Illuminated manuscript

In the strictest definition of illuminated manuscript, onlymanuscripts with gold or silver, like this miniature of Christ inMajesty from the Aberdeen Bestiary (folio 4v), would be consid-ered illuminated.

An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in whichthe text is supplemented with such decoration as initials,borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. In thestrictest definition of the term, an illuminated manuscriptrefers only to manuscripts decorated with gold or silver,but in both common usage and modern scholarship, theterm refers to any decorated or illustrated manuscriptfrom Western traditions.Comparable Far Eastern and Mesoamerican works aredescribed as painted. Islamic manuscripts may be re-ferred to as illuminated, illustrated or painted, though us-ing essentially the same techniques as Western works.The earliest surviving substantive illuminatedmanuscripts are from the period AD 400 to 600,produced in Italy and the Eastern Roman Empire. Thesignificance of these works lies not only in their inherentartistic and historical value, but also in the maintenance

The decoration of this page from a French Book of Hours,ca.1400, includes a miniature, initials and borders

of a link of literacy offered by non-illuminated texts.Had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiq-uity, most literature of Greece and Rome would haveperished in Europe. As it was, the patterns of textualsurvivals were shaped by their usefulness to the severelyconstricted literate group of Christians. Illuminationof manuscripts, as a way of aggrandizing ancient docu-ments, aided their preservation and informative value inan era when new ruling classes were no longer literate, atleast in the language used in the manuscripts.The majority of surviving manuscripts are fromthe Middle Ages, although many survive from theRenaissance, along with a very limited number fromLate Antiquity. The majority of these manuscripts areof a religious nature. However, especially from the 13thcentury onward, an increasing number of secular textswere illuminated. Most illuminated manuscripts were

1

2 1 HISTORY

created as codices, which had superseded scrolls. Avery few illuminated manuscript fragments survive onpapyrus, which does not last nearly as long as vellum orparchment. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated ornot, were written on parchment (most commonly of calf,sheep, or goat skin), but most manuscripts importantenough to illuminate were written on the best quality ofparchment, called vellum.Beginning in the late Middle Ages manuscripts beganto be produced on paper.[1] Very early printed bookswere sometimes produced with spaces left for rubrics andminiatures, or were given illuminated initials, or deco-rations in the margin, but the introduction of printingrapidly led to the decline of illumination. Illuminatedmanuscripts continued to be produced in the early 16thcentury, but in much smaller numbers, mostly for the verywealthy.Manuscripts are among the most common items to sur-vive from the Middle Ages; many thousands survive.They are also the best surviving specimens of medievalpainting, and the best preserved. Indeed, for many areasand time periods, they are the only surviving examples ofpainting.

1 History

Main article: History of miniature (illuminatedmanuscript)

Art historians classify illuminated manuscripts into theirhistoric periods and types, including (but not lim-ited to) Late Antique, Insular, Carolingian manuscripts,Ottonian manuscripts, Romanesque manuscripts, Gothicmanuscripts, and Renaissance manuscripts. There are afew examples from later periods. The type of book thatwas most often heavily and richly illuminated, sometimesknown as a “display book”, varied between periods. Inthe first millennium, these were most likely to be GospelBooks, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book ofKells. The Romanesque period saw the creation of manyhuge illuminated complete Bibles – one in Sweden re-quires three librarians to lift it. Many Psalters were alsoheavily illuminated in both this and the Gothic period.Single cards or posters of vellum, leather or paper werein wider circulation with short stories or legends on themabout the lives of saints, chivalry knights or other mytho-logical figures, even criminal, social or miraculous occur-rences; popular events much freely used by story tellersand itinerant actors to support their plays. Finally, theBook of Hours, very commonly the personal devotionalbook of a wealthy layperson, was often richly illumi-nated in the Gothic period. Other books, both liturgicaland not, continued to be illuminated at all periods. TheByzantine world also continued to produce manuscriptsin its own style, versions of which spread to other Ortho-

dox and Eastern Christian areas. See Medieval art forother regions, periods and types. Reusing parchmentsby scraping the surface and reusing them was a commonpractice; the traces often left behind of the original textare known as palimpsests.The Muslim World and in particular the Iberian Penin-sula, with their traditions of literacy uninterrupted bythe Middle Ages, were instrumental in delivering an-cient classic works to the growing intellectual circles anduniversities of Western Europe all through the 1100s, asbooks were produced there in large numbers and on paperfor the first time in Europe, and with them full treatiseson the sciences, especially astrology and medicine whereillumination was required to have profuse and accuraterepresentations with the text.The Gothic period, which generally saw an increase inthe production of these beautiful artifacts, also saw moresecular works such as chronicles and works of literatureilluminated. Wealthy people began to build up personallibraries; Philip the Bold probably had the largest per-sonal library of his time in the mid-15th century, is es-timated to have had about 600 illuminated manuscripts,whilst a number of his friends and relations had severaldozen.Up to the twelfth century, most manuscripts were pro-duced in monasteries in order to add to the library or af-ter receiving a commission from a wealthy patron. Largermonasteries often contained separate areas for the monkswho specialized in the production of manuscripts calleda scriptorium. Within the walls of a scriptorium wereindividualized areas where a monk could sit and workon a manuscript without being disturbed by his fellowbrethren. If no scriptorium was available, then “sepa-rate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they weresituated in such a way that each scribe had to himself awindow open to the cloister walk.”[2] The separation ofthese monks from the rest of the cloister indicates justhow revered these monks were within their society.By the fourteenth century, the cloisters of monks writingin the scriptorium had almost fully given way to commer-cial urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and theNetherlands.[3] While the process of creating an illumi-nated manuscript did not change, the move from monas-teries to commercial settings was a radical step. Demandfor manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic li-braries were unable to meet with the demand, and beganemploying secular scribes and illuminators.[4] These indi-viduals often lived close to the monastery and, in certaininstances, dressed as monks whenever they entered themonastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of theday. In reality, illuminators were often well known andacclaimed and many of their identities have survived.[5]

First, the manuscript was “sent to the rubricator, whoadded (in red or other colors) the titles, headlines, theinitials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on; andthen – if the book was to be illustrated – it was sent to the

2.2 The process of illumination 3

illuminator.”[2] In the case of manuscripts that were soldcommercially, the writing would “undoubtedly have beendiscussed initially between the patron and the scribe (orthe scribe’s agent,) but by the time that the written gath-ering were sent off to the illuminator there was no longerany scope for innovation.”[6]

2 Techniques

Illumination was a complex and frequently costly process.It was usually reserved for special books: an altar Bible,for example. Wealthy people often had richly illuminated"books of hours" made, which set down prayers appropri-ate for various times in the liturgical day.In the early Middle Ages, most books were produced inmonasteries, whether for their own use, for presentation,or for a commission. However, commercial scriptoriagrew up in large cities, especially Paris, and in Italy andthe Netherlands, and by the late fourteenth century therewas a significant industry producing manuscripts, includ-ing agents who would take long-distance commissions,with details of the heraldry of the buyer and the saintsof personal interest to him (for the calendar of a Book ofhours). By the end of the period, many of the painterswere women, perhaps especially in Paris.

2.1 Text

In the making of an illuminated manuscript, the text wasusually written first. Sheets of parchment or vellum, an-imal hides specially prepared for writing, were cut downto the appropriate size. After the general layout of thepage was planned (e.g., initial capital, borders), the pagewas lightly ruled with a pointed stick, and the scribe wentto work with ink-pot and either sharpened quill feather orreed pen.The script depended on local customs and tastes. Thesturdy Roman letters of the early Middle Ages gradu-ally gave way to scripts such as Uncial and half-Uncial,especially in the British Isles, where distinctive scriptssuch as insular majuscule and insular minuscule devel-oped. Stocky, richly textured blackletter was first seenaround the 13th century and was particularly popular inthe later Middle Ages. Palaeography is the study of his-torical handwritten scripts, and codicology the relatedstudy of other physical aspects of manuscript codexes.One of the most important features in the productionof an illuminated manuscript is the amount of time thatwas spent in the pre-production stages outlining the work.Prior to the days of such careful planning, “A typicalblack-letter page of these Gothic years would show apage in which the lettering was cramped and crowdedinto a format dominated by huge ornamented capitalsthat descended from uncial forms or by illustrations.”[7]To prevent such poorly made manuscripts and illumina-

tions from occurring a script was typically supplied first,“and blank spaces were left for the decoration. This pre-supposes very careful planning by the scribe even beforehe put pen to parchment.” If the scribe and the illumina-tor were separate labors the planning period allowed foradequate space to be given to each individual.

2.2 The process of illumination

A 13th-century manuscript illumination, the earliest known de-piction of Thomas Becket's assassination

The following steps outline the detailed labor involved tocreate the illuminations of one page of a manuscript:

1. Silverpoint drawing of the design were executed

2. Burnished gold dots applied

3. The application of modulating colors

4. Continuation of the previous three steps in additionto the outlining of marginal figures

5. The penning of a rinceaux appearing in the borderof a page

6. The final step, the marginal figures are painted[8]

The illumination and decoration was normally plannedat the inception of the work, and space reserved for it.

4 2 TECHNIQUES

However, the text was usually written before illumina-tion began. In the Early Medieval period the text andillumination were often done by the same people, nor-mally monks, but by the High Middle Ages the roles weretypically separated, except for routine initials and flour-ishes, and by at least the 14th century there were secu-lar workshops producing manuscripts, and by the begin-ning of the 15th century these were producingmost of thebest work, and were commissioned even by monasteries.When the text was complete, the illustrator set to work.Complex designs were planned out beforehand, probablyon wax tablets, the sketch pad of the era. The design wasthen traced or drawn onto the vellum (possibly with theaid of pinpricks or other markings, as in the case of theLindisfarne Gospels). Many incomplete manuscripts sur-vive from most periods, giving us a good idea of workingmethods.At all times, most manuscripts did not have images inthem. In the early Middle Ages, manuscripts tend toeither be display books with very full illumination, ormanuscripts for study with at most a few decorated initialsand flourishes. By the Romanesque period many moremanuscripts had decorated or historiated initials, andmanuscripts essentially for study often contained someimages, often not in color. This trend intensified in theGothic period, when most manuscripts had at least dec-orative flourishes in places, and a much larger proportionhad images of some sort. Display books of the Gothicperiod in particular had very elaborate decorated bordersof foliate patterns, often with small drolleries. A Gothicpage might contain several areas and types of decoration:a miniature in a frame, a historiated initial beginning apassage of text, and a border with drolleries. Often dif-ferent artists worked on the different parts of the decora-tion.

2.3 Use of color in illuminatedmanuscripts

While the use of gold is by far one of the most cap-tivating features of illuminated manuscripts, the bolduse of varying colors provided multiple layers of dimen-sion to the illumination. From a religious perspective,“the diverse colors wherewith the book is illustrated,not unworthily represent the multiple grace of heavenlywisdom.”[2] While religious authors view themselves asinstilling a part of God’s vast glory on the work, many il-lustrations can be linked to “the history of the texts thatwere required to be illustrated and the needs and tastesof the readers of those manuscripts.”[9] Color broughtthe images on the page to life and captivated the read-ers. Without color the impact of the image would havebeen completely lost.

2.4 Paints

The medieval artist’s palette was broad; a partial list ofpigments is given below. In addition, unlikely-soundingsubstances such as urine and earwax were used to preparepigments.[10]

2.5 Gilding

The 11th century Tyniec Sacramentary was written with gold onpurple background.

An illuminated manuscript is not considered illuminatedunless one or many illuminations contained gold foil orwas brushed with gold specks, a process known as bur-nishing. The inclusion of gold on an illumination alludesto many different possibilities for the text. If the text is ofreligious nature the gold is a sign of exalting the text. Inthe early centuries of Christianity, “Gospel manuscriptswere sometimes written entirely in gold.”[11] Aside fromadding flashy decoration to the text, scribes during thetime considered themselves to be praising God with theiruse of gold. In one particular instance, “The life of Christexecuted on gold backgrounds with much greater richnessin the midst of innumerable scenes of the chase, tourneys,games and grotesque subjects.”[12] Furthermore, gold wasused if a patron who had commissioned a book to be writ-ten wished to display the vastness of his riches. Eventu-ally, the addition of gold to manuscripts became so fre-quent, “that its value as a barometer of status with themanuscript was degraded.”[13] During this time periodthe price of gold had become so cheap that its inclusion in

5

an illuminated manuscript accounted for only a tenth ofthe cost of production.[14] By adding richness and depthto the manuscript, the use of gold in illuminations createdpieces of art that are still valued today.The application of gold leaf or dust to an illumination isa very detailed process that only the most skilled illumi-nators can undertake and successfully achieve. The firstdetail an illuminator considered when dealing with goldwas whether to use gold leaf or specks of gold that couldbe applied with a brush. When working with gold leaf thepieces would be hammered and thinned until they were“thinner than the thinnest paper.”[14] The use of this typeof leaf allowed for numerous areas of the text to be out-lined in gold. There were several ways of applying gold toan illumination one of the most popular included mixingthe gold with stag’s glue and then “pour it into water anddissolve it with your finger.”[15] Once the gold was softand malleable in the water it was ready to be applied tothe page. Illuminators had to be very careful when apply-ing gold leaf to the manuscript for fear ruining the coloralready placed in the illumination. Gold leaf is able to“adhere to any pigment which had already been laid, ru-ining the design, and secondly the action of burnishing itis vigorous and runs the risk of smudging any painting al-ready around it.” The careless implementing of gold couldruin the labor already placed in the illumination and thuscause the entire folio to be discarded.

3 Patrons of illumination

Many monasteries produced manuscripts for the collec-tion in their own libraries, and wealthy individuals com-missioned works as a sign of status within the community.Commissioning these works, the wealthy individuals re-quested that the illuminator place them somewhere in theillumination in a donor portrait. “In a scene from the NewTestament, Christ would be shown larger than an apostle,who would be bigger than a mere bystander in the picture,while the humble donor of the painting or the artist him-self might appear as a tiny figure in the corner.”[9][16] Theinclusion of oneself in artistic endeavors dates back to thetime of Justinian and his wife, Theodora, who are promi-nently displayed in the Hagia Sophia. Additionally, thesewealthy individuals “were presented on the first page inall their royal apparel; they are often surrounded by alle-gorical figures borrowed from antiquity.”[12]

Displaying the amazing detail and richness of a text, theaddition of illumination was never an afterthought. Theinclusion of illumination is twofold, it added value to thework, but more importantly it provides pictures for theilliterate members of society to “make the reading seemmore vivid and perhaps more credible.”[17]

4 Gallery• The illuminated letter P in the Malmesbury Bible.The script is blackletter, also known as Gothic script

• Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, in a medieval illumi-nated manuscript.

• A monk-cellarer tasting wine from a barrel whilefilling a jug. From Li Livres dou Santé by Aldo-brandino of Siena (France, late 13th century).

• The Book of Dimma, an 8th-century Irish pocketGospel Book.

• Jewish Illuminated manuscript of the Haggadah forPassover (fourteenth century).

• The marriage of Girart to Bertha from the Romande Girart de Roussillon, ca. 1450

• An illuminated capital letter P in a Bible of AD1407, Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England

• Armenian manuscript of 1053. Work of Johannes.• 15th century Flemish illumination depictingAlexander the Great’s third victory over Darius

• Founders’ and benefactors’ book of TewkesburyAbbey, early 16th century

• The Rochefoucauld Grail, about 1315• Battle of Ménfő, in the Hungarian Chronicon Pic-tum of 1360

5 See also• Armenian illuminated manuscript• Book of Job in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts• Digital Scriptorium• English Apocalypse manuscripts• Gospel Book• Historiated initial• History of the book• Lala de Cizique• List of Hiberno-Saxon illuminated manuscripts• List of illuminated manuscripts• Manuscript culture• Miniature (illuminated manuscript)• Preservation of illuminated manuscripts• Michael Sull• International Association of Master Penmen, En-grossers and Teachers of Handwriting

6 8 EXTERNAL LINKS

6 References

[1] The untypically early 11th century Missal of Silos is fromSpain, near to Muslim paper manufacturing centres in Al-Andaluz. Textual manuscripts on paper become increas-ingly common, but the more expensive parchment wasmostly used for illuminated manuscripts until the end ofthe period.

[2] Putnam A.M., Geo. Haven. Books and Their MakersDuring The Middle Ages. Vol. 1. New York: HillaryHouse, 1962. Print.

[3] De Hamel, 45

[4] De Hamel, 57

[5] De Hamel, 65

[6] De Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen: Scribesand Illuminations. Buffalo: University of Toronto, 1992.p. 60.

[7] Anderson, Donald M. The Art of Written Forms: TheTheory and Practice of Calligraphy. New York: Holt,Rinehart and Winston, Inc, 1969. Print.

[8] Calkins, Robert G. “Stages of Execution: Proceduresof Illumination as Revealed in an Unfinished Book ofHours.” International Center ofMedieval Art 17.1 (1978):61–70. JSTOR.org. Web. 17 Apr. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/766713>

[9] “Manuscript.” http://arts.jrank.org/pages/9716/Manuscript.html. Web. 17 Apr. 2010.

[10] Iberian manuscripts (pigments)

[11] De Hamel, Christopher. The British Library Guideto Manuscript Illumination: History and Techniques.Toronto: University of Toronto, 2001. Print,52.

[12] Brehier, Louis. “Illuminated Manuscripts.” The CatholicEncyclopedia. Vol.9. New York: Robert Appelton Com-pany, 1910. 17 Apr. 2010 http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09620a.htm

[13] De Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen: Scribesand Illuminations. Buffalo: University of Toronto, 1992.Print,49.

[14] Brehier, Louis. “Illuminated Manuscripts.” The CatholicEncyclopedia. Vol.9. New York: Robert Appelton Com-pany, 1910. 17 Apr. 2010 http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09620a.htm , page 45.

[15] Blondheim, D.S. “An Old Portuguese Work onManuscript Illumination.” The Jewish Quarterly Review,New Series 19.2 (1928): 97–135. JSTOR. Web. 17 Apr.2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/1451766>.

[16] Hamel, Christopher de (2001-12-29). The British LibraryGuide to Manuscript Illumination: History and Techniques(1 ed.). University of Toronto Press, Scholarly PublishingDivision. p. 20. ISBN 0-8020-8173-8.

[17] Jones, Susan. “Manuscript Illumination in Northern Eu-rope”. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. NewYork: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/manu/hd_manu.htm (Oc-tober 2002)

7 Further reading

• Bland, David. A history of book illustration: the illu-minated manuscript and the printed book (London:Faber & Faber, 1958)

• Coleman, Joyce. Mark Cruse, and Kathryn A.Smith, eds. The Social Life of Illumination:Manuscripts, Images, and Communities in the LateMiddle Ages (Series: Medieval Texts and Culturesin Northern Europe, vol. 21. Turnhout: BrepolsPublishing, 2013). xxiv + 552 pp online review

• De Hamel, Christopher. A History of IlluminatedManuscript (Phaidon, 1986)

• De Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen:Scribes and Illuminations. Buffalo: University ofToronto, 1992.

• Lazaris, Stavros. “L’illustration des disciplinesmédicales dans l’Antiquité : hypothèses, enjeux,nouvelles interprétations”, in: La Collezione di testichirurgici di Niceta (Firenze, Biblioteca MediceaLaurenziana, Plut. 74.7). Tradizione medica clas-sica a Bisanzio, M. Bernabò (ed.), Roma, 2010, p.99-109 .

• Lazaris, Stavros. “L’image paradigmatique: desSchémas anatomiques d’Aristote au De materiamedica de Dioscoride”, Pallas, 93 (2013), p. 131-164 .

• Lazaris, Stavros. “Art et science vétérinaire àByzance: Formes et fonctions de l’image hippia-trique”. Turnhout: Brepols, 2010

• Wieck, Roger. “Folia Fugitiva: The Pursuit of theIlluminated Manuscript Leaf”. The Journal of theWalters Art Gallery, Vol. 54, 1996.

8 External links

8.1 Images (mostly)

• Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts Digitized illumi-nated manuscripts from the Dutch Royal Library

• Museum of the Book, The Hague. Thematic intro-duction, with many examples illustrated

8.3 Modern 7

• Project from Cambridge University – colored num-bers are links to good images from various collec-tions; good for finding images of specific subjectsquickly

• Illuminated Manuscripts in the J. Paul Getty Mu-seum – Los Angeles

• Portal to manuscripts in French public collectionshuge databases, in French

• Illuminating the Manuscript Leaves Digitized il-luminated manuscripts from the University ofLouisville Libraries

• Digitized illuminated manuscript from KathrineZipista

• Medieval and Renaissance manuscripts, includinglavishly decorated Books of Hours, Vulgates, andMedicinal Texts, 12 - 17th century, Center for Dig-ital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries

• Illuminated Manuscripts digital collection from theBall State University Digital Media Repository

• Spanish Chant Manuscript – A collection of Span-ish illuminated manuscripts from the UBC LibraryDigital Collections

• Digitized Illuminated Manuscripts – Completesets of high-resolution archival images of entiremanuscripts from the collection of the Walters ArtMuseum

• Manuscripts of Lichfield Cathedral - Digital facsim-ile of the St ChadGospels, 2010. Includes the abilityto overlay images captured with 13 different bandsof light, historical images (starting in 1887), mul-tispectral visualizations, and sixteen interactive 3Drenderings. College of Arts & Sciences, Universityof Kentucky

• Historical Image Overlays - See how an illuminatedmanuscript ages

8.2 Resources

• UCLA Library Special Collections collection ofMedieval and Renaissance manuscripts

• Digital Scriptorium

• British Library, catalogue of illuminatedmanuscripts

• Collection of illuminated manuscripts. From theKoninklijke Bibliotheek and Museum Meermanno-Westreenianum in The Hague.

• On-line demonstration of the production of an il-luminated manuscript from the Fitzwilliam, Cam-bridge

• On-line demonstration of the production of an illu-minated manuscript from the BNF, Paris. Text inFrench, but mostly visual.

• Nancy Ross, Resources for English IlluminatedManuscripts.

• British Library, Glossary of Manuscript Terms,adapted from Michelle Brown, Understanding Illu-minated Manuscripts: A Guide to Technical Terms(1994), ISBN 0-89236-217-0

• Herbert, J. A. (1911), Illuminated Manuscripts, on-line book.

• Illuminated Manuscripts', Book by John W.Bradley, from Project Gutenberg

• CORSAIR. Thousands of digital images from theMorgan Library's renowned collection of medievaland Renaissance manuscripts

• "Illuminated Manuscripts". Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.

• Diringer, David. The Book Before Printing: An-cient, Medieval and Oriental. New York: DoverPublications, Inc, 1982. Print.

• Greenia, George D. “The Politics of Piety:Manuscript Illumination and Narration in theCantigas of De Santa Maria.” Hispanic Review61.3 (1993): 325–44. JSTOR. Web. 17 Apr. 2010.<http://www.jstor.org/stable/475069>.

• 3D for Presenting Illuminated Manuscripts - Ex-plains 3D modeling for the 8th-century illuminatedSt Chad Gospels

8.3 Modern

• The Saint John’s Bible: an illuminated Bible project

• Ellen Frank Illumination Arts Foundation: the art ofillumination

• Illumination Documentary produced by Full FocusAbout St John’s Abby Illuminated Bible Project

8 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text• Illuminated manuscript Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript?oldid=670098104 Contributors: Vicki Rosen-

zweig, Greg Lindahl, Chuckhoffmann, William Avery, Renata, Mrwojo, Frecklefoot, D, Michael Hardy, JakeVortex, Dominus, Arping-stone, DavidWBrooks, Raven in Orbit, JASpencer, Adam Bishop, Nohat, Wikiborg, Will, Nightsky, Wetman, Lumos3, David Stapleton,Altenmann, Henrygb, Ryanrs, Tom harrison, Mcapdevila, Dsmdgold, Solipsist, Darrien, Tagishsimon, Cyanoacry, Utcursch, J. 'mach'wust, KenJensen, OwenBlacker, Neutrality, Trek011~enwiki, MakeRocketGoNow, Flex, Discospinster, Vsmith, Sperling, Dbachmann,Stbalbach, Palladian, RaffiKojian~enwiki, Alansohn, Zxcvbnm, Prattflora~enwiki, Thryduulf, Woohookitty, Scriberius, PoccilScript,Madchester, Pol098, Jeff3000, Tabletop, MKleid, Plrk, Doric Loon, Mandarax, Sparkit, Jake Wartenberg, Brighterorange, Fred Brad-stadt, Cjpuffin, Nivaca, DVdm, Bgwhite, Chwyatt, Roboto de Ajvol, RussBot, Pigman, SpuriousQ, Tonywiki, Gaius Cornelius, Grafen,Rjensen, Irishguy, Aaron Brenneman, Moe Epsilon, Maunus, PyroGamer, Crystallina, SmackBot, Skeezix1000, Gilliam, Skizzik, ElCubano, Durova, Thumperward, Lexlex, VMS Mosaic, Stevenmitchell, Makemi, Andrew c, Curly Turkey, Charivari, Ceoil, Anlace,TheStripèdOne, John, SabreMau, Onlim, Rizzoandz, Sailko, Melody Concerto, Beetstra, Danilot, ShakingSpirit, Michaelbusch, Cour-celles, Bannanas, Tawkerbot2, Dfu2000, Adam Keller, Imrosemary, Charvex, Mateus Hidalgo, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Mato, GogoDodo, Srajan01, Bookgrrl, DBaba, Barticus88, Jeandepierre, Coelacan, AntiVandalBot, Fayenatic london, Modernist, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot,Boleslaw, VoABot II, CattleGirl, Rich257, Animum, ,الدبوني Patstuart, Gun Powder Ma, Erpbridge, MartinBot, Arjun01, Mercatorum,Bus stop, Artaxiad, Johnbod, Bintubad, Balthazarduju, AntiSpamBot, Cometstyles, HighKing, VolkovBot, DSRH, Jeff G., Anna Lin-coln, Una Smith, Amaryllis25, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, NanhiEl, Andy Dingley, Why Not A Duck, Gerbis, Thebisch, SieBot, StAnselm,Rachel.howard, LSpinks, Jack1956, Rombert~enwiki, Scorpion451, PeterKidd, Lightmouse, Deoxyribonucleic acid trip, Vanished user ew-fisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Mippi283, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Chri1977, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Kafka Liz,Place Clichy, Excirial, Abrech, Danmichaelo, Thehelpfulone, Kakofonous, Mattissa, BurgererSF~enwiki, Apparition11, Mszajewski, Het-hurs, XLinkBot, MarmadukePercy, Addbot, Mabdul, Landon1980, CanadianLinuxUser, MrOllie, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, FirstLight, Valhallasw, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Fraggle81, Amirobot, Victoriaearle, Triquetra, Codicologist, Palaeography Room, AnomieBOT,AdjustShift, Utensis, Materialscientist, Bobbybillyboy, Cureden, Grim23, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Hwyjonz, Bigbear001, Ribot-BOT, Jmayz08, Mattis, FrescoBot, WikiDisambiguation, Girlwithgreeneyes, BenzolBot, Gdje je nestala duša svijeta, MarkGT, Çalıştay,Suffusion of Yellow, John of Reading, Tx130, Look2See1, Racerx11, Uvmcdi, St. Brigit, CMA1198, History345, AvicAWB, Rexpri-moris, GrindtXX, Erianna, Mikescad, Mayur, Philafrenzy, Donner60, Sbcennini, Yclept:Berr, Mel22, ClueBot NG, CRJ200flyer, Enoc46,TheConduqtor, MelbourneStar, Millermk, Widr, WikiPuppies, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ggermek, George Ponderevo, Diante23, DarknessShines, Mitchanimugen, Nablamos, RudolfRed, Guanaco55, G.M. Sir Lawrence, W.D., Khazar2, EuroCarGT, JurgenNL, Hmainsbot1,Tony Mach, Lemnaminor, Acetotyce, Fahim1239, Tentinator, Glaisher, Altspace, Lransom2003, Esquin, Klnasy, J memmoreez, Trent9,Gthom123, Iwilsonp, Glowreuh, Lazaris s, Jason.nlw and Anonymous: 224

9.2 Images• File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio004vChristInMajesty.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/

AberdeenBestiaryFolio004vChristInMajesty.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan from the original work Original artist:?

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

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