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Infrared superconducting single-photon detectors
Robert HadfieldHeriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
Chandra Mouli Natarajan, Mike Tanner, John O’Connor Heriot-Watt University, UKBurm Baek, Marty Stevens, Sae Woo Nam NIST, USAShigehito Miki, Zhen Wang, Masahide Sasaki NICT, JapanSander Dorenbos, Val Zwiller TU Delft, The NetherlandsJonathan Habif, Chip Elliot BBN Technologies, USAHiroke Takesue NTT, JapanQiang Zhang, Yoshihisa Yamamoto Stanford, USAAlberto Peruzzo, Damien Bonneau, Mirko Lobino, Mark Thompson, Jeremy O’Brien U. Bristol, UK
• Introduction to photon counting• Superconducting nanowire single photon detectors
(SNSPDs): device concept and evolution.• Applications of SNSPDs in quantum information science:
measurements of quantum emitters, quantum key distribution, quantum waveguide circuits.
• Outlook: challenges and opportunities for this technology.
Infrared superconducting single-photon detectors
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
• The term ‘Photon’ coined in 1926 following Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect. Quantum of electromagnetic radiation E=hn.
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
What is a Photon?
What is a Photon?• The term ‘Photon’ coined in 1926 following Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect. Quantum of electromagnetic radiation E=hn.
• Some prominent detractors:Willis Lamb ‘Anti-Photon’ Appl. Phys. B 60 77 (1995)
Indian Proverb:Six wise men went to see an elephant (though all of them were blind)..
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
• The term ‘Photon’ coined in 1926 following Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect. Quantum of electromagnetic radiation E=hn.
• Some prominent detractors:Willis Lamb ‘Anti-Photon’ Appl. Phys. B 60 77 (1995)
• The following definition appears to cut the Gordian Knot:
‘A photon is what a photodetector detects’ (Roy Glauber)
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
What is a Photon?
Photon-counting detectors
• Human eyes are sensitive down to the (few) photon level.
• Photomultipliers photocathode + dynode multiplication
• Semiconductor single-photon avalanche photodiodes (SPADs)
• Superconductorsnumerous detector examples, including superconducting nanowires
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
• Human eyes are sensitive down to the (few) photon level.
• Photomultipliers photocathode + dynode multiplication
• Semiconductor single-photon avalanche photodiodes (SPADs)
• Superconductorsnumerous detector examples, including superconducting nanowires
Photon-counting detectors
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
• Human eyes are sensitive down to the (few) photon level.
• Photomultipliers photocathode + dynode multiplication
• Semiconductor single-photon avalanche photodiodes (SPADs)
• Superconductorsnumerous detector examples, including superconducting nanowires
Photon-counting detectors
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
• Human eyes are sensitive down to the (few) photon level.
• Photomultipliers photocathode + dynode multiplication
• Semiconductor single-photon avalanche photodiodes (SPADs)
• Superconductorsnumerous detector examples, including superconducting nanowires
Photon-counting detectors
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
InGaAs SPADs
Applications
Detectors
Single-photon detectors & applications
Wavelength
Life SciencesFLIM/FRET
Free space comms and LIDAR
Quantum cryptography
in fibre
Quantum Optics
Atmospheric Sensing
Astronomy
IC Testing
Photomultipliers IR PMTs
Si SPADs
Superconducting detectors
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Characteristics of single-photon detectors
• High quantum detection efficiency at wavelength of interest.
• Probability of noise-triggered ‘dark counts’ low.
• Time between detection of photon and generation of electrical signal should be constant – low jitter.
• Short recovery time (‘dead time’).
• Ability to resolve photon number.
Review article: Hadfield RH ‘Single-photon detectors for optical quantum information applications’ Nature Photonics 3 (12) 696 (2009)
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SSPDs or SNSPDs)
Key Properties:
• Wide spectral range (visible – mid IR)• Free running (no gating required)• Low dark counts• Low timing jitter• Short recovery time
Considerable scope for further improvements!
Gol’tsman et al Applied Physics Letters 79 705 (2001)
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Sapphire substrate
NbN
Gol’tsman et al., Applied Physics Letters 79, 705 (2001)
100 nm
3.5 nm
Bias CurrentIncidentPhoton
Hot spot(R > 0)
Bias Current
Current densityabove critical
Hot spot(R > 0)
Bias Current
R > 0
Bias Current
R = 0 → Voltage Drop = 0
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector
T~ 4K
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector
V(t)
T~ 4KBias Current Reduced
R > 0 → Voltage Pulse Out
Hotspot Growth
Gol’tsman et al., Applied Physics Letters 79, 705 (2001)
Sapphire substrate
NbN
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Sapphire substrate
NbN
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector
Bias Current
Recovery: • Hotspot shrinks as heat is dissipated into substrate• Current builds up limited by inductance of nanowire
V(t)
Bias current suppressed
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Gol’tsman APL 2001
100 nm wide wire, ~5 mm long
Single wire
Evolution of SNSPD design
Efficient optical coupling is a challenge:
Practical detection efficiency= coupling efficiency x intrinsic quantum efficiency
=> Increase active area
Verevkin APL 2002
Meander
100 nm wide wire, ~10 mm x 10 mm area
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Evolution of SNSPD design
Next step:
Practical detection efficiency= coupling efficiency x intrinsic quantum efficiency
=> Boost absorption to increase intrinsic QE
Verevkin APL 2002
Meander
100 nm wide wire, ~10 mm x 10 mm area
Optical Cavity
nanowire
mirror
Light
substrate
Rosfjord OX 2006
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Evolution of SNSPD design
Single wire MeanderIncrease coupling
Optical CavityIncrease absorption
Practical detection efficiency low
Max intrinsic efficiency ~20% at
1550 nm
Best reported intrinsic efficiency 57% at 1550 nm
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Other developments in SNSPD designPhoton number resolution with spatial multiplexing (SINPHONIA, MIT)
Detector embedded in waveguide (MIT, Yale, TUe)
Dichovy et al Nature Photonics 2008 Dauler et al J. Modern Optics 2009
SNSPDs on Si substrates (Delft)
Dorenbos et al APL 2008 Hu IEEE Trans Appl. Supercon. 2009; Sprengers arXiv 1108.5107; Pernice arXiv 1108.5299
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector system
•High efficiency SNSPDs from TU Delft Tanner et al Applied Physics Letters 96 221109 (2010)• 4 or more fiber-coupled SNSPDs can be implemented into a practical, closed-cycle refrigerator system Hadfield et al Optics Express 13 (26) 10864 (2005)
SNSPD system at Heriot-Watt
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector system: practical performance
Tanner et al Applied Physics Letters 96 221109 (2010)
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Quantum information science with single photons
• Quantum systems can be used to encode and manipulate information.• QIST promises dramatic improvements in secure communications
metrology, and computation.• In principle many candidate quantum systems (trapped ions, spins in
semiconductor quantum dots, superconducting circuits..)• Optical photon makes an ideal ‘flying qubit’• Photons have low decoherence even at room temperature, easy to route
and manipulate
|0 +|1e.g. polarization of photon
Superconducting single-photon photon detectors for
quantum information science
• Faithful detection of single photons is a key challenge.Hadfield Nature Photonics 3 (12) 696 (2009)
• Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SSPDs or SNSPDs) have are an important emerging photon-counting technology.
• SNSPDs have an important role in new QIS applications:Characterization of quantum emittersQuantum Key Distribution (QKD)Operation of quantum waveguide circuits
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Characterization of quantum emitters
Fiber
SSPD
Cryostat
Ti:SapphireLaser
Sample
Fast Photodiode
TAC/MCATiming Electronics
Stop
Start
Mono-chromator@ 935 nm
1 ps, 780 nm
BS
DichroicBSSample
InGaAs/GaAs QW, Room Temp
-500 0 500 1000 1500100
101
102
103
104
105
Time (ps)
Co
un
ts
ConventionalSi APD
FastSi APD
SSPD
-500 0 500 1000 1500100
101
102
103
104
105
Time (ps)
Co
un
ts
ConventionalSi APD
FastSi APD
SSPDInstrumentResponses
Decays
82 MHz
Stevens et al Applied Physics Letters 89 031109 (2006)
Quantum dot single-photon sources for quantum information science applications•Self-assembled quantum dots in III-V semiconductor are a promising source of single photons for optical QIS. Michler et al Nature 290 2282 (2001)•Single photon emission is verified by g(2)(0) measurement.•These measurements were on emitters at l ~900 nm; SNSPDs would also enable measurements on telecom wavelength single-photon sources
Hadfield et al Optics Express 13 10846 (2005)Hadfield et al Journal of Applied Physics 101 103104 (2007)
-500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500100
101
102
103
Fit: = 290 ps
Time (ps)
Co
un
ts
IRF DecayData
InGaAs grown on InPlDetect = 1650 nm
Long wavelength characterization of quantum emitters using SNSPDs
•Si single photon avalanche photodiodes do not work at l>1 mm.•SNSPDs can be used for characterization of long wavelength emitters.
• These measurements were carried out on semiconductor single-photon emitters; this technique would be equally applicable to studies of single photon emission from diamond defect centers, FLIM and FRET for single molecules and singlet oxygen detection.
Stevens et al Applied Physics Letters 89 031109 (2006)
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Quantum Key Distribution(Bennett & Brassard, 1984)
Alice Bob
Eve
hn
R. Liechtenstein
•Quantum Key Distribution is a method for two parties (‘Alice’ and ‘Bob’) to create a ‘key’ for encrypting subsequent messages.
•Information encoded on single photons via phase or polarization
•Any attempted eavesdropping introduces errors and is therefore detectable.
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Robert Hadfield - Heriot-Watt Quantum Photonics Workshop
• There are two contributions to the error rate (QBER):
QBER total = QBER interferometer + QBER dark counts
Dark count rate / Sifted bit rate
Distance
QB
ER 11 %
Log(K
ey R
ate
)
Distance
Sifted
Secret
Fixed ~1%
• Above a certain error rate (QBER) threshold, secure key can no longer be generated.
• As the transmission distance increases, the number of detected bits falls, so the error rate rises, causing the secret bit rate to eventually fall to zero.
Quantum Key Distribution – range limitations
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors in Quantum Key Distribution
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors: benefits for QKD in optical fibre:
- Single-photon sensitivity at 1550 nm
- Low dark counts
- Low timing jitter
- Gaussian instrument response function
=>Long distances
=>High bit rates
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
First QKD demonstration with SNSPDs in the DARPA quantum network
• A collaboration between NIST and BBN Technologies (Jonathan Habif, Chip Elliot) sponsored by the DARPA QuIST programme.• First prototype SNSPD system delivered to BBN end 2005.
Bob
Alice (behind)
SNSPD Closed-cycle system
Hadfield et al Applied Physics Letters 89 241199 (2006)
Clock rate 3.3 MHz
42.5 km spool
25 km spool
Link loss (dB)Bi
t rat
e (b
its/s
)
World record result for long distance QKD in optical fiber using SNSPDs
• Demonstration carried out end 2006 in Yamamoto lab, Stanford University (Stanford/NTT/NIST)
• 10 GHz clocked QKD system at l= 1550 nm using superconducting detectors
10 GHz
1 GHz
Takesue et al Nature Photonics 1 343 (2007)
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
New directions in QKD: ground to spaceVision of European Space Agency SpaceQUEST topical team (led by Prof. Anton Zeilinger, University of Vienna):
QKD from the International Space Station (ISS).
Photon flux
Microlens array
Cavity enhanced nanowire pixels
Role for SNSPDs?
R Ursin et al Europhysics News 40 (3) 26 2009
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Quantum waveguide circuits
Optical waveguide circuits can be used to replace conventional optics.
Politi et al Science 320 5876 (2008)
Jeremy O’Brien, University of Bristol
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
CW laser, 402nm, 60mW
μm actuator
SNSPDs
Waveguide Circuit
BiBO
PMF
SMF
FilterTCSPC Card
a
b
cd
804nm photon pairs
with Jeremy O’Brien, University of Bristol, UK
Operating quantum waveguide circuits with SNSPDs
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Operating quantum waveguide circuits with SNSPDs: initial experiments at l=805 nm
VSNSPD 92.3 %
Natarajan et al Applied Physics Letters 96 211101 (2010)
• First generation quantum waveguide circuits: silica on silicon waveguides, downconversion pair source at l=850 nm (as used in Politi et al Science 320 5876 (2008))•SNSPDs replace Si SPADs•Demonstrations:
-Two photon interference (Hong-Ou-Mandel dip)-Tuned two phonon interference with resistive phase shift-CNOT gate
F=90.4%
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
• First generation quantum waveguide circuits: silica on silicon waveguides, downconversion pair source at l=850 nm and Si SPAD detectors Politi et al Science 320 5876 (2008)
• A much wider range of high performance waveguide components (compact low loss waveguides, high speed switches and modulators)
• SNSPDs allow operation of next generation quantum waveguide circuits at 1550 nm.
• Recent reports show that SNSPDs can also be integrated on-chip with the waveguide. This is crucial for the scalabilty of circuits in demanding applications such as optical quantum computing.
Operating quantum waveguide circuits with SNSPDs: migrating to telecom wavelengths
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011
Heralded source with fast lithium niobate switch
%1.09.97 Switching efficiency
MZI driven with a 4 ns rising time pulse
V
Bonneau et al Fast path and polarization manipulation of telecom wavelength single photons in lithium niobate waveguide devices arXiv 1107.3476 (2011)
Fast switching of quantum interference
a
b
c
d
Signal generator
Counting logic
C1 C2
Counting logic with toggle between two separate counters
11cos02202
sin11
Square waves 4MHz
q = 0 q =p/2SPDC
%282
%22
C2
C1
Bonneau et al Fast path and polarization manipulation of telecom wavelength single photons in lithium niobate waveguide devices arXiv 1107.3476 (2011)
Prospects and challenges for SNSPD development:• Achieving high efficiency at mid IR wavelengths• Reducing the timing jitter• Increasing the active area• Integrating devices on-chip with optical and electrical elements (optical
waveguide circuits, readout electronics)
Potential breakthroughs:• Large area single photon detectors/detector arrays with high efficiency,
picosecond timing resolution and gigahertz count rates from UV to mid IR wavelengths
• Adoption in new application areas: quantum communications and computing, LiDAR, astronomy, life sciences, integrated circuit testing
Infrared superconducting single-photon detectorsOutlook
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) offer very good practical performance at telecom wavelengths and have successfully been used in challenging quantum information science experiments.
Robert Hadfield – RIT Detector Virtual Workshop 2011