are subject to direct orindirect government control.

The costs of training are, in principle, borne by theenterprises. Dual training models are, however, char-acterized by the application of regularized financingmodels (e.g. fund financing) and/or co-financing oftechnical and vocational education by the governmentto a greater or lesser extent, as is the case, for instance,in the Federal Republic of Germany for the financingof part-time vocational schools.

In dual systems of technical and vocational education,the extent to which vocational training is designedsystematically and governed by pedagogical principles

can be modified according to demand. The most im-portant instrument in that respect is the modification offinancial incentives.

The above analysis could create the wrong impressionthat the dual training model is an optimized system, par-ticularly designed to avoid the disadvantages and one-


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tors, the type and establishment of training institu-tions, the organization of training for the recognizedoccupations including determination of the contentsand the periods of training;

examinations and supervision of technical and voca-tional education as well as provisions governingfurther training, retraining and technical and voca-tional education for handicapped persons.

Furthermore, the BBiG stipulates that committees beestablished at the federal, regional (Lnder) andchamber levels; these committees take decisions andprovide advice on issues in technical and vocationaleducation. In 1981, the BBiG was supplemented bythe Vocational Training Promotion Act (Berufs-bildungsfrderungsgesetz, BerBiFG), which deals withstatistics, planning and research in technical and voca-tional education.

The institutional structure of the dual system of techni-cal and vocational education in the Federal Republic ofGermany is in general characterized by the existence oftwo places of learning: enterprise and part-time voca-

tional school. Traditionally, the enterprise is to providepractical skills, while the school provides the relevanttheoretical knowledge.

This is a rather simplistic characterization which doesnot take account of the special institutional structure ofthe system of technical and vocational education in theFederal Republic of Germany, i.e. the broad range oftraining opportunities. For example, the enterpriseoffers numerous learning environments, ranging fromthe regular workplace to the workplace which is spe-cially designed for learning purposes, to the learningcorner, the training workshop, the research laboratoryand the classroom. In addition, there are a growing

number of inter-company training workshops, in a waya third place of learning because of the special institu-tional structure, which are to relieve the trainingburden above all for small and medium-sized enter-prises.

The traditional distribution of tasks among the placesof learning is also becoming more and more indistinct:The school-based variant of the basic vocational educa-tion year includes the provision of practical skills; thetraditional distribution of tasks between enterprise andschool is no longer practicable with regard to new tech-nological qualifications in the field of the recentlyrevised recognized occupations in metalworking and

electrical engineering.Despite these thorough institutional changes, the sys-tem of technical and vocational education in theFederal Republic in Germany still remains a dual sys-tem, as this dual character does not explicitly dependon the duality of learning places.

I hope that I have been successful in my attempt to helpyou to better understand the system of technical and voca-tional education in the Federal Republic of Germany. Iwould be happy if my classification system could also in-crease your understanding of your own national systemsof technical and vocational education.

The Japanese Market Model -A Comparison of Japanese QualificationStrategies with those of Other Countries

by Walter GEORGBefore dealing with the structure of technical and voca-tional education and employment in Japan, I should liketo make the following remarks concerning my paper:

In a brief statement like this, the different strategies oftechnical and vocational education can only be ex-plained by overemphasizing ideal types which arerarely found in real life. Reality is reduced to a certainnumber of models, which do not reflect the existingvariety.

Such variety is to be found particularly in Japan, wherethe mechanisms of technical and vocational educationand employment are not determined by systematic in-stitutional structures which could be described in or-ganizational charts and diagrams. These mechanismsare part of informal policies and management strategieswhich have for years been a major topic of discussionin the western hemisphere. Evidence of this interestare such concepts and catchwords as quality circle,company clan or corporate/ organizational culture.

Therefore, when comparing the macrostructures oftechnical and vocational education, we must not onlylook at the different institutions but also attempt todiscover the underlying principles and mechanisms.What economic and social opportunities and risks ac-company the respective organizational structure oftraining and employment?

In the following, I am attempting to make such an analy-sis for Japan. I am referring to the framework established

by Professor Greinert, who distinguishes between marketmodel, school model and dual model, and tries to assignthe numerous systems of technical and vocational educa-tion to one of the three. Japan is an excellent example ofthe market model, because the contents and organ-izational structure of technical and vocational educationseem to be largely free from government intervention andregulation. However, anyone who knows Japan wouldprotest if I presented Japan as a model of a free-marketeconomy. It is characteristic of Japan's economy that thestate determines numerous limits to the free market mech-anisms. Export enterprises which try to gain a footing onthe Japanese market constantly complain about this.

The industrialization of Japan in the last quarter of the19th century was a top-down process, i.e. it was triggeredand controlled more by government investments in theeconomic infrastructure than by private initiatives. Thetraditional function of public administration is that of adriving force of industrial modernization, a functionwhich still characterizes today's intensive communicativeand cooperative relations between governmental and in-dustrial management. However, these relations are basednot so much on a legal framework of government inter-vention opportunities as on a soft, informal influence andthe creation of a climate which is conducive to inno-vation. This, from the Japanese standpoint, means aslittle bureaucracy as possible.

This background information is, I think, very importantfor an understanding of the "Japanese market model".

In the following, I am focussing on the characteristictraits of the Japanese system of technical and vocationaleducation when describing the background, functioning


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and consequences of the market model, a model in whichthe government plays only a minor role or no role at all.

Hypothesis 1:Under the market model of technical and vocationaleducation the government has merely the function ofpreventive crisis management and repair.

Technical and vocational education in Japan has always

been the task of the individual industrial enterprises. Inthe face of the postwar shortage of qualified workers thegovernment first became aware of its responsibility. In1958 the first vocational training act was passed. Themost recent version (1985) provides for the establishmentand maintenance of government-run training centres andfor public funding for company and inter-company train-ing centres. With respect to quantity and quality, thissector is, however, of marginal importance. Less than1 % of the annual number of school leavers go to suchtraining centres.Most of these centres are designed for school leavers whowere not successful in their first attempt to enter employ-ment, or they provide retraining for the unemployed orthe potentially unemployed. On the whole, the govern-ment-maintained training centres are above all supposedto reduce imbalances on the labour market by offeringadequate qualification, and to close the gaps which tech-nological change has left above all in small enterpriseswithout training capacities of their own.The large majority of Japanese enterprises provide trainingaccording to their own company concepts without any gov-ernment intervention. Therefore, technical and vocationaleducation is not a controversial issue between governmentand industry, nor is it an issue of trade union policy. Tech-nical and vocational education is an integral part of enter-prise activities and thus of industrial work organization and

employment policy, and as such is not questioned by thirdparties. Neither the government nor the public expect theenterprise to achieve certain training standards beyond in-house needs. Vice versa, Japanese enterprises do not claimgovernment funding for their training efforts. The govern-ment intervenes only in the case of labour marketimbalances, and when the entrepreneurs are not interestedbecause investments do not promise any profit.This reduction of governmental functions is most clearlyreflected by the fact that on the Japanese labour market vo-cational qualifications play only a minor or no role at all.

Hypothesis 2:

The market model of technical and vocationaleducation limits the exchange processes on the labourmarket considerably.

Since there are no government-recognized occupationsnor any generally valid certificates of vocational quali-fication, the labour market lacks an important controlinstrument. According to our western understanding, theinstrument of recognized occupations guarantees standardvocational qualifications which are marketable. Everyonewho has obtained such vocational qualifications is inde-pendent of the individual enterprise.That is not the case with Japan. Neither the system ofprogrammes for technical and vocational education nor

the organization of work and training at enterprise level isgeared to occupational profiles or the awarding of voca-tional certificates. Qualifications have a practical valuefor the enterprises concerned but no exchange value onthe labour market. This means a considerable reductionin inter-company mobility. Since a change of enterprise

would mean that the staff concerned lose the privilegesthey have acquired during permanent employment, andthe enterprise loses its investments in technical and voca-tional education, both sides have little interest in suchmobility.

Hypothesis 3:The market model of technical and vocationaleducation contributes to a clear-cut segmentation ofthe labour markets within and outside the enterprises.The top segment of the Japanese labour market is the"regular" staff, with permanent employment and pro-motion as well as pension rights being guaranteed by theenterprise. Regular staff is recruited each year directlyfrom among the school leavers and university graduates.This segment is estimated at about 30 % to 35 % of theentire Japanese work force.

This regular staff is granted a status similar to civilservice at the expense of the larger, secondary labourmarket segments in which employment is mostlyunprotected. In contrast to regular staff, "marginal" staff

includes part-time and temporary workers, loan workers,(female) home workers, and the majority of the labourforce of small and very small enterprises. The groupsconcerned are above all women, persons of advanced age(beyond retirement age), "unsuccessful" young people,and foreigners (particularly Koreans). There are hardlyany exchange processes between the top segment and thesecondary labour market groups (and if so, only in onedirection). There is segmentation both within the enter-prises and between them. The much-quoted "pillars" ofthe Japanese employment system, namely lifelong em-ployment, the principle of seniority (with regard topayment and promotion), and company unions, can beunderstood only when bearing in mind this segmentation.

They provide protection only for regular staff.With regard to technical and vocational education inenterprises, this segmentation means that only regularstaff enjoy long-term enterprise investments in education.The marginal staff (i.e. above all women and the staff ofsmall enterprises) are given no opportunity to acquire anyqualification of permanent value; they have usually ac-quired only a very narrow range of vocational skills andhave only limited access to working aids involvingmodern technologies. All in all, segmentation leads toextremely unequal qualification prospects for the differ-ent groups of staff.

Hypothesis 4:The market model of technical and vocationaleducation requires other criteria for enterprise staffrecruitment and other organizational models.

As there are no special vocational qualifications on the-DSDQHVH ODERXU PDUNHW/ VR0FDOOHG ZRUNDWWLWXGHVVXFKDV the ability and willingness to learn,to achieve, to adapt and to fit in are of central importancein the recruiting process of an enterprise. In the case ofregular staff, decisions on recruitment are almost irre-versible both for the enterprise and for the applicant.Therefore, there is careful consideration on both sides.The enterprise's most important criteria concerning the

biography of the applicant are his/her family backgroundand his/her learning ability, which is derived from schoolleaving certificates. For applicants the major criterion isenterprise size: the bigger the enterprise, the better theprospects for lifelong employment and a civil servant-likecareer with a salary increasing with seniority.


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All Japanese enterprises recruit new regular staff onceevery year when students leave school or university. Thisrhythm increases segmentation: Small enterprises mustcontent themselves with those school leavers who remainafter the best have been creamed off by large enterprises.As small enterprises have only limited training capacities,they are most likely to attach importance to relevant techni-cal qualifications when recruiting staff. Thus, this segment

includes a kind of labour market for part-time employmentof specifically qualified workers. However, as the employ-ment conditions in small enterprises are neither very securenor very attractive, these di

Innovative Methods of Technical and Vocational Education 89

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