Beginnings of the Cold War Topics include: UN, NATO, Warsaw Pact, Gouzenko Affair.
Igor Sergeievich Gouzenko
Transcript of Igor Sergeievich Gouzenko
Igo. Sergeievich Gouzenko - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ig ...
1 of2
thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
h n
Robert Bothwell
3 minutes
Gouzenko was given a new identity, and for the rest of his life he
and his family had police protection. He produced a memoir, This
Was My Choice (1948), and a novel, The Fall of a Titan, which
received the Gov Gen's Award (1954).
Gouzenko, Igor
Igor Gouzenko on television, 1966. Over half of the convictions under the
Official Secrets Act were a result of Gouzenko's defection (courtesy Library
and Archives Canada/PA-129625).
Igor Sergeievich Gouzenko
Igor Sergeievich Gouzenko, intelligence officer, author (bat
Rogachov, USSR 13 Jan 1919; d near Toronto late June 1982). At
2018-05-03, 5:40 p.m.
I
:1
Igor Sergeievich Gouzenko - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ig ...
2 of2
the beginning of WWII Gouzenko took intelligence training and in
1943 was appointed cipher clerk at the Soviet legation in Ottawa,
where he learned that Soviet intelligence operated several spy
networks in Canada. Disenchanted with Soviet life and politics, he
decided to defect when he learned in 1945 that he and his family
were to be sent home. On Sept 5 Gouzenko left the embassy with
documents illustrating Soviet espionage activities. Initially, no one in
Ottawa took him seriously; only on Sept 7, following an abortive
Soviet attempt to recapture him, were he and his family given
protective custody. When it became evident that a widespread
espionage network was operating, Mackenzie King's government
authorized the arrest of 12 suspects. After interrogation, they were
brought before a royal commission. Gouzenko's testimony and
documents impressed the commissioners, who confirmed in July
1946 that a spy ring had been operating in Canada, aimed at,
among other things, the secrets of the atomic bomb. A number of
suspects were subsequently convicted and imprisoned.
Gouzenko was given a new identity, and for the rest of his life he
and his family had police protection. He produced a memoir, This
Was My Choice (1948), and a novel, The Fall of a Titan, which
received the Gov Gen's Award (1954). From time to time he
emerged from the shadows, always wearing a protective mask,
which for most Canadians became his trademark. Even his death,
apparently from natural causes, was surrounded in secrecy.
2018-05-03, 5:40 p.m.
NATO: When Canada Really Mattered about:reader?url=http://v.rww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/na ...
1 of 4
thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
n
Norman Hillmer
5-7 minutes
On 4 April 1949, in the auditorium of the State Department on
Washington's Constitution Avenue, the foreign ministers of Canada,
the United States, the United Kingdom, France and eight other
countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty.
On 4 April 1949, in the auditorium of the State Department on
Washington's Constitution Avenue, the foreign ministers of Canada,
the United States, the United Kingdom, France and eight other
countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty. An armed attack on one
member, the treaty's Article 5 pledged, would be an armed attack
on them all.
The leading historian of the event called it a Second American
Revolution, radically transforming United States foreign policy. It
was no less a revolution for Canada. North America was engaging
itself in the security of Europe for the long haul.
Louis St. Laurent was a prime architect of Canada's international
policies after WWII and promoted Canadian membership in NATO
2018-05-03, 5:40 p.m.
NATO: When Canada Really Mattered about:reader?url=http://v.rww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/na ...
2 of 4
(courtesy NACIC-8099/copyright Bill and Jean Newton).
External Affairs minister L. B. Pearson signed Canada's first
peacetime military alliance on that brilliant spring afternoon, stating
that it was born out of fear, frustration and hope.
Fear of the military might of the Soviet Union, at the head of an
aggressive, subversive communist juggernaut on the move.
Frustration that the United Nations had fallen so short of its original
aims and dreams, and could not be relied on as an organization for
the protection of its members.
But hope, too, that the North Atlantic Treaty could be a pact for
peace and progress, not a narrow and old-fashioned military
alliance. A pact, furthermore, that would prevent an American
retreat into isolationism or a resort to unilateralism.
Before 1939, Canada had been a dry, cautious place, dragged
down by the Depression and chary of a role in the world. Yet the
hermit nation contributed mightily to victory in the Second World
War, putting one of every ten Canadians in uniform and pouring
food and weapons and economic assistance into the allied cause.
Canada came out of the war buoyant, with a powerful economy and
a realization that the world was too small to allow a return to a
pinched past. The country was united at home and atthe height of
its international influence. It had the finest medium-sized foreign
office in the world, the Department of External Affairs, which
supplied Canada's strategy for the North Atlantic Treaty
discussions.
Canada was one of the treaty's three initiators, along with traditional
partners Britain and the US. Louis St. Laurent, who preceded
Pearson as foreign minister, had been among the first public
advocates of a regional defence arrangement, telling the United
Nations in the late summer of 194 7 that it had become "frozen in
futility and divided by dissension." Democratic and peace-loving
states were being driven in the direction of forming their own
association with more specific obligations to ensure security.
2018-05-03, 5:40 p.m.
NATO: When Canada Really Mattered about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/na ...
3 of 4
Pearson, then St. Laurent's deputy, had worked through the night in
his New York hotel room to craft the speech. He remembered that
the words of the respected Quebec politician-soon-to-be-prime
minister "gripped the attention of the world assembly."
Founding members of NATO, 1949 (Hulton Archives, HB-7277).
Initiators became negotiators. Canadians were present at the
creation of the treaty document, and were key drafters of Articles 4
and 5, dealing with consultation and obligations. Article 2,
moreover, was the result of sheer Canadian insistence and
perseverance. It summoned alliance members to improve
themselves and each other politically, socially and economically.
The argument behind the "Canadian article," its instant nickname,
was that there must be the development of a genuine North Atlantic
community if the alliance was to endure and reach out to find the
better, safer ground of a sane and moral world. It was inspiring
stuff, and St. Laurent and Pearson meant every word of it.
Canada was more significant at mid-twentieth century than it was
before or could be now. But a remarkable aspect of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization's more than fifty-year story is that, after
an initial burst of commitment that carried its military to Europe on a
wave of defence spending in the early 1950s, Canada let its
security-building enthusiasm wane.
Canada preferred to regard NATO as a political arrangement, doing
only as much militarily as was necessary to maintain a modicum of
credibility inside the alliance. Nor did it press hard to turn the
Atlantic Alliance into an Atlantic Community, as Article 2 and its
2018-05-03, 5:40 p.m.
NATO: When Canada Really Mattered about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/na ...
4 of 4
Canadian champions had promised.
Witness Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's 1969 decision to withdraw
half of the Canadian force from NATO Europe, and the
malnourishment of the military which has followed over the decades
since.
All those who are lining up to write the country off as internationally
invisible and irrelevant at the beginning of the twenty-first century
will find rich ammunition in the long neglect of an alliance Canada
helped to found and shape in the brief moment when it really
mattered in the world.
2018-05-03, 5:40 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
1 of 14
about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/k: ...
thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
Alex Herd
17-22 minutes
The Korean War began 25 June 1950, when North Korean anned
forces invaded South Korea. The war's combat phase lasted until
an armistice was signed 27 July 1953.
The UN flag in Korea
The United Nations flag flies over the lmjin River, l<orea, 1945-1965.
Copyright: Department of National Defence/Library and Archives
Canada!R112-4226-4-E.
Library and Archives Canada
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
2 of 14
about:reader?url=http://wv.rw.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/k ...
Two young children, who Peter Chisholm came across on patrol during the Korean
War.
Image: Peter Chisholm/The Memory Project Archive.
http:/lwww.thememoryproject.com!stories/2869:peter-chisholml
The Memory Project Archive.
Members of the l(orean Service Corps, August 1953.
The Korean Service Corps included Korean males who were unable to
serve because of age or disability They worked on infrastructure projects
such as building roads and drainage ditches. In emergencies, they acted
as ammunition porters. Image: Peter Chisholm/The Memory Project
Archive.
The Memory Project Archive
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
3 of 14
about:reader?url =http ://v·tWV.'. thecanadianencyclopedia. ca/ en/ article/k ...
Allison Furlotte, Korean War veteran
Guardsman Allison Furlotte, 4th Battalion, The Canadian Guards.
Va/earlier (Quebec), 1952. Image: Allison Furlotte/The Memory Project
Archive. http:llwww.thememoryproject.comlstories/2793:a//ison-joseph
furlotte/
The Memory Project Archive
The Korean War began 25 June 1950, when North Korean armed
forces invaded South Korea. The war's combat phase lasted until
an armistice was signed 27 July 1953. As part of a United Nations
(UN) force consisting of 16 countries, 26,791 Canadian military
personnel served in the Korean War, during both the combat phase
and as peacekeepers afterward. The last Canadian soldiers left
Korea in 1957. After the two world wars, Korea remains Canada's
third-bloodiest overseas conflict, taking the lives of 516 Canadians
and wounding more than 1,200. The two ]0reas remain technically
at war today.
Korean Peninsula Divided
Late in the Second World War, the Japanese-held Korean
peninsula was liberated by both Soviet and American armed forces.
Soviet troops occupied the country north of the 38th parallel, with
the Americans to the south. After the war, the Soviets, Americans,
and their Korean supporters could not agree on the country's
government. The United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea,
which included Canadian members, oversaw elections in May
1948, but the Soviets forbid these elections in the north. The pro
West Republic of Korea (ROK) was then founded in the south and
not long after, the communist Democratic People's Republic of
Korea was declared in the north. Both governments sought to unify
all of Korea and civil war broke out in the country in the late 1940s.
Meanwhile, in late 1949, the Chinese Civil War ended with the
establishment of the communist People's Republic of China.
Communist Chinese and Soviet leaders believed that North Korea
could unify Korea by force, without Western interference, The
communists were emboldened by the American decision to limit
assistance to the non-communist nationalist Chinese regime on the
island of Formosa (Taiwan). In late June 1950, with Chinese and
Soviet-supplied weapons and equipment, the North Korean Army
invaded the ROK.
United Nations Intervenes
The United States led the decision to help the ROK through the UN.
The UN General Assembly was dominated by Western countries.
Since the Soviets were boycotting the Security Council because of
the UN's refusal to include the new communist Chinese regime as
one of its five permanent members, the Soviets could not exercise
a veto. The Security Council thus condemned North Korean
aggression and called on UN members "to render every assistance"
to the ROK. On 28 June 1950 Lester B. Pearson, Canada's
Secretary of State for External Affairs, encouraged a Canadian
response through the UN, and under US military leadership. In the
government's view, Canada would fight for the UN and the principle
of collective security.
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
4 of 14
about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/k ...
Lester B. Pearson
Lester B. Pearson in Ottawa, Ontario, 1945-68. Copyright: Duncan
Cameron/Library and Archives Canada!PA-212238.
LAC
Canada's Military Commitments
Initially, Canada contributed three Royal Canadian Navy destroyers
(HMCS Athabaskan, HMCS Cayuga, and HMCS Sioux) and a
Royal Canadian Air Force transport squadron, No. 426
"Thunderbird" Squadron. American, UN, and domestic pressure
then led to Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent's announcement on 7
August 1950 of a Canadian Army Special Force (CASF) - later
named the 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade Group - to expand the
country's UN contributions to Korea.
Louis SL Laurent
Louis St. Laurent, 1960. Image: National Film Board/Library and Archives
Canada!C-000120.
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
5 of 14
about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/k. ..
LAC
Cdn Delegation at United Nations Conference
The Canadian delegation at the United Nations Conference on
International Organization in San Francisco, California, United States.
From left to right are: C.S. Ritchie, P.E. Renaud, Elizabeth Maccallum,
Lucien Maraud, Escott Reid, WF. Chipman, Lester Pearson, J.H. King,
Louis St. Laurent, Rt. Hon. WL. Mackenzie King, Gordon Graydon, M.J.
Coldwell, Cora Casselman, Jean Desy, Hume Wrong, Louis Rasminsky,
L.D. Wilgress, M.A. Pope, R. Chaput. Image: Nicholas Morant I National
Film Board of Canada/Library and Archives Canada I C-047570
Library and Archives Canada
War's Early Phases
At first it appeared that the war would be short-lived as, under US
General Douglas MacArthur, UN forces drove the North Koreans
back, first to the 38th parallel, then to Korea's border with China.
However, by the end of October 1950 thousands of Chinese army
"volunteers" crossed the Yalu River into North Korea, driving the
UN forces back south.
Canadian Military Participation
In November 1950, the Canadian Army brigade's 2nd Battalion,
Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry Regiment, was sent
overseas and landed in Korea in December. In May 1951, the rest
of the Canadian brigade arrived. For the army, the Korean War
became largely a "war of patrols" in rough, mountainous terrain, but
infantry, tank, and artillery units were also involved in heavy fighting
at the battles of~ (22-25 April 1951 ), Hill 355, also known
as Kowang-San, (22-25 November 1951 and 22-24 October 1952),
and Hill 187 (2-3 May 1953), among many other actions. Eight
Canadian warships took turns in Korean waters protecting UN
aircraft carriers, busting enemy trains along the coasts, and helping
other onshore operations. The air force's transport planes ferried
people and materials across the Pacific Ocean, while 22 Canadian
pilots flew jet aircraft with the United States Air Force in Korea.
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
6 of 14
about:reader?ur 1 =http :I /wwv.1• thecanadianencyclopedia. ca/ en/ article/k ...
CBC Interview with Lt Col. Dextraze
Normand Eaves, at the mike, and Norman McBain, at the controls,
interviewing Lt. Col. James Dex/raze, commanding officer of the Royal
22nd Regiment © Government of Canada. Reproduced with the permission
of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada (2012).
Source: Library and Archives Canada/Credit: Paul E. Tome/in/Department
of National Defence fonds/PA-183979
Private G.U.I. L mbert
Private G.U.I. Lambert, 2nd Battalion Royal 22e Regiment, reads comic
book in slit trench, Korea, 28 MaY, 1951. © Government of Canada.
Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and
Government Services Canada (2012). Source: Library and Archives
Canada/Credit: Paul E. Tome/in/Department of National Defence fonds/PA-
128806
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
7 of 14
about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/k ...
PrWate Heath Matthews of Charlie Company
Private Heath Matthews of Charlie Company, 1st Battalion, Royal
Canadian Regiment, awaiting medical aid after night patrol near Hill 166 ©
Government of Canada. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of
Public Works and Government Services Canada (2012). Source: Library
and Archives Canada/Credit: Paul E. Tomelin!Deparlment of National
Defence fonds/PA-128850
Korean Armistice signed
Canadian soldiers in Japan celebrating after the announcement that the
armistice was signed, ending the Korean War, 27 July 1953. Image: Fre.d
Joyce/The Memory Project Archive.
Memory Project Archive
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
8 of 14
about:reader?url=http :/ lv.rww. thecanadianencyc l opedia. ca/ en/ arti cle/k ...
'-"'"'"'""'"'""'"""'" '""'"'"~'~""~~"'""' .-.~--~=e,-·:,
2nd Battalion PPCLJ in Korea
A 2nd Battalion Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry soldier with
locals in Korea, ca. 1943-1965. Image: Canadian Department of National
Defence/Library and Archives Canada!R112-2643-X-E
LAC
Rene Levesque in Korea
Rene Levesque, puts his mini-tape recorder on his head as he mal<es his
way toward RCR troops deeper in enemy territory. Korea, 14 August,
1951. Image: Canadian Department of National Defence/Library and
Archives Canada!C-077793.
LAC
Andre Therrien, Korean War veteran
Lieutenant Therrien (left), commanding officer of the Pioneer Platoon,
poses with Captain Bouffard, commanding officer of A Company, 2nd
Bala/ion, Le Royal 22e Regiment. Korea, Winter 1951-1952. As Mr.
Therrien says, "The mustache is required." Image: Andre Therrien/The
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
9 of 14
about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/k ...
Memory Project Archive. http:l/www.thememoryproject.com/stories
/2632:andre-therrienl
The Memory Project Archive.
Andre Therrien with Vincent Massey, Governor General of Canada.
Lieutenant Andre Therrien receiving the Military Cross for bravery in Korea
from His Excellency the Governor General of Canada Vincent Massey The
ceremony took place in front of 2nd Battalion, Le Royal 22e Regiment at
Camp Va/earlier, Quebec in summer 1952. Image: Andre Therrien/The
Memory Project Archive. http:llwww.thememoryproject.com!stories
/2632:andre-therrienl
The Memory Project Archive
Allison Furlotte, Korean War veteran
Guardsman Allison Furlotte, 4th Battalion, The Canadian Guards.
Va/earlier (Quebec), 1952. Image: Allison Furlotte/The Memory Project
Archive. http://www.thememoryproject.com/stories/2793:allison-joseph
fur/ottel
The Memory Project Archive
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
10 ofl4
about:reader?url=http://wwv.1.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/k. ..
"Dr." Joe Cyr (centre) tending to South Korean guerillas who had been injured
Leonard Wells MPA profile.
"Dr." Joe Cyr (centre) tending to South Korean guerillas who had been
injured. Ferdinand Demara pretended to be Dr. Cyr and was found out after
being awarded a medal. Image: Leonard Wells/The Memory Project
Archive. http:llwww.thememoryproject.com/stories/2642:leonard-wells/
The Memory Project Archive
Sailor Leonard Wells of HMCS Cayuga in Korea, 1950-1952.
Image: Leonard Wells/The Memory Project Archive.
http://www. thememoryproject. comlstories/2642:leonard-wells/
The Memory Project Archives
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
11 ofl4
about:reader?url=http ://v,rww. thecanadianencyclopedia. ca/ en/ arti cl elk ...
Daniel Kendrick, Korean War veteran.
Neil Goodwill and Daniel Kendrick in Sasebo, Japan, 1953. Image: Daniel
Kendrick/The Memory Project Archive. http://www.thememoryproject.com
/stories/2851 :daniel-kendrickl
The Memory Project Archive.
HMCS Huron, Korean War; Daniel Kendrick's MPA profile.
HMCS Huron in dry dock for repairs in Sasebo, Japan after running
aground on the Korean island of Yang-do on 13 July 1953. Image: Daniel
Kendrick/The Memory Project Archive. http://www.thememoryproject.com
/stories/2851 :daniel-kendrickl
The Memory Project Archive.
A "wolf pack" (South Korean guerrilla fighters) with their sampan in 1952.
Image: Don Jatiouk!The Memory Project Archive.
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
12 of 14
about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/k ...
http://www. thememoryproject. comlstories/2267:don-jatioukl
The Memory Project Archive.
South Korean navy patrol ship. foundered on rocks and sinking in the
Yellow Sea, 1952. Image: Don Jatiouk/The Memory Project Archive.
http://www. thememoryproject. comlstories/226 7:don-jatioukl
The Memory Project Archive
Brigadier~General Jean Victor Allard, 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade Commande~(
2nd from right).
Visiting R ("Roger'J Battery, 81st Field Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery,
May 1953. Donovan Redknap was a lieutenant in Roger Battery. Image:
Donovan Redknap!The Memory Project Archive.
The Memory Project Archive
Joseph Ganin, Korean War veteran.
At the frontline in 1952, soldiers are ready to go replace American troops.
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
13 of 14
about:reader?url=http://wv,,v,1.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/k ...
Joseph Ganin is on the right. Image: Joseph Ganin, The Memory Project
Archive. http:llwww.thememoryproject.com!storiesl2576.joseph-ganinl
The Memory Project Archive.
Joseph Ganin, Korean War veteran.
Josseph Ganin, Korean War veteran, aboard the boat that brings him back
to Canada, his tour in Korea complete. Image: Joseph Ganin/The Memory
Project Archive. http://www.thememoryproject.com!stories/2576:joseph
ganinl
The Memory Project Archive
John Woods at 25 Canadian Infantry Brigade headquarters, Korea, 1951.
Image: John Woods/The Memory Project Archive.
The Memory Project Archive
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
Korean War - The Canadian Encyclopedia
14 of 14
about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/k. ...
UnHed Nations Poster
A poster for the United Nations in 1943, issued by the United States Office
of War Information. Image: Harry MayerovitchA.ibrary and Archives
Canada/1981-32-23
Library and Archives Canada
End of the War and Aftermath
Patrol in Korea
Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry returning from patrol in Korea,
1951 (courtesy Library and Archives Canada!PA-128073).
After several months of movement by both sides, in mid-1951 the
front lines became static near the 38th parallel. Until the war ended
the fighting took place along these lines, mostly consisting of
patrols and raids against hilltop trench positions across the area in
between UN and enemy lines, known as "No Man's Land." During
the two years that followed the 1953 armistice, Canadians
continued to serve in Korea; many were troops who guarded and
patrolled the ROK's side of the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which
continues to separate the two Koreas. All Canadian armed forces
personnel who served in Korea from 1950 to 1957 are considered
Korean War veterans.
See also f<oje-Do and Battle of f<apyong.
2018-05-03, 5:42 p.m.
ii
Suez Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://v,,rww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/s ...
1 of 8
thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
LI
n
Jon Tattrie
8-10 minutes
The 1956 Suez Crisis was a military and political confrontation in
Egypt that threatened to divide the United States and Great Britain,
potentially harming the Western military alliance that had won the
Second World War. Lester B. Pearson, who later became prime
minister of Canada, won a Nobel Peace Prize for using the world's
first, large-scale United Nations peacekeeping force to de-escalate
the situation.
2018-05-03, 5:43 p.m.
Suez Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://,vv.rw.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/artic!e/s ...
2 of 8
' 1nsu
A map of the Suez Canal.
Image: University of Texas Libraries, Perry-Castaneda Library Map
Collection: Egypt Maps.
University of Texas Libraries
,e
Egypt
Sinai Peninsula -- lntomatlonnl boundary
~ Hnllroad
-- Expr06SW8y
-- Road
A map of the Sinai Peninsula.
Image: University of Texas Libraries, Perry-Castaneda Library Map
Collection: Egypt Maps.
2018-05-03, 5:43 p.m.
Suez Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?ur l=http ://v,,rww. thecanadianencyclopedia. ca/ en/ article/ s ...
3 of 8
University of Texas.
The 1956 Suez Crisis was a military and political confrontation in
Egypt that threatened to divide the United States and Great Britain,
potentially harming the Western military alliance that had won the
Second World War. Le§:1:er:J3. Pearson, who later became prime
minister of Canada, won a Nobel Peace Prize for using the world's
first, large-scale United Nations peacekeeping force to de-escalate
the situation.
Egypt Seizes Canal
At Port Said in Egypt, ca. 1910-1915.
Image: Library of Congress/Prints and Photographs Division!LC-
82-3280-11.
Library of Congress
The Suez Canal directly links the Mediterranean Sea to the Red
Sea. It was built by Egyptian workers under the French and British
owned Suez Canal Company, and opened in 1869. The company
was seized and nationalized by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel
2018-05-03, 5:43 p.m.
Suez Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/s ...
®
4 of8
Nasser on 26 July 1956. The move worried Western governments,
as the canal was a vital route for oil travelling to Britain. If Egypt
blocked the flow of oil, Nasser could badly damage the British
economy.
The Egyptian seizure came during the Cold War, further ratcheting
up the tensions. Egypt's stated reason for the nationalization of the
canal was to use the shipping tolls to finance construction of the
Aswan Dam - which promised to control flooding on the Nile, and
provide hydroelectricity as well as other means of industrializing the
country. Nasser continued to operate the canal as usual, but Britain,
France and their regional ally Israel began plotting a military
response. Nasser, meanwhile, obtained military arms from the
Soviet Union.
Bombing the Canal
A tanker moving goods through the Suez Canal, 2008.
Image: Daniel Csorfoly!Wikicommons.
2018-05-03, 5:43 p.m.
Suez Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://wv.rv.1.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/s ...
5 of 8
Daniel Csorfoly/Wikicommons.
When diplomacy failed to produce a solution, France, Britain and
Israel secretly plotted to attack, without informing the US, Canada
and other NATO allies. Israeli forces advanced on 29 October to
within 42 kilometers of the canal. Britain and France ordered both
Israel and Egypt to withdraw from the Canal Zone (a move pre
planned with Israel). Nasser did not retreat. On 31 October, Britain
and France began bombing the Canal Zone.
The US, not wanting a war, had urged Britain to seek peace. British
aggression in Egypt caused the biggest rift between these
important allies in the 20th century.
Canada Becomes Peacemaker
Mr. Lester B. Pearson addressing one of the committees at the United Nations
Conference on International Organization in San Francisco, 1945.
Image: United Nations/Library and Archives Canada/C-018532.
2018-05-03, 5:43 p.m.
Suez Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?ur !=http ://www. thecanadianency cl opedia. ca/ en/ arti clefs ...
6 of 8
LAC
Publicly, the Canadian government's role was that of conciliator.
Privately, however, Ottawa strongly objected to the military action
out of concern that it was dividing the Commonwealth, damaging
relations with the US, and risking a wider war.
Pearson was Canada's secretary of state for external affairs
(foreign minister) and headed Canada's delegation to the UN. He
had played an important role in the creation of the state of Israel in
1947. He spent the summer and fall of 1956 working toward a
diplomatic solution to the Suez Crisis. When that failed, and the
bombing began, Pearson changed tactics.
Working with colleagues at the UN, he developed the idea for the
UN's first, large-scale Qeacekeel2i!Jg force. At that time, UN military
observers were already being used to monitor cease-fire
agreements in Kashmir and Palestine, but a more robust and
armoured peacekeeping force had not been tried before.
Addressing the UN General Assembly in New York, in the midst of
the Suez Crisis, Pearson made his case for a "peace and police
force," saying: "Peace is far more than ceasing to fire."
On 4 November, 57 UN states voted in favour of the idea and 19
abstained; no country voted against the peacekeeping mission. The
following day, however, British and Fre.nch paratroops ignored the
vote and landed in the Canal Zone.
The US continued to pressure British Prime Minister Sir Anthony
Eden to find a peaceful resolution. A cease-fire was arranged,
beginning on 6 November, and UN peacekeepers later entered the
canal area. Pearson's solution allowed Britain, France and Israel to
withdraw their forces without giving the appearance of having been
defeated. A United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) under the
command of Canadian General E.L.M. Burns, and including a
Canadian supply and logistics contingent, was in place by late
November.
2018-05-03, 5:43 p.m.
Suez Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/s ...
7 of 8
Canadian members of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) on the border
between Egypt and Israel, 1962.
Image: Department of National Defence/Library and Archives Canada
IPA-122737.
LAC
Pearson Wins the Nobel Peace Prize
Pearson won the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize for his initiative in Egypt.
In his acceptance speech, he highlighted Canada's important role in
the breakthrough.
"I realise also that I share this honour with many friends and
colleagues who have worked with me for the promotion of peace
and good understanding between peoples. I am grateful for the
opportunities I have been given to participate in that work as a
representative of my country, Canada, whose people have, I think,
shown their devotion to peace."
Some in Canada and Britain objected to Ottawa's perceived lack of
support for Britain. In the 1957 Canadian election, Pearson's
2018-05-03, 5:43 p.m.
Suez Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://wv,rv,1.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/s ...
8 of 8
Liberals, under the leadership of Prime Minister Louis St-Laurent,
faced accusations that they had betrayed Britain - still regarded by
many Canadians as the Mother Country. Pearson defended his
position as the best way to stop the fighting before it spread. The
hostile view of some Canadians towards their country's role in the
Suez Crisis is thought to have played a part in the Liberal
government's defeat in the national election.
Pearson, however, would go on to become prime minister six years
later in 1963. And his role in creating the UN's first modern
peacekeeping force pointed the way to the future; UN-sponsored
peacekeeping missions would become the proud centrepiece of
Canada's military and diplomatic activities around the world for
decades to come.
2018-05-03, 5:43 p.m.
NORAD - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://v,,rww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/n ...
@
@
1 of 5
thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
-The nadian ncyclopedia
J.L. Granatstein
7-8 minutes
The North American Defence Agreement was a 1957 pact that
placed under joint command the air forces of Canada and the
United States. Its name was later changed to the North American
Aerospace Defence Command.
NORAD
At the airshow in Bagotville, Quebec on 27 June 2013, a Royal Canadian
Air Force (RCAF) CF-18 fighter shows NORAD colours on its tail.
31908873 © Jean-francois Rivard I Dreamstime.com
31908873 © Jean-francois Rivard I Dreamstime.com
The North American Air Defense Agreement was a 1957 pact that
placed under joint command the air forces of Canada and the
United States. Its name was later changed to the North American
Aerospace Defense Command, but it kept the NORAD acronym.
Cold War Fears
2018-05-03, 5:44 p.m.
NORAD - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://wv.rw.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/n ...
2 of 5
On 1 August 1957, the Canadian and American governments
announced the two countries would integrate their air-defence
forces under a joint command at Colorado Springs, Colorado. The
Cole;! War between the Soviet Union and western nations was
underway, and both Canada and the US feared long-range Soviet
attack. The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and the United
States Air Force (USAF) would work together to ensure continental
protection.
NORAD describes itself as providing aerospace defence, which
"includes the detection, validation, and warning of attack against
North America whether by aircraft, missiles, or space vehicles."
Controversies
NORAD has occasionally been a focus of controversy. In 1957,
Prime Minister John Diefenbaker and National Defence Minister
Georg_e Pe~rkes, just installed in office, hastily accepted the advice
of the Canadian military and agreed to integrate the RCAF with the
USAF for the air defence of the continent. Critics felt the decision
was taken without adequate preparation (the formal signing did not
take place until 12 May 1958, one indication of subsequent
concerns), and the Conservative Diefenbaker government was
roasted by the Liberal opposition for its haste.
John Diefenbaker
The Diefenbaker era featured the personality and the style of the "man
from Prince Albert" (courtesy Library and Archives Canada!C-6779).
Technically, the agreement has been a success - co-ordinating two
2018-05-03, 5:44 p.m.
NORAD - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/n ...
3 of 5
air forces in pursuit of a difficult mission, and keeping Canadian air
crews in line with NORAD doctrine and policy. However, because
the consent of both governments is required before any formal
alerts or action, there has sometimes been difficulty in
implementation, most notably in 1962 during the Cuban Missile
Crisis. The American military went on standby alert in 1962 as soon
as the crisis was apparent, but the Canadian government delayed
for a period of days, angering the administration of US President
John F. Kennedy, and provoking much criticism in Canada.
Cheyenne Mountain and Peterson AFB
In 1966, NORAD's command moved into the Cheyenne Mountain
Operations Center, a giant bunker complex situated underground in
Colorado Springs. It remained the main headquarters until 2006,
when the command centre moved to nearby Peterson Air Force
Base, and the Cheyenne Mountain complex became a backup
command centre.
NORAD has been maintained by successive governments. The
renaming of the command in 1981 reflected a new emphasis on
defence and warning against missiles. The advent of cruise
missiles also increased NORAD's necessity. The Canadian
government recognized this in 1985 by replacing the Distant Early
Warning (DEW) Line that had been built in the 1950s with the North
Warnin_g_~y_l:,tem - a series of radar installations across the
Canadian North.
DEW Line Site
The former DEW radar station at Hall Beach, NWT (photo by Sergeant Jim
2018-05-03, 5:44 p.m.
NORAD - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/n ...
4 of 5
Smith/courtesy Canadian Forces).
In response to changing threats and the collapse of the Soviet
Union in 1991, the United States began moving its warning,
detection and surveillance into space. This shift in emphasis
lessened the importance of Canadian geography in the overall
North American aerospace defence strategy. A 1992 NORAD
strategy review said that while the Soviet Union no longer existed,
its successor states, primarily Russia, still had the weapons
NORAD was designed to protect against. The review also flagged
the threat of a possible terrorist attack with cruise missiles or similar
weaponry.
2001 Terror Attacks
Immediately after the September 2001 terror attacks in the US,
NORAD started Operation Noble Eagle to protect North American
airspace against further such events. NORAD responded to 2,100
potential threats by June 2006 and flew 42,000 sorties with military
aircraft.
Diverted Aircraft, September 11, 2001
Diverted Aircraft Landing at Halifax Stanfield International Airport on
September 11, 2001
Courtesy of Halifax International Airport Authority
2018-05-03, 5:44 p.m.
NORAD - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/n ...
5 of 5
In 2006, Canada and the US renewed NORAD. The new pact
made the arrangement permanent, subject to review every four
years or at the request of either country. It also expanded NORAD's
mission into maritime (ocean) warnings, although the naval forces
of the two countries remain under separate commands.
In 2009, NORAD monitored North Korean nuclear and missile tests,
but decided the tests posed no immediate threat.
NORAD also provided air security at the 2010 Vancouver Winter
Olympics. It has provided similar protection to NASA space shuttle
launches, to G8 summit meetings and to Super Bowl football
games.
In 2012, NORAD renamed its headquarters at Peterson Air Force
Base the Eberhart-Findley Building, after both an American
general, and RCAF Lieutenant-General Eric Findley. Findley was
the first Canadian military officer to have his name used for a US
military command centre.
2018-05-03, 5:44 p.m.
Avro Arrow - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://w,vw.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/a ...
1 of2
thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
rrow -The ncyclopedi
John Kirton
3-4 minutes
1an
Avro Arrow (CF-105), an advanced, supersonic, twin-engined, all
weather interceptor jet aircraft developed by A.V. Roe of Canada
from 1949 until the government's controversial cancellation of the
project in 1959.
Janusz Zurakowski, engineer
Janusz Zurakowski after the first flight of the Avro CF-105, Arrow; 25 March
1958, Malton, Ontario (courtesy Library and Archives Canada/C-61731).
2018-05-03, 5:45 p.m.
Avro Arrow - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/a ...
2 of2
AvroArrow
The Arrow was the most advanced military aircraft of its time but it was
cancelled, and Canada purchased American equipment instead (courtesy
The Arrow Heads/Boston Mills Press).
Avro Arrow (CF-105), an advanced, supersonic, twin-engined, all
weather interceptor jet aircraft developed by A.V. Roe of Canada
from 1949 until the government's controversial cancellation of the
project in 1959. Encouraged by A.V. Roe's success in developing
the Avro CF-100 Canuck and recognizing the need for an aircraft to
counter the threat of Soviet bombers over the demanding Canadian
North, enthusiastic RCAF officers, defence scientists and defence
industry officials had persuaded the Liberal government by
December 1953 to authorize two prototype airframes in anticipation
of a production run of up to 600 aircraft costing $2 million apiece.
Canada was also forced to develop the Arrow's engine and fire
control and missile systems, and estimated costs rose to $12.5
million per aircraft. Test flights indicated that with the proper
engines the plane could well be the world's fastest and most
advanced interceptor. However, doubts mounted as the
government's order shrank to 100 and unit costs rose. In October
1958, to cut costs, the new Conservative government terminated
Canadian fire-control and missile development, and renewed efforts
to sell the aircraft to the US, just when the US was promoting
Bomarc missiles and the USSR's launch of an ICBM missile was
raising doubts about the priority of the Soviet bomber threat.
After export efforts again failed, the project was cancelled on 20
February 1959. A.V. Roe bitterly fired 14,000 employees; the
government ordered all plans and prototypes destroyed; and many
Canadians bemoaned the devastation of Canada's aircraft industry,
the resulting flight of scientists and engineers to the US, and
Canada's renewed dependence on the US for interceptor aircraft.
See also Avro Arrow: "There Never Was an Arrow."
2018-05-03, 5:45 p.m.
Cuban Missile Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/c ...
1 of 3
thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
ii . n .. n n
n
Denis Stairs
4-5 minutes
The 1962 stationing of Soviet missiles in Cuba, which posed a
threat to the United States and Canada, brought the world to the
edge of nuclear war.
The 1962 stationing of Soviet missiles in Cuba, which posed a
threat to the United States and Canada, brought the world to the
edge of nuclear war. Although Canadian forces were placed on
heightened alert, Prime Minister John Diefenbaker's hesitant
response to the crisis aggravated U.S. President John F. Kennedy,
and fuelled already difficult relations between Canada and the U.S.
in the 1960s.
Missiles Discovered
The Cuban Missile Crisis began on 15 October 1962, at the height
of the Cold War, when an American spy plane took photographs of
ballistic missiles, belonging to the Soviet Union, being installed in
Cuba. The missiles, designed to deliver nuclear warheads, were
capable of hitting targets anywhere in the United States or Canada.
U.S. President John F. Kennedy and his advisors secretly
discussed what to do about this unexpected threat for a week. After
rejecting calls from his military to launch air strikes against the
missile sites, Kennedy mounted an immediate naval blockade of
Cuba. He announced the crisis, and the blockade, in a televised
address to the American public on 22 October, threatening further
action if the missile sites were not dismantled.
2018-05-03, 5:45 p.m.
Cuban Missile Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/c ...
2 of 3
Canada Hesitates
Like other NATO leaders, Prime Minister John Diefenbaker was
personally informed by Kennedy of the U.S. plan, shortly before the
televised broadcast. The two leaders did not get along well at the
best of times. On the phone with Kennedy, Diefenbaker was
sceptical about the Soviet Union's intentions. He asked to see
further proof of what was taking place on the ground in Cuba.
Diefenbaker urged Kennedy to send a team of United Nations
inspectors to Cuba to verify what the Soviets were doing there.
The main issue for the Canadian government was whether to
comply with an American request to move Canadian forces to a
higher alert status known as "DEFCON-3." Diefenbaker was
reluctant. Not only did he dislike Kennedy, he was angry that the
U.S. hadn't consulted Canada earlier in the crisis. He and Canada's
Foreign Minister, Secretary of State for External Affairs Howard
Green, were also wary of falling quickly into line with U.S. wishes.
The Canadian government was also concerned that placing its
military on alert might provoke the Soviet Union.
"DEFCON-3"
In spite of these concerns and delays, National Defence Minister
Douglas Harkness allowed Canadian units to quietly raise their
readiness alert level to "DEFCON-3." Formal authorization,
however, was delayed while the Cabinet debated the matter over
the next two days. Harkness argued that the nature of the crisis,
combined with existing international defence arrangements, made
the alert necessary (Canada was a member, along with the U.S., of
both NATO and NORAD).
About half of Canada's ministers remained undecided on the issue.
But as Soviet ships approached the quarantine zone later in the
week - and other NATO members announced their support for the
blockade - Harkness' position gained support. On 24 October the
Diefenbaker government authorized the "DEFCON-3" alert.
Canadian ships and aircraft also participated in patrols at this time
2018-05-03, 5:45 p.m.
Cuban Missile Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http ://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/ en/ article/ c ...
3 of3
to locate Soviet submarines in the North Atlantic.
Canada's hesitant response reflected in part the desire of the
government to preserve the independence of Canadian foreign
policy, and to maintain a balanced posture in crisis conditions. The
delay, however, was widely criticized in Canada, and contributed to
a growing perception of indecisiveness in the Diefenbaker
government.
It also made worse already difficult relations with the Kennedy
administration, and fuelled controversy and confusion in Canada -
underway since the 1960 debate on Bomarc missiles - over
Canadian policy on nuclear weapons.
Crisis Defused
The Cuban Missile Crisis continued for 13 tense days, at which
time the world's two atomic superpowers came uncomfortably close
to nuclear war. The stand-off was resolved with the help of United
Nations diplomats. It ended on 28 October, when Soviet Premier
Nikita Khrushchev agreed to dismantle and remove the Soviet
missiles, in return for Kennedy's promise not to invade Cuba.
2018-05-03, 5:45 p.m.
' ~ I
Bomarc Missile Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www. th ecanadianencycl opedia. ca/ en/ aiticle/ ...
..
..
I of2
thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
Bomarc M ile risis ~ The Encyclopedia
Paul Buteux
3-4 minutes
n ian
The Bomarc Missile Crisis was a Cold War-era dispute over
whether Canada should house nuclear missiles as part of its
NORAD air defence agreement with the United States .
Bomarc Missile
The decision of the Conservative government in 1958 to cancel the Avro
Arrow and deploy two squadrons of the American Bomarc missile caused a
crisis in Canadian defence policy (courtesy Canadian Aviation Museum).
The Bomarc Missile Crisis was a Cold War-era dispute over
whether Canada should house nuclear missiles as part of its
NORAD air defence agreement with the United States.
Secret Nuclear Warheads
In the fall of 1958 Prime Minister John Diefenbaker's Conservative
government announced an agreement with the US to deploy two
squadrons of the American ramjet-powered "Bomarc" antiaircraft
missile in Canada. This controversial defence decision was one of
many flowing from the 1957 North American Air Defence (NORAD)
agreement with the US.
It was argued by some that the surface-to-air guided missile, with a
2018-05-03, 5:46 p.m.
Bomarc Missile Crisis - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http ://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/ en/ article/ ...
2 of2
range of 640 km, would be an effective replacement for the manned
interceptor Avro Arrow, which the Diefenbaker government had
scrapped. The missiles would theoretically intercept any Soviet
attacks on North America before they reached the industrial
heartland of Canada.
Fifty-six missiles were deployed at North Bay, Ontario, and La
Macaza, Quebec, under the ultimate control of the commander-in
chief of NORAD.
The Canadian government did not make it clear that the version to
be acquired, the Bomarc-B, was to be fitted with nuclear warheads.
When this became known in 1960 it gave rise to a dispute as to
whether Canada should adopt nuclear weapons. It led to anti
nuclear protests throughout the country.
Warheads Arrive
In the end the government did not accept nuclear warheads for the
Bomarcs, a reluctance which contributed to poor Canadian
American relations in this period.
The Conservative government was divided over the issue. Its
Cabinet failed to make a firm decision on whether Canada should
honour its NORAD obligations and house the nuclear missiles, or
maintain Canada's opposition to the spread of nuclear weapons.
The Liberal Opposition said that it supported the NORAD
obligations and would accept the nuclear warheads.
The Conservatives lost the 1963 election, in part over the Bomarc
issue. The Liberals returned to power under Prime Minister Lester
Pearson and decided to accept nuclear .warheads for Canadian
nuclear-capable forces. The Bomarc warheads were delivered to
their sites on 31 December 1963.
Canada Signs Treaty
In 1969 Prime Minister Pierre Irudeau's new Liberal government
announced that Canada would withdraw its armed forces from their
nuclear roles.
His government signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, which
took force in 1970. As part of this process the Bomarc missile was
phased out of service by 1971.
2018-05-03, 5:46 p.m.
Vietnam War - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://v.rww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/vi ...
@
@
1 of 4
thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
Vietnam ncycl
Victor Levant
7-9 minutes
rm The ia
nadian
The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era conflict between communist
Northern Vietnamese forces and United States-backed Southern
Vietnamese forces. Canada officially played the role of neutral
peacemaker, but secretly backed the American effort in Vietnam.
A South Vietnamese soldier stands on his tank to survey the situation at
Xom Suoi, about 20 miles north of Saigon, on 7 February 1973.
(photo by Boris Spremo, courtesy f/ickr)
French Colonialism vs Nationalism
The Vietnam War had its roots in the French colonial conquest of
Indochina in the mid-19th century and in the nationalist movements
that arose to oppose it. At the end of the Second World War, on 2
September 1945, nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the
Democratic Republic of Viet-Nam an independent country. He
named the northern city of Hanoi its capital. The French attempt to
2018-05-03, 5:47 p.m.
Vietnam War - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url =http ://v.rww. thecanadianencyclopedia. ca/ en/ article/vi ...
2 of 4
re-conquer Vietnam met with defeat in the valley of Dien Bien Phu
on 2 May 1954.
The July Geneva Agreements provided for a cease-fire and a
provisional military demarcation line at the 17th parallel, pending
nationwide elections for reunification in July 1956. France withdrew.
Western efforts to divide the country permanently by creating a
Vietnamese republic in Saigon, coupled with the US refusal to hold
the promised elections, led to rebellion, massive US military
intervention and the ensuing civil war. While the US and its allies
supported the South as a means of preventing the spread of
communism in southeast Asia, China and its allies backed the
communist North.
US War Costs Mount
The US tripled its military presence in the country in 1961 and
1962, but failed to defeat the North, which regarded the US as a
colonial aggressor akin to France.
The failure of US policy became apparent in February 1968 when
525,000 American soldiers were unable to stop the insurgents' Tet
Offensive; it would take two more assaults, the third lasting six
weeks, before US and South Vietnamese forces were able to stop
the offensive and retake lost territory.
In January 1973 the Paris Peace Accords were signed, upholding
the unity and territorial integrity of Vietnam. It also provided for the
orderly withdrawal of US troops, the release of 200,000 civilian
detainees and Prisoners of War, and the organization of free and
democratic elections in South Vietnam. The refusal to implement
these last conditions provoked an armed insurrection and on 30
April 1975 the capital of the South, Saigon, fell to Northern forces.
The city was renamed Ho Chi Minh City. The US withdrew from
Vietnam.
The cost of the war was staggering: 1.7 million dead, three million
wounded and maimed, and 13 million refugees. The US dropped 7
million tons of bombs, 75 million litres of jungle-defoliating herbicide
and lost 10,000 helicopters and warplanes. Some 56,000 US
soldiers were killed and another 303,000 were wounded. The direct
cost of the war was $140 billion; indirect costs are estimated at
$900 billion.
Canada's Partisan Role
2018-05-03, 5:47 p.m.
Vietnam War - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/vi ...
3 of 4
During the years 1954 to 1975 Canada served on two international
truce commissions and provided medical supplies and technical
assistance. Canadian diplomats were involved in negotiations
between Washington and Hanoi and successive Canadian
governments, both Liberal and Conservative, maintained that
Ottawa was an impartial and objective peacekeeper, an innocent
and helpful bystander negotiating for peace and administering aid
to victims of the war. However, Cabinet papers, confidential
stenographic minutes of the truce commissions as well as top
secret American government cables revealed Canada to be a
willing ally of US counterinsurgency efforts.
Canada's record on the truce commissions was a partisan one,
rooted in the presumption of Hanoi's guilt and Saigon's innocence
and designed to discredit North Vietnam while exonerating South
Vietnam from its obligations to uphold the Geneva Agreements.
Canadian delegates engaged in espionage for the US Central
Intelligence Agency and aided the covert introduction of American
arms and personnel into South Vietnam while they spotted for US
bombers over North Vietnam.
Canadian commissioners shielded the US chemical defoliant
program from public inquiry, parlayed American threats of
expanded war to Hanoi, and penned the reports legitimating both
the rupture of the Geneva Agreements and the US air war over
North Vietnam. Ottawa would later assert that these actions were
necessary to counterbalance the activities of the Eastern bloc
countries with whom they shared membership on the truce
commissions.
Canada Helps the South
Canadian aid during the war went only to South Vietnam. It totalled
$29 million from 1950-75 and was routed through the Colombo
Planand the Canadian Red Cross. Although humanitarian in
appearance, Canadian assistance was an integral part of the Free
World Assistance Program, co-ordinated by the US Department of
State with the International Security Office of the Pentagon as the
point of contact.
In the field, Canadian capital assistance was regulated by the US
RVN Health Defense Agreement and administered by the
International Military Assistance Force Office in Saigon. On a
number of occasions, Ottawa stopped the shipment of medical
2018-05-03, 5:47 p.m.
Vietnam War - The Canadian Encyclopedia about:reader?url=http://wv,,r,.v.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/vi ...
4 of 4
relief to civilian victims of the war in North Vietnam.
War Boom in Canada
At home, 500 Canadian firms sold $2.5 billion of war materiel
(ammunition, napalm, aircraft engines and explosives) to the
Pentagon. Another $10 billion in food, beverages, berets and boots
for the troops was exported to the US, as well as nickel, copper,
lead, brass and oil for shell casings, wiring, plate armour and
military transport.
In Canada unemployment fell to record low levels of 3.9 per cent,
the gross domestic product rose by 6 per cent yearly, and capital
expenditure expanded exponentially in manufacturing and mining
as US firms invested more than $3 billion in Canada to offset
shrinking domestic capacity as a result of the war.
Agent Orange and Draft Dodgers
The herbicide "Agent Orange" was tested for use in Vietnam at
Canadian Forces Base Gagetown, New Brunswick. US bomber
pilots also practised carpet-bombing runs over Suffield, Alberta, and
North Battleford, Saskatchewan, before their tours of duty in
southeast Asia. And the results of the only successful peace
initiative to Hanoi - by Canadian diplomat Chester Ronning -
would be kept from public knowledge in order not to harm official
US-Canadian relations.
Ten thousand young Canadian men fought in the US armed forces
in the war. At the same time 20,000 American draft-dodgers and
12,000 army deserters found refuge in Canada from military service
in Vietnam.
Refugees
The end of the war sparked a massive movement of refugees out of
South Vietnam. Canada admitted more than 5,600 Vietnamese in
1975 and 1976 - mainly migrants with relatives already living in
Canada. Beginning in 1979, Canada also welcomed about 60,000
refugees from among a second wave of migrants known as the
"boat people" - who fled the country via dangerous sea voyages to
Hong Kong and elsewhere.
See also Americans; Sherwood Lett; James B. Seaborn.
2018-05-03, 5:47 p.m.