IFDA DOSSIER 6 APRIL 1979...Pour une experience' de cooperation exemplaire (Ahmed Ben Salah) . A...

international foundation for development alternatives

fundacion international para alternativas de desarrollo

fondation internationale pour un autre developpement

IFDA DOSSIER 6 , APRIL 1979

C O N T E N T S

NOTE D ' INTRODUCTION

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS / MATERIAUX / LADRILLOS

. H e a l t h and p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l i n t h e S i x t h P lan o f I n d i a (D. B a n e r j i ) and Toward a new w o r l d h e a l t h o r d e r ( S t i g Andersen)

. per; y e l o t r o d e s a r r o l l o (DESCO)

. Another B r i t a i n (James Robertson)

De l ' a v e n i r des r e l a t i o n s economiques i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s (Samir Amin)

Who b e n e f i t s f rom European Economic Community's t r a d e p re fe rences? (Vagn K j e l l be rg )

. P u b l i c o p i n i o n and i n f o r m a t i o n on T h i r d World r e l a t i o n s i n Norway, Sweden and t h e Nether lands ( K r i s t e n R ingda l )

INTERACTIONS

. Eloheh, o r t h e c o u n c i l o f t h e un ive rse (Jimmie Durham)

. I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n as p a r t o f a s e l f - r e l i a n c e s t r a t e g y (Shann T u r n b u l l )

. Towards s o l i d a r i t y c o n t r a c t s - t h e Tevoedjr@ concept a r t i c u l a t e d (Reg ina ld Herbold Green)

. What i s a s t r a t e g y ? (Johan Gal tung)

. Pour une experience' de coopera t ion exempla i re (Ahmed Ben Salah)

. A l e t t e r f rom C a l i f o r n i a (John Friedmann)

FOOTNOTES

Contributions t o the IFDA Dossier are presented under the sole responsibi ' i i ty o f t h e i r authors. They are not covered by any copyright. They may be repro- duced or transmitted i n any form or by any means without permission of the authors or IFDA. I n case of reprint , acknowledgement of source and receipt of a copy would be appreciated.

executive committee : isma'il-sobn abdalla, ahmed ben saioh (co-choirman], qamoni corea. mahbub ul haq. enrique Iqlesios, ion meijer (co-chairman), morc nerfin (president), justinian f. rweyemomu. ignocy sachs, juon somavlo. maunce f. strong, inga thorsson

secretariat 2. place du marche, ch - 1260 nyon. Switzerland: telephone 41 (22) 61 8282- telex 28840 ifda ch, cable fipad, geneva

NOTE D' INTRODUCTION

I1 devenait un peu fastidieux d'inviter les lecteurs de ce Dossier FIPAD, mois apres mois, 2 "inter-aqir" - malgre les premiers siqnes, encourageants, de cette interaction qui ont trouve leur place dans cette livraison et dans certaines des precedentes. Aussi avons-nous pense, le caractere multilinque de cette publication s'affirmant, qu'il etait temps, sans cesser de nous repeter, d'innover quelque peu, et de nous adresser, dans leur langue, Fi ceux de nos lecteurs qui utilisent Ie francais.

Cette livraison innove aussi d'une autre manisre : pour la premiere fois, nous publions un article en espagnol, sur Le Perou et un autre developpement. Le texte que l'on lira est trop bref pour refleter suffisamment les efforts de nos amis du Centre d'etudes et de promotion du d6veloppement de Lima; mais la liste des travaux qu'ils ont entrepris donnera une plus juste idee de l'ampleur de leur projet.

Le texte de James Robertson, Une autre Angleterre, s'inscrit pour sa part dans un processus d'animation d'un reseau polycentrique et constitue ainsi plus une invitation au travail qu'un produit fini.

Ainsi l'une de nos ambitions commence a se realiser : enraciner la discussion pour une nouvelle strategic internationale de developpement dans des strategies alternatives au plan national. Pres d'une vingtaine d'autres scenarios sont en chantier, interessant des pays aussi divers que Ie BrcSsil et la Suede, Malte et les Etats-Unis, Ie Sri Lanka et l'ouganda, le Japon et la region arabe, 1'Afrique aus- trale et la GrSce, 1'Italie et Ie Chili ou Ie Venezuela. Les reactions que susciteront les deux documents precurseurs presentes ici seront sans doute utiles aux auteurs des autres travaux en cours.

Les autres "materiaux" de ce Dossier, et la plupart des "interactions" sont aussi de nature, nous l'espsrons, a susciter Ie dialogue mutuellement enrichissant qui est l'une des raisons dlStre du projet Tiers Systems de la FIPAD.

A vous la parole

BUILDING BLOCKS

HEALTH AND POPULATION CONTROL IN THE SIXTH PLAN OF INDIA by 0. Banerji Centre of Social Medicine and Community Health Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi - 67, India

Original 1 anguage: English

Abstract: The concept of health planning has got grossly d i s to r t ed in the Five Year Plans. The Sixth Plan i s no exception. The "health s ec to r " i s ac tua l ly a "health services s ec to r " . The planners have not even attempted t o develop a ra t ional procedure t o determine the quantum of a1 locat ions t o the health services s ec to r i n t he context of other components of the heal th sec tors and of the national plan as a whole. Efforts are a l so lacking in ident i fy ing an optimal package of heal th services under a given a l loca t ion , as a l so in ident i fy ing optimal programmes t o deal with individual heal th problems. The planners have a l so f a i l e d in paying adequate a t t en t ion t o t he problems of organization, management and monitoring of the d i f f e r e n t elements of the heal th services .

Their record in the f i e l d of population control i s even more dismal. They iden t i - f i e d themselves with the contention t h a t the f r u i t s of development a r e being ea ten away by r i s ing population. Along with o the r s , they too abdicated t h e i r r e spons ib i l i t i e s and allowed almost a f r ee hand t o foreign agencies t o influence the policy formulation, planning, programming and implementation of t he national family planning programme of India. The Sixth Plan proposals look l i k e a head- l e s s monster - only the head of the monstrous organization b u i l t up t o force people t o accept s t e r i l i z a t i o n has been removed, the r e s t i s re ta ined i n t a c t .

The lack of competence in planning i s only the e f f e c t and the cause l i e s in the value system of the p o l i t i c a l leadership - i n i t s cul ture . They have made ega l i - t a r i a n pronouncements t o provide a smokescreen t o promote the i n t e r e s t s of t he pr iv i leged c lasses who control the levers of p o l i t i c a l power. There i s an obvious need f o r a fundamental change in the cul ture of the e n t i r e system - a cul tura l revolution. Such revolutions cannot be brought about overnight. The facade of p o l i t i c a l commitment t o de l ive r goods t o the people provides g rea t opportunity f o r the concerned people t o do hard and pa t i en t work t o bring about the desired change.

LA S A N T ~ ET LE C O N T R ~ L E DES NAISSANCES DANS LE ~ J E PLAN INDIEN

Resume: Le concept de p l an i f i ca t ion de l a s an t e a ete gravement deforme dans l e s plans quinquennaux indiens. Le 6e plan n ' e s t pas une exception. Le "sec teur s an t e" e s t en f a i t u n "sec teur des services de sante" . Les p l an i f i ca t eu r s n 'ont meme pas essay@ de mettre au point une procedure r a t i o n e l l e pour determiner l a proportion des a f f ec t a t i ons aux services de san te en fonction des aut res elements du sec t eu r s an t e e t du plan national dans son ensemble. Pas d ' e f f o r t non plus pour d e f i n i r un ensemble optimal de s e rv i ces de san te dans une ce r t a ine enveloppe

f i n a n c i s r e n i pour d e f i n i r des programmes opt imaux pour t r a i t e r des problemes i n d i v i d u e l s de sante. Les p l a n i f i c a t e u r s n ' o n t pas d 'avan tage accord6 l ' a t t e n t i o n necessa i re aux problemes d ' o r g a n i s a t i o n , d ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n e t de s u r v e i l l a n c e des d i f f e r e n t s elements des s e r v i c e s de san te .

Le b i l a n e s t encore p l u s sombre en m a t i e r e de c o n t r 6 l e des naissances. 11s admet- t e n t que l e s f r u i t s du developpement s o n t "manges" p a r une p o p u l a t i o n c r o i s s a n t e . Avec d ' a u t r e s , i l s o n t abdique l e u r r e s p o n s a b i l i t e e t presque l a i s s e des o r g a n i - s a t i o n s e t rangeres l i b r e s d ' i n f l u e n c e r l a f o r m u l a t i o n des p o l i t i q u e s , l a p l a n i f i - c a t i o n e t l a mise en oeuvre des programmes i n d i e n s de c o n t r 6 l e des naissances. Les p r o p o s i t i o n s du 6e P lan s o n t comme un monstre sans t e t e - Fi c e l a p res que l a t e t e d 'une monstrueuse o r g a n i s a t i o n f o r c a n t l e s i n d i v i d u s Fi a c c e p t e r l a s t e r i l i s a t i o n a 6 t e coupee. Mais 1e r e s t e e s t demeure i n t a c t .

Le manque de competence en m a t i e r e de p l a n i f i c a t i o n n ' e s t q u ' u n e f f e t ; il f a u t v o i r ses causes dans l e systeme de v a l e u r s de l a d i r e c t i o n p o l i t i q u e , dans sa c u l t u r e . Les d e c l a r a t i o n s e g a l i t a i r e s ne s o n t qu 'un ec ran de fumee d e r r i e r e 1es l e v i e r s du p o u v o i r p o l i t i q u e .

Le b e s o i n e s t e v i d e n t d ' u n changement fondamental dans l a c u l t u r e du systeme dans son ensemble - d'une r e v o l u t i o n c u l t u r e l l e . Un t e l changement ne se f e r a pas en un j o u r . Les promesses p o l i t i q u e s de repondre aux a s p i r a t i o n s p o p u l a i r e s f o u r n i s s e n t cependant aux i n t e r e s s e s une occas ion de t r a v a i l l e r d u r e t patiemment pour opere r l e s changements q u ' i l s d e s i r e n t .

Resumen: E l concept0 de p l a n i f i c a c i 6 n para l a s a l u d ha s i d o t o t a l m e n t e t o r c i d o en 10s p lanes I n d i o s quinquenales. Es to v a l e tambien para e l sex to p l a n . E l " s e c t o r de sa lud" es en r e a l i d a d un " s e c t o r de s e r v i c i o s de sa lud" . Los p l a n i f i c a d o r e s no han aOn i n t e n t a d o d e s a r r o l l a r un p roced im ien to r a c i o n a l para de te rm inar l a s as ignac iones a1 s e c t o r de s e r v i c i o s de s a l u d en e l c o n t e x t 0 de o t r o s componentes de 10s sec to res de s a l u d y d e l p l a n n a c i o n a l e n t e r o .

F a l t a n es fue rzos pa ra i d e n t i f i c a r un grupo o p t i m a l de s e r v i c i o s de sa lud , y p rog ra - mas para t r a t a r con problemas de s a l u d i n d i v i d u a l e s . Tampoco se han d i r i g i d o a 10s problemas de organizac iOn, d i r e c c i b n y c o n t r o l de 10s d i s t i n t o s elementos de 10s s e r v i c i o s de sa lud . Sus antecedentes en e l campo de c o n t r o l de nac im ien tos es ahn mas pesimo. Los p l a n i f i c a d o r e s han abdicado su r e s p o n s a b i l i d a d y han dejado mas b i e n que a g e n d a s e s t r a n j e r a s i n f l u y a n l a f o r m u l a c i 6 n de l a p o l i t i c a , l a p l a n i f i - c a c i 6 n y l a implementac i6n de l programa nac iona l de l c o n t r o l de nac im ien tos . Las p r o p o s i c i o n e s en e l s e x t o p l a n parecen s e r un monstro s i n cabeza - s61o han co r tado l a cabeza de l a o r g a n i z a c i 6 n monstruosa c o n s t r u i d a pa ra f o r z a r a1 pueblo a accep ta r l a e s t e r i l i z a c i 6 n , e l r e s t o queda i n t a c t o .

Hay que buscar 1as razones para l a f a l t a de cornpetencia en e l s is tema de v a l o r e s de l a d i r e c c i 6 n p o l T t i c a , en su c u l t u r a . Sus pronunciamientos de i g u a l d a d han s i d o s o l o una c o r t i n a de humo que permi t i f i p romover 10s i n t e r e s e s de l a s c l a s e s p r i v i l e - g iadas . Lo que hace f a l t a es un cambio fundamental en l a c u l t u r a d e l s is tema e n t e r o - una r e v o l u c i 6 n c u l t u r a l . La fachada de comprometerse a 1as a s p i r a c i o n e s d e l pueb lo provee l a o p o r t u n i d a d para 10s in te resados de t r a b a j a r con p a c i e n c i a para r e a l i z a r 10s cambios deseados.

D. B a n e r j i

HEALTH AND POPULATION CONTROL I N THE S I X T H PLAN OF I N D I A

H e a l t h P lann ing

Through t h e 27 years , p l a n n i n g i n t h e s o - c a l l e d h e a l t h s e c t o r has tended t o g i v e q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t meaning t o t h e word "p lann ing" . Here p l a n n i n g e s s e n t i a l l y meant a1 l o c a t i o n under c e r t a i n heads: h o s p i t a l s and d ispensar ies ; medical edu- c a t i o n and research; c o n t r o l o f communicable diseases; r u r a l h e a l t h programme; t r a i n i n g programmes ; i ndi genous j y s tems o f medic ine and homeopathy; and " o t h e r programmes". Two o t h e r heads, namely, envi ronmental s a n i t a t i o n and water-supply and fami l y p lann ing , have now been taken o u t o f t h e " h e a l t h " s e c t o r . H e a l t h p l a n n i n g i n t h e successive F i v e Year Plans meant v a r y i n g increases i n t h e a l l o c a - t i o n s under these heads.

The framers o f t h e S i x t h Plan have a l s o r e a l i z e d t h e ser ious f laws i n t h e h e a l t h p l a n n i n g process adopted e a r l i e r (1, p.230) :

T h e r e i s se r ious d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g model o f medical and h e a l t h ca re s e r v i c e s w i t h i t s emphasis on h o s p i t a l s , s p e c i a l i t i e s and s u p e r s p e c i a l i t i e s and h i g h l y t r a i n e d doctors, which ge ts l i m i t e d i n p r a c t i c e mos t l y t o urban areas and which i s a v a i l a b l e t o m a i n l y w e l l - t o - d o c lasses. It i s a l s o r e a l i z e d t h a t i t i s t h i s model which i s d e p r i v i n g t h e r u r a l areas and t h e poor people o f t h e b e n e f i t s o f good h e a l t h and medical s e r v i c e s . Ser ious doubts have, t h e r e f o r e , been r a i s e d as t o whether we d i d r i g h t i n adop t ing t h i s Western model o f medical s e r v i c e s and h e a l t h ca re whose cos ts go f a r beyond our resources, which emphasizes c u r a t i v e r a t h e r than p r e v e n t i v e and p romot iona l aspects and which c rea tes immense problems because o f over-emphasis on i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y h i g h l e v e l of p r o f e s s i o n a l i s a t i o n , i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n and c e n t r a l i s a t i o n " .

They have a l s o emphasized t h e need f o r search ing a l t e r n a t i v e models. But , as i n t h e past , a f t e r a11 t h e hear t -search ing , they have come up w i t h a " h e a l t h p l a n " which has n o t touched t h e " e x i s t i n g model o f medical and h e a l t h s e r v i c e s " which t h e y have d isapproved so c a t e g o r i c a l l y : a c l a s s i c a l i n s t a n c e o f a c o n d i t i o n o f ' ' s o f t - s t a t e " o f Gunnar Myrdal . The S i x t h Plan cannot i n a way be c a l l e d d i s t i n c - t i v e when i t promises t o " p r o v i d e b e t t e r h e a l t h and medical ca re t o t h e r u r a l areas and t h e poor people" (1, p.230) and t h a t i t w i l l n o t p e r m i t any " l i n e a r expansion o f c u r a t i v e s e r v i c e s i n urban areas based on s p e c i a l i t i e s and super- s p e c i a l i t i e s " (1, p.231) . Such p ious r e s o l u t i o n s and de te rmina t ions can be t r a c e d r i g h t t o t h e beg inn ing o f P lan development i n I n d i a .

F o r t h e F i r s t P lan i t was, as now, a round condemnation o f t h e c o l o n i a l Western model, a v igo rous programme o f s o c i a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f medical educa t ion th rough es tab l i shment o f departments o f p r e v e n t i v e and s o c i a1 medic ine and launch ing o f t h e p r imary h e a l t h cen t res , a long w i t h t h e " r e v o l u t i o n a r y " Community Development Programme on t h e ausp ic ious October 2 1952. ( S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e " r e v o l u t i o n a r y " t r a d i t i o n i s b e i n g con t inued - t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y Rural H e a l t h Scheme was launched on October 2 1977:) The Second P lan promised a na t ion -w ide coverage o f t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n through p r imary h e a l t h cen t res and a massive a l l o c a t i o n t o launch, w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e US government and WHO, a m i l i t a r y - s t y l e campaign t o e r a d i - c a t e m a l a r i a once and f o r a l l by t h e m i d - s i x t i e s . I n s p i r e d by American consu l - t a n t s , t h e T h i r d P lan saw t h e launch ing o f t h e na t ion -w ide e x t e n s i o n approach t o

f a m i l y p lann ing as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e h e a l t h s e r v i c e s t o "educate" and p e r s u a d e " t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n t o accept t h e smal l f a m i l y norm. It a l s o com- mended a WHO/UNICEF-backed mass campaign t o e r a d i c a t e smal lpox from I n d i a once and f o r a11 by 1966. Again, w i t h a c t i v e h e l p f rom t h e Ford Foundation, t h e P o p u l a t i o n Counci l o f t h e USA, t h e World Bank and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Monetary Fund, t h e U n i t e d Nat ions Fund f o r Popu la t ion A c t i v i t i e s and t h e Swedish I n t e r - n a t i o n a l Development A u t h o r i t y , t h e Four th P lan pushed ahead t h e f a m i l y p lann ing programme w i t h utmost v i g o u r : massive programmes o f promot ing use o f t h e IUD, mob i le s t e r i l i z a t i o n and IUD u n i t s , t a r g e t - o r i e n t e d , time-bound programmes (which i n c l u d e d a l l o c a t i o n o f f a m i l y p l a n n i n g t a r g e t s t o pol icemen and revenue o f f i c i a l s and p e r f o r m i n g s t e r i l i z a t i o n s on r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m s ) and t h e n o t o r i o u s mass vasectomy camps, were a l l p roduc ts o f t h e Four th Plan. The F i f t h P lan had two f a c e t s : r e a l i z i n g t h e f a i 1 u re o f coerc ive methods, h e a l t h , f a m i l y p lann ing and n u t r i t i o n were made as a component o f t h e Minimum Needs Programme t o launch a f r o n t a l a t t a c k on p o v e r t y - development was recognized as t h e b e s t contracep- t i v e ; however, a l l these i d e a l s were abandoned w i t h t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e emergency and t h e p r i v i l e g e d c lasses unleashed an open c l a s s war a g a i n s t t h e poor and t h e weak, and s t e r i l i z e d over 7 m i l l i o n people a g a i n s t t h e i r w i l l . Neg lec t o f t h e h e a l t h programme l e d t o resurgence o f m a l a r i a and o t h e r communi- cab le diseases; even t h e p r e t e n s i o n o f l o o k i n g a f t e r t h e h e a l t h o f mothers and c h i l d r e n was g iven up; s e r i o u s l y s i c k p a t i e n t s were tu rned away f rom p u b l i c hos- p i t a l s because they were unable t o produce t h e c e r t i f i c a t e f o r s t e r i l i z a t i o n which they had underwent some f i v e t o t e n years back.

A l l t h e ma jo r programmes which were launched w i t h so much fanfare and promise have ended as d i s a s t r o u s f a i l u r e s : s o c i a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f medical educa t ion i s s t i l l a d i s t a n t dream; t h e p r imary h e a l t h cen t res have m i s e r a b l y f a i l e d t o meet even t h e most p r e s s i n g needs o f t h e r u r a l poor; t h e promise t o e r a d i c a t e m a l a r i a by t h e m i d - s i x t i e s c o u l d n o t be k e p t and massive resources a re s t i l l b e i n g a l l o - ca ted t o " c o n t a i n ma1 a r i a " ; o t h e r communicable diseases a re rampant and they c o n t i n u e t o cause e x t e n s i v e s u f f e r i n g among t h e people; and t h e mothers and c h i l d r e n con t inue t o s u f f e r ve ry h i g h r a t e s o f m o r t a l i t y and m o r b i d i t y . The account o f t h e f a m i l y p l a n n i n g movement through t h e p a s t two decades i t s e l f i s a saga o f most expensive and co lossa l f a i l u r e s . A l l these p r o v i d e a s t r o n g enough i n d i c t m e n t o f t h e e n t i r e system. The h e a l t h p lanners, t h e e n t i r e P lann ing Commission, t h e bureaucra ts , t h e technocra ts and t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s a r e a11 c lose- l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h these dec is ions . I n a r e a l democrat ic s e t up they ought t o have been h e l d accountable f o r t h e i r a c t s . I t i s one o f t h e c r u e l e s t i r o n i e s t h a t t h e e n t i r e system a c t u a l l y seems t o t h r i v e on such d i s a s t e r s . They use t h e p a s t b lunders t o j u s t i f y launch ing y e t another amb i t ious programme, t h e f a i l u r e o f which, i n t u r n , p rov ides a case f o r embarking on a s t i l l more amb i t ious venture. T h i s serves a ve ry p o s i t i v e purpose f o r t h e r u l i n g c lasses . It g l o s - ses over and even g l o r i f i e s t h e shor tcomings o f the h e a l t h p lanners , t h e members o f t h e P lann ing Commission, t h e bureaucra ts and t h e technocra ts ; i t ensures t h a t incompetent persons keep on occupying key p o s i t i o n s and even g e t promoted t o h i g h e r ones, and i t a l s o he lps t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p t o p r o v i d e a sop t o t h e masses w h i l e they a c t i v e l y perpe tua te a medical and h e a l t h ca re system which es- s e n t i a l l y serves t h e p r i v i l e g e d c lasses.

H e a l t h p l a n n i n g i n t h e S i x t h P lan f o l l o w s t h e same p a t t e r n . As i t i s becoming more and more d i f f i c u l t t o obscure t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y u n j u s t c h a r a c t e r o f t h e e x i s t i n g h e a l t h s e r v i c e system and as t h e masses a r e becoming s c e p t i c and r e s t i v e about t h e promises o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e coun t ry , t h e r e i s i n c r e a s i n g p o l i t i c a l

p o l i t i c a l leaders, technocra ts , p r o f e s s i o n a l s o r tycoons g e t h e a r t a t t a c k they a re g iven VIP t rea tment i n community h o s p i t a l s . Despi te t h e i r p r o v e r b i a l i n e f f i c i e n c y , these h o s p i t a l s m o b i l i s e whatever resources they have t o "se rve" t h e VIP and i n t h i s process the masses o f t h e people who t h r o n g i n these h o s p i t a l s t o seek r e l i e f f rom t h e s u f f e r i n g s due t o diseases a r e depr i ved o f s e r v i c e s s t i l l f u r t h e r . Knowing t h a t t h e i r l i v e s a re i n t h e hands o f t h e s p e c i a l i s t s and super- s p e c i a l i s t s i n these h o s p i t a l s , t h e VIPs a r e much more amenable t o t h e suggest ions o f these t o p c l i n i c i a n s n o t merely i n terms o f g e t t i n g t h e l a t e s t gadgets f rom t h e a f f l u e n t c o u n t r i e s so t h a t VIPs can be served b e t t e r when they g e t t h e n e x t h e a r t a t t a c k , b u t a l s o i n terms o f f i l l i n g key p o s i t i o n s and even i n t h e development o f t h e community h e a l t h s e r v i c e s i n t h e coun t ry . These t o p c l i n i c i a n s , w i t h t h e i r deep-rooted p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s values, who serve t h e f a t , a r t e r i o s c l e r o t i c VIPs, a re thus a b l e t o i n f l u e n c e the e n t i r e h e a l t h s e r v i c e system much more than a community h e a l t h worker who has spent h i s whole p r o f e s s i o n a l l i f e among t h e masses t o make medical and h e a l t h s e r v i c e s meaningfu l t o them. And, a f t e r t h e VIP recovers f rom h i s h e a r t a t t a c k o r cancer o r p i l e s and he makes a v a i l a b l e lakhs o f rupees f o r expansion o f s u p e r - s p e c i a l i t i e s , he takes t h e pub1 i c p l a t f o r m t o e x h o r t doc to rs t o serve t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n . The f a c t t h a t , w i t h o u t excep t ion , t h e Padma Bhushans awarded t o phys ic ians s i n c e independence went t o c l i n i c i a n s who serve t h e VIPs, p o i g n a n t l y underscores t h e value system o f t h e p o l i t i c a l l eadersh ip . The message i s c l e a r : i f you want p r e s t i g e , honour, award, i n f l u e n c e and a f f l u e n c e , be a t o p c l i n i c i a n and serve t h e r u l i n g c lasses; you a r e condemned t o m isery and n e g l e c t i f you ven tu re t o serve t h e masses.

The response t o t h e d iscovery o f a c o i n l e s i o n i n t h e l u n g o f the P r e s i d e n t p rov ides a d ramat i c i n s t a n c e o f t h e value system o f t h e I n d i a n l e a d e r s h i p . The Prime M i n i s t e r has been e x t o l l i n g the v i r t u e s o f au to -u r ine the rapy and na tu ropa thy t o t h e masses; t h e then Hea l th M i n i s t e r was e x h o r t i n g people t o take t o ind igenous systems o f medic ine and yoga. B u t cashing on t h e predicament o f t h e Pres iden t , cancer s u p e r - s p e c i a l i s t s managed t o e x t r a c t about Rs. 20 m f rom t h e Government t o i n s t a l l t h e l a t e s t gadget i n cancer, " L i n e a r A c c l e r a t o r " a t t h e A l l I n d i a I n s t i t u t e o f Medical Sciences, New D e l h i , and a t t h e Tata Memorial Cancer H o s p i t a l i n Bombay t o serve t h e f u t u r e cases o f c o i n - l e s i o n s b e t t e r . The malady thus l i e s deep i n t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e coun t ry - t h e i r l a c k o f r e a l commitment t o t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e masses o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . A sweeping change i n t h i s c u l t u r e a t t h e p o l i t i c a l l e v e l on a l a r g e s c a l e - a c u l t u r a l r e v o l u t i o n - i s needed as a remedy t o b r i n g t h e value system o f t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p i n tune w i t h t h e D i r e c t i v e P r i n c i p l e s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n . T h i s , i n t u r n , shou ld l e a d t o sweeping changes i n t h e " c u l t u r e " o f t h e bureaucracy, and t h e v a r i o u s i n s t i - t u t i o n s f o r educa t ion , t r a i n i n g , research and p lann ing . They must a l l become subord ina te t o t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e coun t ry as a whole r a t h e r than t h a t o f a t i n y p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s .

I t w i l l , however, be n a i v e t o expect such changes t o occur o v e r n i g h t ; such changes have t o be b rough t about by pa t ience and hard work a long w i t h an i n s i g h t - f u l a n a l y s i s o f t h e e n t i r e s i t u a t i o n . It w i l l a l s o be e q u a l l y wrong t o presume t h a t t h e r e a r e no t h o u g h t f u l people a t va r ious l e v e l s who a r e deeply concerned about the p r e s e n t s t a t e o f a f f a i r s . To these people, t h e p o l i t i c a l commitment t o d e l i v e r goods t o t h e masses p rov ides a cons iderab le scope o f work; t h e facade can be used as an o p p o r t u n i t y . By b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r m o t i v a t e d people f rom v a r i o u s f i e l d s , t h e facade can be used t o b u i l d an a l t e r n a t i v e h e a l t h and popu- l a t i o n c o n t r o l system which i s much s t r o n g e r , dynamic and v igorous by r o o t i n g i t

f i r m l y on the people. Such a peop le -o r ien ted programme can p r o v i d e a v i t a l e n t r y p o i n t i n t o the community t o promote s o c i a l and economic changed which a re c r u c i a l p r e - r e q u i s i tes f o r b u i l d i n g a hea l t h y s o c i e t y .

REFERENCE:

Government o f I n d i a (1978): D r a f t F i v e Year Plan: 1978-83, New De lh i , P lann ing Commission.

AN INTERACTION

TOWARD A NEW WORLD HEALTH ORDER a d r a f t by S t i g Andersen

1. The s t r i v i n g f o r the New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order and t h e "Basic Needs" approach t o development a re i n many ways c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o one another . The NIEO deals w i t h a new way o f a r rang ing t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic system and i s domina ted by macro c o n s i d e r a t i o n s where arrangements a r e between s t a t e s and groups o f s t a t e s , n o t a b l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d market economies and t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . On t h e o t h e r hand, the "Basic Needs" Approach deals l a r g e l y w i t h problems w i t h i n s t a t e s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s between people and groups o f people and e x c l u s i v e l y , a t t h i s ~ o i n t , i n t h e T h i r d H o r l d . The most common c r i t i c i s m by t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s a g a i n s t t h e NIEO i s t h a t i t o n l y would tend t o favour those c o u n t r i e s which a re more i n d u s t r i a l i z e d among t h e T h i r d World n a t i o n s , and w i t h i n c o u n t r i e s those groups t h a t a r e a l ready i n power and t h a t a l r e a d y e n j o y the b e n e f i t s o f t h e e a r l y s tages o f growth. The main c r i t i c i s m by t h e T h i r d World o f t h e "Basic Needs" approach i s t h a t i t i m p l i e s an i n t e r f e r e n c e by i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s i n t o t h e i n t e r n a l p o l i c i e s o f each coun t ry and, worse s t i l l , t h a t i t i m p l i e s r e f u s a l t o adopt and implement t h e NIEO by p r o v i d i n g " l o l l i p o p " ass is tance t o the poores t , which w i l l n o t b r i n g about any development process i n t h e T h i r d World, b u t on t h e c o n t r a r y keep them poor. To t h i s l a s t argument i s sometimes added t h a t t h e "Basic Needs" approach a l s o tends t o be an ins t rument t o inc rease t h e w o r l d market f o r i n d u s t r i a l p roduc ts f rom t h e r i c h c o u n t r i e s , r a t h e r than improv ing the p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y o f t h e deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s themselves.

2. NIEO, even i f i t were implemented i n a h i g h degree and soon, would n o t p e r se b r i n g about any change i n h e a l t h c o n d i t i o n s , a l though h i g h e r l i v i n g standards i n t h e T h i r d World i s one p r e - r e q u i s i t e f o r b e t t e r h e a l t h i n these c o u n t r i e s . C o n t r i b u t i o n o f H e a l t h t o N 1 0 " t h e t i t l e o f t h e World H e a l t h Assembly 1980 Technical Discussions, seems t o l o o k toward another r e l a t i o n s h i p : i f we can some- how b r i n g about b e t t e r h e a l t h ( i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld) , how would t h i s a f f e c t t h e e a r l i e r a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e NIEO? F i r s t , h e a l t h y peop le (whether i n t h e Nor th o r South) would n o t t o l e r a t e p resen t h i g h l y u n j u s t d i s t r i b u t i o n o f income and wea l th . Hea l thy people would p robab ly o rgan ize and t h r e a t e n a r e v o l u t i o n t o a t t a i n more j u s t i c e .

3. More p o s i t i v e l y s t a t e d , t h e r e are no doubt i n t e r a c t i n g cumu la t i ve processes which r e l a t e b e t t e r h e a l t h w i t h b e t t e r economic o r d e r . A new i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o r d e r i s a p r e - r e q u i s i t e f o r economic and s o c i a l development i n the T h i r d World, and economic growth can l e a d t o b e t t e r h e a l t h . Conversely, h e a l t h i e r people can be more p r o d u c t i v e and change t h e n a t i o n a l and u l t i m a t e l y t h e i n t e r - n a t i o n a l economic o r d e r .

4. However, i t i s t h e r e i n c o n t e n t i o n o f t h i s note t h a t a New World H e a l t h Order must be based p a r t i c u l a r l y on an a n a l y s i s o f h e a l t h systems i n t h e i n d u s t - r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , because ( a ) " i n the face o f t h e mounting ev idence t h a t moder- n i z e d medic ine i s i r r e l e v a n t as a de te rminan t o f h e a l t h , we have responded w i t h phenomenal new investments i n medic ine" (John McKnight) , and ( b ) w i t h h a r d l y any excep t ion (p robab ly n o t even China, i n t h e 1980s), t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a r e s i m p l y emu la t ing t h e r i c h c o u n t r i e s , the p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e be ing t h a t i t does n o t ( y e t ) c o s t these c o u n t r i e s as much. V i r t u a l l y a l l T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a re engaged i n a mad scramble t o g e t as c o s t l y and as h e a l t h - i n d i f f e r e n t , o r even hea l th-demot ing, h e a l t h systems as the r i c h c o u n t r i e s .

5 . The s t r i v i n g toward a new World H e a l t h Order should t h e r e f o r e c o n s i s t o f two e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t a t t a c k s : replacement o f t h e supply-determined and a d d i c t i v e h e a l t h systems i n t h e r i c h c o u n t r i e s (Eas t and West) by a need and demand-determined system i n these c o u n t r i e s , and p r e v e n t i o n o f f u r t h e r emu la t ion o f these systems i n t h e T h i r d World, combined w i t h at tempts t o b u i l d up indigenous h e a l t h promot ing systems i n these c o u n t r i e s , b u i l d i n g upon t h e b e s t h e a l t h t r a d i t i o n s a l ready e x i s t - i n g t h e r e supplemented by t h e s o c i a l l y r e l e v a n t s c i e n t i f i c knowledge o f t h e r i c h c o u n t r i e s , as opposed t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l exper ience o f these.

6. H e a l t h i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s y m b i o t i c e x i s t e n c e and development i n h i s o r h e r envi ronment . The s i n a l e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r de te rmin ing a p e r s o n ' s h e a l t h i s h i s o r h e r w i l l t o be hea l thy . This w i l l , i n t u r n , i s c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e p h y s i c a l envi ronment and t h e s o c i a l fo rces i n t h e s m a l l e r and l a r g e r community o f which t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s a member. Th is , obv ious ly , does n o t mean t h a t p h y s i c a l envi ronment and s o c i a l fo rces do n o t have a d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on t h e h e a l t h o f the i n d i v i d u a l , b u t o n l y t h a t i t i s o f t e n over looked t h a t t h e "wi l l -mechanism" i s a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r , as ev idenced by much p h y s i c a l and mental i l l - h e a l t h i n what would seem near - idea l economic envi ronments.

7 . H e a l t h i n t h e b roades t sense i s mankind 's h i g h e s t goa l . S o c i a l and economic p r o d u c t i v i t y , c l e a n a i r and wate r , and b e a u t i f u l a r t , a re means t o b r i n g about t h e h i g h e s t a t t a i n a b l e s tandard o f "phys ica l , mental and s o c i a l w e l l - b e i n g " (WHO c o n s t i t u t i o n ) f o r t h e l a r g e s t p o s s i b l e number o f i n d i v i d u a l s . It i s a l s o t r u e , b u t secondary, t h a t h e a l t h y people tend t o be p r o d u c t i v e and have s u r p l u s energy t o produce b e a u t i f u l a r t .

8. Hea l th promot ion i n b o t h North and South would i n t e r a l i a i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w - i ng:

. d e m y s t i f i c a t i o n o f medic ine and t h e medical p r o f e s s i o n ;

. educa t ion towards persona l , f a m i l y and small-community s e l f - r e l i a n c e i n h e a l t h mat te rs ;

. use o f h i g h e r technology, e l a b o r a t e h o s p i t a l s , e t c . , as o n l y emergency and " l a s t r e s o r t " f a c i l i t i e s , and not as " f i r s t r e s o r t " .

9. I n the North, i n a d d i t i o n , p lanned investments i n f u r t h e r h igh- techno logy c u r a t i v e es tab l i shments and b r a i n and body scanners shou ld be s h i f t e d toward p r i o - r i t i e s such as r e p l a c i n g s m a l l e r towns f o r l a r g e r c i t i e s , c r e a t i n g more p l e a s i n g surroundings around and i n s i d e human h a b i t a t i o n , and o t h e r types o f investments which would improve peop le ' s p u r e l y p h y s i c a l environment. But i t would a l s o be necessary t o look i n t o even more fundamental phenomena a f f e c t i n g human h e a l t h :

. I s t h e most hea l th -deno t ing f a c t o r i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s i n the l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e 20th cen tu ry n o t " f r i e n d l y fasc ism" i n p o l i t i c a l l i f e ? Ignacy Sachs de f ines " f r i e n d l y fasc ism" as t h e " a u t h o r i t a r i a n a l l i a n c e between B i g Business and B i g Government whose conserva t i ve dynamism may overcome our c a p a c i t y f o r cont inuous s o c i a l m u t a t i o n i n response t o our predicament" .

. I s f u l l employment r e a l l y such a wonderfu l goa l? I f some people want bad ly t o work 60-70 hours a week, they shou ld c e r t a i n l y n o t be prevented f rom i t , b u t i f o t h e r people f e e l t h a t two s i x - h o u r days would do, must everyone conform t o such f i x e d work ing weeks as now p r e v a i l ?

. Dying i s a p a r t o f l i f e . It must come when i t must come. The h y s t e r i a s u r - rounding death i n s e l e c t e d cases (e.g. Eisenhower, Franco, Boumedienne) makes i t imposs ib le f o r o r d i n a r y people t o have an o r d i n a r y view o f death.

. Love-making and c a r i n g f o r shou ld be by f a r t h e most popu la r pastimes f o r t h e human k i n d . Love-making has been made a b i t e a s i e r and more v a r i e d i n Western s o c i e t y r e c e n t l y , b u t t h e r e a re many m i l e s t o go b e f o r e h e a l t h y men and women have about as much good love-making as they would l i k e . Car ing f o r has become an a1- most f o r g o t t e n pastime.

10. Wi th t h e immense d i f f e r e n c e i n l e v e l and q u a l i t y o f l i f e between Nor th and South, t h e human race cannot become a l o t h e a l t h i e r . There fo re one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t elements o f t h e New H o r l d Hea l th Order must n e c e s s a r i l y be a massive t r a n s f e r o f resources f rom Nor th t o South, accompanied p robab ly by a cons iderab le t r a n s f e r , m i g r a t i o n , o f p o p u l a t i o n f rom South t o Nor th . The t r a n s f e r o f resources shou ld n o t , however, be t i e d t o c e r t a i n i n p u t s , f o r these i n p u t s would, a t t h i s p o i n t , and w i t h t h e p resen t approach t o h e a l t h s e r v i c e s i n t h e North, i n a11 l i k e - l i h o o d be coun te r -p roduc t i ve . The p o l i t i c a l l eaders i n t h e South, though n o t t h e medical es tab l i shment the re , would p robab ly show s l i g h t l y more wisdom i n t h e use o f t h e resources t r a n s f e r r e d than t h e a i d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n t h e North.

11. I n t h e South, w h i l e many o f t h e p r i o r i t i e s l i s t e d i n paras 8 and 9 above would app ly as w e l l , t h e r e a r e severa l o t h e r u rgen t p r i o r i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g :

. D r a s t i c a l l y improved d r i n k i n g wate r supp ly and b a s i c s a n i t a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e r u r a l areas. P r i o r i t y a c t i o n w i t h i n t h i s s u b j e c t i s l i k e l y t o pay of f i n concre te h e a l t h improvement terms a t r a t e s many t imes h i g h e r than any o t h e r a c t i o n s a t comparable c o s t .

. Inc reased food p r o d u c t i o n f o r l o c a l consumption, as opposed t o cash crops f o r e x p o r t .

. The c r e a t i o n and cons tan t development by t h e p o p u l a t i o n i t s e l f , w i t h such marginal p r o v i n c i a l and s t a t e ass is tance as may be necessary, o f an a f f o r d a b l e , c o n f i dence- inspi r i n g , near-home h e a l t h s e r v i c e , w i t h r e f e r r a l s e r v i c e t o p r o v i n c i a1 and s t a t e l e v e l s .

12. To achieve a p r i o r i t y s e t t i n g a long such l i n e s by t h e governments o f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s w i l l o n l y be p o s s i b l e when i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s have thorough ly changed approach t o h e a l t h m a t t e r s . I t would be q u i t e useless, as w e l l as d ishones t , f o r them t o t r y t o d issuade t h e governments i n t h e T h i r d World f rom emula t ing t h e systems i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d wor lds ( b o t h East and West), as l o n g as t h e peop le and leaders t h e r e do n o t recogn ize t h e i r hea l th -demot in and c r i m i n a l l y w a s t e f u l behav iour and take a c t i o n t o s t o p i t . Even t h e most a n g e f i c a l l y p a t i e n t h e a l t h p h i l o s o p h e r i n t h e South i s u n l i k e l y t o change h i s views on any th ing by people who a r e h e l l - b e n t on e a t i n q . d r i n k i n a . smoking. d r i n k i n q , s t r e s s i n q and i n t e r n a t i o n a l - con fe renc ing themselves t o death.

L A D R I L L O S

PERU Y EL OTRO DESARROLLO

Centre de Estudios y ~romocidn del Desarrollo (DESCO) Avenida Salaverry 1945, Lima 14, ~ e r u

PERU AND ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT (o r ig ina l : ~ p a n i s h )

This i s the repor t of a working group formed under the auspices of the Centre fo r the Study and Promotion of Development (DESCO) t o carry out a projec t on Peru and Another Development. This t ex t i s a resume of an extensive document e n t i t l e d 'Global Report ' . In addi t ion , the work included a s e r i e s of conmissioned monographs which a re l i s t e d below. These papers a r e avai lable from DESCO.

The paper assumes another development as the only viable national p ro j ec t fo r countries such as Peru - another development seen as e s sen t i a l l y a p o l i t i c a l process , non-technocratic and necessarily confl i ctual . Another development, urging both as a condition and i t s purpose the transformation of power s t r u c t u r e s , does not imply autarchy but the breakdown of external depen- dencies and mechanisms of in ternal and external domination; the construction of an authent ic nation s t a t e and the development of co l l ec t ive s e l f - r e l i ance between non-ali gned countr ies .

Another development i s not seen as a recipe but instead as a proposal which evolves from the analys is of each concrete r e a l i t y . The paper thus t r e a t s p o l i t i c a l matrices of another development in Peru: the s a t i s f a c t i o n of bas ic needs, socia- l i z a t i o n of the means of production, transformation of the methods of i n t eg ra t ion i n the in ternat ional economy, transformation of the bases of power.

F inal ly , the paper c r i t i z e s pas t United Nations development s t r a t e g i e s , questions t he v i a b i l i t y of an In ternat ional Development Strategy which ignores fundamental con f l i c t s ex i s t i ng between d i s t i n c t groups of countries and f u r t h e r proposes the elaboration of some s o r t of "Fundamental Charter of Development of Peoples"; t h i s would legi t imize national processes aimed a t another development, including the guarantee of the f u l l exerc ise of human r igh t s and of democratic formulas, and would favour co l l ec t ive s e l f-re1 iance and rea l in ternat ional co-operati on.

L i s t of monographs ( t h e 'Global Report' and the monographs wi l l be published by

1. Production s t ruc tu re and basic needs: DESCO)

Food (31 pp) , Teobaldo Pinzas; Education (80 pp) , Raul Vargas; Housing (112 pp ) , Adolfo COrdova; Health (51 pp) , David Tejada

2. Production s t ruc tu re , employment, technology and cap i t a l accummulation: Employment (36 pp) , Raul Gonzales ; Technology (28 pp), Rachel Hertenberg; Capital accummulation (29 pp) , Cesar Cabrera; Production s t r u c t u r e (61 pp ) , Arnaldo Rondon; Rural development (73 pp) , Luis Cruz

3 . The in ternat ional order and another development (24 pp) , J u l i o Velarde

4. In ternat ional p o l i t i c s and another development (40 pp ) , Cesar Arias

../cant. on pgJ2

L E P ~ R O U E T U N AUTRE D~VELOPPEMENT

Le t e x t e q u i s u i t c o n s t i t u e l e r a p p o r t du Centre d ' e t u d e s e t de p romot ion du developpement (DESCO) q u i a t r a v a i l 1 6 s u r "Le Perou e t un a u t r e developpement". 11 s ' a g i t de l a v e r s i o n resumee d ' u n t e x t e p l u s impor tan t , lui-meme i s s u d 'une s e r i e de monographies don t l a l i s t e f i g u r e p l u s bas.

Un a u t r e developpement e s t l e seu l p r o j e t de s o c i e t e v a l a b l e pour des pays comme 1e Perou, t e l l e e s t l ' h y p o t h e s e de ce t r a v a i l , q u i v o i t un a u t r e developpement e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t comme un processus p o l i t i q u e , non- technocra t ique e t necessa i re - ment c o n f l i c t u e l .

Un a u t r e developpement, d o n t l a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n des s t r u c t u r e s du p o u v o i r e s t a l a f o i s l a c o n d i t i o n e t l ' o b j e c t i f , ne s i g n i f i e pas l ' a u t a r c h i e , mais l a r u p t u r e de l a dependance e t des mecanismes de domina t ion i n t e r n e e t ex te rne ; i 1 r e q u i e r t l a c o n s t r u c t i o n d 'une n a t i o n au then t ique e t l a p o u r s u i t e de l ' a u t o n o m i e c o l l e c - t i v e des pays non-a l i gn&.

Un a u t r e developpement n ' e s t pas une r e c e t t e , mais un p r o j e t q u i decoule de l ' a n a l y s e de chaque r e a l i t 6 conc re te . L ' e t u d e examine l a m a t r i c e p o l i t i q u e d ' u n a u t r e developpement au Perou : s a t i s f a c t i o n des besoins e lementa i res , s o c i a l i - s a t i o n des moyens de p roduc t ion , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n des r a p p o r t s avec 1 'economic mondia le, t r a n s f o r m a t i o n des bases m6mes du p o u v o i r .

Le document examine e n f i n d 'une maniere c r i t i q u e 1es s t r a t e g i e s de developpement odes Na t ions Unies e t s ' i n t e r r o g e s u r l a v i a b i l i t e d ' u n s s t r a t e g i c i n t e r n a t i o n a l e

de developpement q u i i g n o r e l e s c o n f l i t s fondamentaux e n t r e groupes de pays; i 1 c o n c l u t en proposant une "Char te fondamenta le du developpement des peuples" q u i l e g i t i m i s e r a i t l e s processus na t ionaux tendan t 2 un a u t r e developpement, y com- p r i s l a g a r a n t i e du p l e i n e x e r c i c e des d r o i t s de 1 'homme e t de l a democrat ic , e t f a v o r i s e r a i t l ' a u t o n o m i e c o l l e c t i v e e t une c o o p e r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e r e e l l e .

L i s t e des monographies (Rappor t p r i n c i p a l e t monographies s e r o n t p u b l i c s en espa-

1. S t r u c t u r e p r o d u c t i v e e t beso ins e lementa i res : gnol p a r DESCO).

. A l i m e n t a t i o n (31 pp . ) , Teobaldo Pinzas

. Educa t ion (80 pp.),Raul Vargas

. H a b i t a t (112 pp.), A d o l f o Cordova

. Sante (51 pp.), David Tejada 2. S t r u c t u r e p r o d u c t i v e , emp lo i , t e c h n o l o g i e e t accumu la t ion :

. Emploi (36 pp . ) , Raul Gonzales

. Technologie (28 pp.) Rachel Hartemberg

. Accumulat ion ( 2 9 pp. ) Cesar Cabrera

. S t r u c t u r e p r o d u c t i v e (61 pp . ) , A rna ldo Rondon

. Developpement r u r a l (73 pp.) , L u i s Cruz 3 . L ' o r d r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e t un a u t r e developpement (24 pp.) , J u l i o Velarde 4. P o l i t i q u e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e e t un a u t r e d6veloppement (40 pp.) , Cesar A r i a s 5. D i s t r i b u t i o n de l a r i c h e s s e e t r a p p o r t s soc iaux de p r o d u c t i o n : . D-ifiF/-.t3 3rtf-i'-i;"r4n p./in^i,c-<-i'/Mn ('3C: nn . \ fni'??nrmrt p-iilÂ¥;?-

. P a r t i c i p a t i o n (40 pp.) , Jose Salcedo 6. S t r u c t u r e du pouvo i r , d r o i t s de l'homme, l u t t e s o c i a l e e t moyens de communi-

c a t i o n de masse : . L ' E t a t e t l a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n de l a s t r u c t u r e du p o u v o i r (51 pp . ) , I nes Garc ia . L u t t e s o c i a l e (35 pp.) Jose A lva rado . Mass media (25 pp.) F r a n c i s c o Moncloa . D r o i t s de l'homme (52 pp.) Enr ique Bernales

"PERU Y E L OTRO DESARROLLO"

DESCO, Centro de Estudios y Promci6n del Desarrol lo.

Aclaraciones preliminares

El presente t ex to consti tuye e l informe del equipo de t r aba jo const i tu ido para l a ejecucion del proyecto "Peru y e l Otro Desarrollo", encargado por l a Funda- ciOn Internacional para Alternativas de Desarrollo (de Nyon, Suiza) , a Rafael Roncagliolo, inves t i ador del Centro de Estudios y PromociOn del Desarrol l o , DESCO (de Lima, Peru) . La redacciOn de e s t e resumen e s una s i n t e s i s apretada de un documento amplio t i t u l ado "Informe Global" que s e adjunta a1 presente, y que fue obra colec t iva de un equipo integrado por Rolando Ames, Fernando GonzSles Vigil , Luis Guiulfo, H6lan Jaworski, Henry Pease Garcia, Rafael Ron- cagl io lo y Fernando SSnchez Albavera, e s t e ultimo coordinador general de t r a - bajo. El equipo a su vez, encarg6 un conjunto de monografias especializadas que tantii6n consti tuyen anexos a e s t e documento s i n t e s i s y que son l a s s iguien- t e s :

1) Est ructura productiva y necesidades basicas: a ) Alimentacion, Teobaldo Pinzas b ) Education, Raiil Vargas c ) Vivienda, Ado1 fo Cordova d) Salud, David Tejada

2 ) Es t ructura productiva, empleo, tecnologia y acumulaciOn: a ) Empleo, RaCl Gonzales b) Tecnologia, Rachel Hartemberg c ) AcumulaciOn, C6sar Cabrera d) Estructura product! va, Arnal do Rondon e ) Desarrollo Rural, Luis Cruz

3 ) Orden internacional y o t r o desarro l lo , Ju l io Velarde 4 ) Po l i t i ca internacional y o t ro desarro l lo , C6sar Arias 5) Distribution de l a riqueza y relaciones soc i a l e s de producciOn:

a ) Relaciones soc i a l e s de production, Guil l e r m Divila b) Pa r t i c i pacion, Jose Sal cedo

6 ) Estructura de poder, derechos humanos, con f l i c t0 soc i a l y medics de comuni- caci On masi va : a ) Estado y transformaci6n de l a es t ructura de poder, In6s Garcia b ) Conflict0 soc i a l , Jose A1 varado c ) Medios de comuni cacion masi va, Francisco Moncloa d) Derechos humanos, Enrique Bernales.

Tanto e l "Informe Global" como dichas monografias s e r in edi tadas en espafiol por DESCO, institution que acogi6 y apou6 e l proyecto.I/

El presente resumen contiene cuat ro secciones:

I . Perspectiva a n a l i t i c a y p o l i t i c a 11. Conceptualizaci3n del "otro, ,desarrollo" 111. Las po l f t i ca s matrices del o t r o desarro l lo" , y IV. Viabi 1 idad de una nueva Est ra tegia Internacional de Desarrollo.

I / Estos docurnentos pueden pedirse a DESCO -

I. PERSPECTIVA ANALITICA Y POLITICA

1. La categorfa de "otro desarrollo" surge por oposicion a1 "desarrollo" en su acepci6n cltisica. Pensar en t6rminos de un "desarrollo alternativol ' demanda, desde el primer instante, colocarse en una perspectiva ana l i t i - ca y polftica que sea: (a) Hist6rica y no esttit ica; (b ) global y no par- celada; ( c ) procesal y no l ineal ; (d) politica y no tecnocritica; y ( e ) nacional y no transnacional .

2. El "otro desarrollo" s61o es pensable en t6rminos de una consideration hist6rica a prop6sito de l a naturaleza particular de cada sociedad subdg sarrollada, y de la historia global del capitalism0 que gener6 e l subde- sa r ro l lo de unas sociedades como costo, contraparte y mecanismo de finan ciamiento del desarrollo capi t a l i s t a de otras. E n es ta perspectiva, l a s categorias "desarrollo" y "sub-desarrollo" ma1 pueden reducirse a compa- raciones en abstract0 de indicadores empiricos, mas o menos complejos.

3. El "otro desarrollo" es , por lo tanto, u n proceso generado a par t i r de una transforrnaci6n global. Supone un corte cualitativo en la evolution de las sociedades subdesarrolladas, y no simplemente l a suma de reformas parciales, a que deban sujetarse estas sociedades.

4. El desarrollo alternative s61o adquiere eficacia historica a1 s e r visua- lizado como una utopia que traduce sus ideas matrices en ideales c o l e c t l vos. La imagen final de 10s mecanismos institucionales y de las formas sociales a que el "otro desarrollo" se dir ige, solo puede ser afinada a traves del proceso mismo, y se mantendrti en permanente elaboration.

5. La conquista del "otro desarrollo" es u n proceso esencialmente politico y no tecnocrtitico. Esto es, su posibilidad depends inicialmnte menos de l a capacidad t6cnica para formular modelos y propuestas economicas, que de l a capacidad polTtica para rnovilizar y ar t icular a las clases y sectores sociales bajo cuya conduction las medidas t6cnicas han de ser aplicadas. Por lo mismo, el proceso del "otro desarrollo" es u n proceso conflictivo y no un proceso de conciliation de intereses irreconciliables.

6. El "o tm desarrol lo", asumido desde esta perspectiva, corresponde a1 6ni co proyecto nacional viable en paises como el Peru. Este proyecto solo- puede s e r el de las clases y capas oprimidas, naturalrnente opuesto, a1 proyecto transnacional de las clases dominantes. Estas Cltimas no tienen ni han tenido historicamente, l a capacidad ni las condiciones estructurg les para formular y proponer u n proyecto nacional capaz de integrar y de sarrol l a r l a sociedad peruana.

11. CONCEPTUALIZACION DEL "OTRO DESARROLLO"

7. El "otro desarrollo" es u n proceso conflictivo que parte del tratamiento eficaz de l a cuestion politica del poder interno y externo; se asienta sobre una racional idad economics y social a1 ternati va a1 capi t a l i smo ; re& cata las especificidades his t6ricas ; es conducido por u n bloque social opuesto a1 dominante; estimula l a movi 1 izaci6n popular y 1 a democracia; opera a trav6s de dos fases analftica y logicamente diferenciables; y en- frenta una cantidad de obstticulos de 10s que da raz6n la experiencia his- t6rica reciente de America Lati na.

8. La cuestion del poder, en sociedades como la peruana, implica l a cancelg cifin de 10s mecanisms de dominacifin externa (relaciones entre clases a nivel internacional y entre metropoli y perifer ia) e interna (entre clases y entre regiones). Siendo desarrollo y subdesarrollo, como 10 seiia- l a la evidencia histories, partes integrantes de un Gnico proceso global, l a transformation de las bases del poder y su autentica derncratizaci6n, llevan necesariamente a a l t e ra r las estructuras que configuran nuestra fonnacion social .

9. La transformacifin de la estructura de poder es a l a vez una condicion y una f ina l i dad del "otro desarrol lo" . Presumi r alguna forma de "neutral^ dad social" ser ia inconsistente con la perspectiva en que el otro desarrollo" cobra relevancia, e implicaria disolver ta l perspectiva en 10s s u puestos bsslcos del desarrollo c l i s ico , que es , por l o demgs, inviable. Optar por el "otro desarrollo" es , por lo tanto, tomar partido por las clases y sectores oprimidos y marginados, a quienes corresponde el rol protagonico del desarrollo. En este sentido el proceso del "otro desarrollo" es un proceso de democratizacifin del poder, por l a vTa de la a- curnulacion de fuerzas sociales y su articulation en u n nuevo bloque so - cial que genere un proceso de enfrentamiento y ruptura con el bloque he- gemfinico y dominante en la sociedad a transformar.

10. El desplazamiento del bloque de poder hegemonico y dominante, dado e l C g r i c t e r dependiente e intermediario que este bloque tiene respecto a l a dominaci6n externa, imp1 i ca si'mul tsneamente cancelar 10s mecani smos de subordinacidn con e l exterior y construir un aut6ntico Estado National, que rescate l a soberania integral ( t e r r i t o r i a l , pol i t ica , econfimica y c u l tural ) de la Naci6n , redefiniendo las re1 aciones funci'onales que expl i can su vulnerabilidad, y a1 mismo tiempo, asegurindose formas de vinculacifin y alianza que den viabilidad internacional a1 proceso hacia el "otro de- Sarr0110 . En este sentido, e l "otro desarrollo" no puede asumirse como u n proceso viable en medio del "aislamiento" internacional, ni tampoco aut5rquico. Por e l contrario requiere, corn alternativa a l a dependen - cia externa a se r cancelada, el desarrollo de mecanisms de "auto-sufi- ciencia colectiva" entre 10s paises en 61 comprometidos.

11. Se t ra ta de construir una nueva racionalidad economics y social fundada -sobre principios rectores ta les como la democracia rea l , l a hegemonfa del trabajo, la acumulacifin social y l a solidaridad.

12. A par t i r de estos principios rectores, la postulacifin del "otro desarro- 110" adquiere un car icter creativo, no dogmitico, cuya viabilidad depende de su capacidad para asumir e interpretar cada realidad hist6rica es- pectfica. La idea del "otro desarrollo" no es una receta de aplicaci6n lineal y homogenea a imponer a cada Nacion (y tambi6n en esto se diferen cia de 10s esquemas f i jos del desarrollo cl is ico) s i no una postulation que emerge del anal is is de cada realidad concreta.

13. For e l l o para in ic ia r un proceso hacia "otro desarrollo" caben diversas estrategias , de acuerdo con las especificidades histfiricas de cada s i tug ci6n y momento, l as mismas que determinarin l a composici6n del bloque so cial a1 ternati vo. En sociedades corn la peruana, de fuerte heterogenei3ad estructural , e s te bloque social a l ternat ive deberi acumular la mayor can tidad de fuerzas (clase obrera, campesinado, capas medias). El rol pro- tag6nico en l a conduction de es te bloque proviene de l a condicion real y concreta de clase dominada que corresponde a 10s trabajadores.

6

14. La acumulaci6n i d e o l 6 g i c a y p o l T t i c a de fuerzas soc ia les , en e l sen0 de l bloque a l t e r n a t i v e , i m p l i c a atender s imul t ineamente l a s cuest iones de l a m v i l i z a c i 6 n popu la r y de l a democracia r e a l . E l " o t r o d e s a r r o l l o " no es v i a b l e s i se en t iende como conducci6n v e r t i c a l , de cupula, de a r r i b a a abajo. Por e l c o n t r a r i o su implementaci6n depende d e l grado de m o v i l i - zac i6n y p a r t i c i p a c i o n c r e a t i v a que se l o g r e a1 i n t e r i o r d e l b loque y en su conducci6n. Esto supone que e l p r o p 6 s i t o y l a ges tac i6n d e l " o t r o d e s a r r o l l o " son in t r fnsecamente democr i t i cos , en e l s e n t i d o de p r i v i l e - g i a r e l consenso y l a p a r t i c i p a c i f f n r e a l e s , e n t r e l a s mayorias opr imidas que r e s u l t a n l a s Cnicas capaces de v i a b i l i z a r e l proyecto.

15. La e x p e r i e n c i a r e c i e n t e en America L a t i n a , y en e l Peru, anuncia que t o - do i n t e n t o de implementar " o t r o d e s a r r o l l o " con f ron ta c o n f l i c t i v a m e n t e un con jun to de amenazas i n t e r n a s y externas que o b l i g a n a d i s t i n g u i r , l a e- tapa que l l e g a has ta l a r u p t u r a de l a e s t r u c t u r a de poder en que se sus- t e n t a e l b loque hegem6nico y dominante, c a r a c t e r i z a d a por l a d i n i m i c a d e l manejo de 10s d e s e q u i l i b r i o s y l a acumulaci6n de fuerzas s o c i a l e s de cambio; y una segunda, que i n i c i a l a cons t rucc i6n d e l nuevo ordenamiento a p a r t i r de una redefinition d e l c o n f l i c t 0 s o c i a l y por t a n t o de l a cons t r u c c i 6 n d e l nuevo ordenamiento econ6mico.

111. LAS POLITICAS MATRICES DEL "OTRO DESARROLLO"

16. Asf conceptual izado e l " o t r o d e s a r r o l l o " , l a s p o l f t i c a s mat r i ces conducentes a 61 se agrupan en t o r n o a c u a t r o o b j e t i v o s :

(a) Disef iar y a d m i n i s t r a r l a e s t r u c t u r a p r o d u c t i v a en f u n c i 6 n de l a s necesidades b i s i c a s de l a poblac i6n.

(b) S o c i a l i z a r 10s medios de producci6n de modo que l a generaci6n y a p r g p i a c i 6 n d e l excedente, es t6n determinadas por c r i t e r i o s de acumula - c i 6 n s o c i a l .

( c ) Transformar l a s modalidades de i n s e r c i 6 n en l a economfa i n t e r n a c i o n a l , r e d e f i n i e n d o l a p a r t i c i p a c i o n nac iona l en l a d i v i s i o n i n t e r n a c i o n a l d e l t r a b a j o .

(d ) Transformar l a s bases d e l poder y c o n s o l i d a r l a v i g e n c i a de una democracia r e a l que permi ta e l e j e r c i c i o d e l poder p o r l a s mayorfas n% c iona les .

3.1. S a t i s f a c c i f i n de l a s Necesi dades Basicas

17. Las p o l f t i c a s estSn d i r i g i d a s a r e p l a n t e a r l a r a c i o n a l i d a d economics y s o c i a l que determi na 1 as e s t r u c t u r a s de producci6n, d i s t r i buc i6n y consg mo, de t a l forma que:

a) La m o t i v a c i 6 n de l a producci6n y l a d i s p o n i b i l i d a d de b ienes y s e r v i - c i o s correspondan a1 v a l o r de uso de gstos, y no a su v a l o r de cambio. E l l o supone que l a f u n c i 6 n s o c i a l de l a producci6n se antepone a1 c r i t e r i o de l a maximizaci6n p r i v a d a de l a s u t i l i d a d e s .

b ) La distribution de 10s b ienes y s e r v i c i o s corresponda a un c r i t e r i o general de r e d i s t r i b u c i 6 n d e l consumo. Esto es que, l a satisfaction de l a s necesidades no e s t i s o l o v incu lada a1 i n g r e s o moneta r io d ispo- n i b l e . Aceptando que en e l c o r t o p lazo no es v i a b l e r e d u c i r s i g n i f i -

cativamente las diferencias de ingreso, de lo que se t ra ta es de a l t g ra r el peso relat ive de 10s diversos componentes del gasto familiar, a traves de la prestacifin de servicios gratuitos y l a distribuci6n d l recta de bienes esenciales.

c ) Los patrones de consume correspondan efectivamente a l a dotaci6n de recursos disponibles y a l a redefinition de la escala de preferencias. Si bien se asume que el patrfin de consumo es una categoria dinimica, que se administra de acuerdo a las variaciones que experimente la do- taci6n de recursos y 10s requerimientos de ahorro, se rechaza e l c r i - t e r io "consumista" de la insaciabilidad de las necesidades.

18. La nueva racionalidad econ6mica y social que se configura de acuerdo a las orientaciones propuestas en el ptirrafo anterior, supone en t6tminos ope- rativos tres 17neas bisicas de acci On.

a) Alterar l a "funci6n de producci6n" de 10s bienes y servicios esencia- l es , l o cual exige defini r las caracteristicas del "producto f ina l" , racionalizar y estandarizar 10s insumos y equipos necesarios para su elaboration, y ut i l izar a1 maxim0 10s recursos locales.

En es te sentido de lo que se t rata en la sociedad peruana es de preci sa r un conjunto "manejable" de bienes y servicios, cuya producci6n se admini s t r e en base a cuatro c r i terios fundamentales:

i . Maxima utilizaci6n de mano de obra y recursos materiales naciong les .

i i . Estricta programacion de las importaciones requeridas, tendiendo a l a minimizaci6n de 10s componentes externos.

i i i . Control de la diversification de bienes y servicios.

iv. Administration y control de precios, transfiriendo excedentes de u n sector a otro y redefiniendo 10s t6rminos de intercambio entre el campo y la ci udad.

b) Planificar l a production y el abastecimiento de 10s bienes esenciales, garanti zando la parti cipaci6n de l a poblaci6n en el disefio, organi za- cion, administraci6n y control de 10s canales de comercializaci6n a nivel local, regional y nacional.

La intermediacion comercial no se concibe con fines de lucro, sino co mo una funci6n econ6mica indispensable para garantizar e l acceso de Ta poblaci6n a l a oferta disponible de bienes y servicios.

c ) Definir la magnitud del patr6n de consumo y una pol i t ica de precios cg herente con 10s niveles de ahorro que se requieran para garantizar el crecimiento de la producci6n de bienes y servicios. Debe aceptarse que ex is t i ra un conflict0 entre el consumo presents y el consumo f u t g ro, por 10 que en una sociedad como la peruana, una mayor cobertura en la satisfaction de las necesidades basicas, requeriri replantear l a cantidad y calidad de 10s bienes y servicios, a l a vez que reducir el nivel de vida de ciertos grupos sociales.

3.2. La Socializacifin de 10s Medios de Producci6n y l a Reorientation de l a Genera- cifin y Asignaci6n del Excedente

19. La socia l izac i6n de 10s medios de producci6n t i ene por objeto re iv indicar a1 t rabajo como e j e ordenador del sistema, y garant izar l a acumulaci6n s o c i a l . En e s t e sent ido , l a propiedad privada no ha s ido historicamente en e l Peru compatible con una e s t r a t eg i a que p r iv i l eg i e l a funcion socia l de l a produccion, es to e s , l a satisfaction de l a s necesidades b i s i ca s .

20. Nuestra perspectiva de "otro desarro l lo" plantea, diversas formas de pro piedad, con hegemon7a de l a s formas socia les de produccifin y una direc-" ci6n planificada del sistema econ6mico.

21. Se asume que l a riqueza socia l s e apropia por cuenta de 10s trabajadores bajo dos modalidades: Una indi rec ta que corresponde a l a s formas de propiedad e s t a t a l , que implica que l a riqueza generada s e acumula social me^ t e . Dentro de e s t a modalidad, l a riqueza r ev i e r t e a 10s trabajadores me diante una mayor y mejor disponibil idad de bienes y s e rv i c ios , l a genera ci6n de nuevas oportunidades de empleo y l a prestaci6n de servic ios gra- t u i tos . La o t r a modalidad, d i r ec t a , supone l a vigencia de formas asocia t ivas de propiedad, en l a s cuales 10s trabajadores como conjunto s e apropian de una pa r t e mayoritaria del excedente, contribuyendo con una fracci6n a1 increment0 de fondos orientados a l a acumulacibn soc i a l .

22. La apropiacifin individual del excedente resul t a r i pues, subs id iar ia den- t r o de ambas modalidades de propiedad. No obs tante , debe reconocerse que siendo imprescindible l a expansion acelerada de 10s bienes y s e rv i c ios esencia les , debe estimularse l a productividad. Por e l l o , l a pol i t i c a de remuneraciones debera f i j a r s e tanto en funci6n de l a capacidad como de acuerdo a l a s necesidades de 10s trabajadores.

23. La Propiedad Es t a t a l , en que 10s medios de produccion pertenecen a1 conjunto de l a sociedad, abarcarfa e l control de aquellas actividades cuya funci6n es generar y asignar excedentes para l a f inanciacion del desarrg 110 (comercio e x t e r i o r , explotaci6n masiva de recursos natura les indus- t r i a s in tens ivas en cap i t a l , banca, f inanciadoras, seguros, e t c . ) , y/o que por su naturaleza comprometen l a marcha del conjunto del sisterna e c g nfimico. A su vez, e l Estado tendrTa a su cargo l a prestacion de se rv i - c ios socia les (education, sa lud, vivienda, transporte colec t ivo , seguri- dad s o c i a l , e t c . ) y l a realizaci6n de l a inf raes t ructura .

24. La Pro i edad Asoci a t i va, donde 10s medios de producci6n corresponden a1 conjunto de t rabajadores , agrupados en complejos s ec to r i a l e s , abarcarfa e l control de cualquier ac t iv idad econfimica que no e s t 6 reservada para e l Estado.

25. Dentro de e s t e context0 s e plantea pues, l a hegemonfa de l a acumulacifin soc i a l , y de una racionalidad econ6mica que anteponga e l i n t e r & del con junto a1 in t e r& individual , limittindose l a propiedad privada a l a s a c t z vidades de reducida significacifin econfimica.

3.3. Transformaci6n de las Modalidades de Insercifin en la EconomTa International

26. En el "otro desar ro l lo" l a magnitud y caracteristicas de las relaciones econhi cas intemacionales corresponden a1 tipo de desarrol lo productivo que las sociedades definen autcinomamente.

Por e l l o estas relaciones est5n subordinadas a l a conducci6n nacional del proceso productivo frente a l a l6gica transnacional que prima actualmente en la sociedad peruana.

Para que e l l o pueda darse, se requiere aplicar u n conjunto de polfticas dirigidas a reducir y cancelar progresivamente, l a vulnerabilidad de la estructura productiva, las que deben ser acomp;iiadas por otras que den viabi 1 idad internacional , a1 proceso hacia el otro desarrol lo".

Estas pol i t icas s e refieren bssicamente a:

a ) Definir estructuras de producci6n y consumo con un minim0 indispensable de vinculaci6n con e l exterior, reduciendo significativamente e l componente importado.

b) Cancelar las formas de descapitalizaci6n existentes, a traves de la nacionali zaci6n de las actividades fundamatales para l a generaci6n y asignacion de 10s excedentes.

c) Reducir a1 minimo las formas de transferencia de excedentes a1 exte- r i o r (uti 1 idades, regal Tas, pago de servi cios en general, e tc . ) .

d) Nacional i zar l a cornercial izacicin de 10s bienes fundamentales de expor tacion, y disetiar canales mis aut6nomos de acceso a1 mercado mundial; de ta l forma de centralizar capacidades de compra y venta con el ob- jet0 de incrementar el poder de negociaci6n internacional. Dentro de esta linea, debe propiciarse l a concertaci6n de "Programas Recfprocos de Intercambio" donde se identifiquen lineas de comun in te r& con otros paises, y se definan las magnitudes a ser comercializadas,

27. La centralization del comercio exterior deberi corresponder a una e s t r i c ta programaci6n, que se antepone a 10s argumentos convencionales del 1 1 bre comercio . No obstante, el10 no supone plantear de ninguna manera l a "autarquia". Por e l contrario, se acepta que para l a satisfaction de las necesidades bSsicas de la poblaci6n se requiere definir una mecanica de complementariedad e integraci6n productiva con la economia internacig na1 . En pocas palabras, se requeriri vender tanto a1 exterior como se requiera para cubrir 10s defici ts internos programados y 10s compromises financieros que se asuman.

28. El cuestionamiento del l ib re comercio es fundamental, para replantear 10s esquemas de integracicin econ6mica que se han ensayado en 10s paises en desarrollo. Nuestra perspectiva acepta, que desde una posici6n a i S 1 ~ da no es posible transformar nuestra inserci6n en la economfa mundial, y menos a h la actual divisiSn internacional del trabajo. En es te sentido, se reconoce l a importancia de las formas de cooperaci6n e integracifin internacionales, per0 siempre y cuando estas fortalezcan la direccional i dad del proceso hacia e l "Otro Desarrollo". La cooperacifin e integration t6cni cas y econfimicas debe establecerse, a nuestro juicio, desde una per:

pectiva esencialmente sectorial. Es decir, que no comprometa integralmen t e e l proceso de desarrol lo , sin0 mas bien que l o refuerce y complemente en aspectos muy especffi cos.

29. Se considera fundamental fortalecer l a cooperaci6n internacional para a c ceder a1 mercado mundial en condi clones mSs ventajosas, tanto a trav6s de organizaciones de productores, como de la conformaci6n de entes emprg. sar iales multinacionales, que permitan contraponer poder polftico y econg mice a1 de las transnacionales. Se reconoce pues, la importancia de la autosuficiencia colectiva, de ta1 forma de crear condiciones para una transformacifin del actual orden econ6mi co internacional .

30. En l a medida en que se vaya reestructurando l a estructura productiva sera necesario continuar la expansion del comercio exterior, alterando progresivamente l a composi cifin de las exportaciones y las importaciones, de t a l forma de alcanzar un excedente net0 cada vez mayor. Lo importante es qui6n se apropia de este excedente y para qu6 se u t i l i za , no el plan- teamiento de formas utfipicas de autarqufa, que como tales no tienen ninguna viabi lidad.

31. En sTntesis, las acciones dirigidas a transformar l a forma de inserci6n en la economfa mundial, no pueden darse independientemente de las acciones que se adopten para transfonnar l a estructura productiva. Lo que se pretende en suma, es definir un t ip0 de vinculaci6n que refuerce la capacidad nacional de acumulacifin y que garantice un desarrollo autfinomo.

3.4. Transfonnacifin de la estructura de poder

32. Una de las acciones basicas en este aspect0 se orienta a transformar e l Estado, no solo en tanto que burocracia formal, sin0 en su sentido mas profundo, de aparato de concentracifin y articulacifin del poder, que no garantiza de manera efectiva u n a u t h t i c o control democritico. La transformaci6n del car icter del Estado, sanciona a su vez la transfor maci6n de la estructura del poder, cuyo control pasarfa de manos de una- minorTa enfeudada a 10s intereses extranjeros, particularmente transnacig nales, a manos de las mayorfas populares organizadas.

33. Vista l a perspectiva de la transformaci6n de la estructura del Estado, esto es de la conquista del poder, desde una situaci6n como la peruana, no puede dejar de mencionarse que las clases oprimidas antes que meras categorfas sociales son verdaderos actores dotados de una historia y de instancias de autoidentificacifin especfficas.

El "otro desarrollo" no puede entenderse como un par t i r de cero, menos aGn como una receta a imponer en cualquier tiempo y lugar.

34. En e l caso peruano han empezado a darse las condiciones para la acumulacifin de fuerzas ideol6gicas y pollticas de cambio, a par t i r de l a reivin dicaci6n de la historia nacional concreta, y del balance y superacifin de las experiencias reformistas vividas* Dicho en otras palabras, e l conflict0 social que ha de terminar por desencadenar e l "otro desarrollo" vfa la transformaci6n del poder y del Estado, ha ingresado en una etapa cuali tativamente superior a1 pasado, l o que se manifiesta de variadas formas. No solo se t rata de una creciente, aunque no constante capacidad de movilizacifin popular. A este indicador principal se suma l a existen-

c i a de elementos de a u t o i d e n t i f i c a c i 6 n de l a s c lases opr imidas y de con- q u i s t a de un espacio de l e g i t i m i d a d den t ro de l a sociedad c i v i l , que se vuelve cond ic i6n s i n e qua non para l a acumulaci6n y l a hegemonia i d e o l 6 - gicas. I n c l u s o i n s t i t u c i o n e s c laves de l a sociedad p o l f t i c a y de l a so- c iedad c i v i l , t a l e s como l a s Fuerzas Armadas y l a I g l e s i a C a t 6 l i c a se han v i s t o presionadas a reconocer e s t a rea l idad .

35. Desde e l punto de v i s t a de l a acumulaci6n de fuerzas es necesar io recono c e r que l a p o s i b i l i d a d d e l o t r o d e s a r r o l l o pasa p o r dos etapas a n a l i t i c a mente d i f e r e n c i a b l e s , aunque orgSnicamente superpuestas: l a p r imera con- s i s t e en l o que llamamos l a conqu is ta i n i c i a l de l a hegemonTa, e s t o es, l a capacidad de l bloque a l t e r n a t i v o para ganar " l a d i r e c c i 6 n i n t e l e c t u a l y moral" de l a sociedad. Solo cuando es ta d i r e c c i 6 n i n t e l e c t u a l y moral (hegemonra) ha s i d o conquistada, e l bloque a l t e r n a t i v o e s t a r i en condi- c iones de c o n q u i s t a r e l poder y mantenerse en e l . De e s t a manera l a cues t i 6 n d e l " o t r o d e s a r r o l l o " i n s c r i b e su con ten ido econ6mico en l a c u e s t i o i i p o l T t i c a de l poder, y e s t a C l t ima l l ama de inmediato a1 problema espec i - f i c o de l a lucha i d e o l o g i c a , o i n s t a n c i a i d e o l 6 g i c a d e l c o n f l i c t 0 s o c i a l .

I V . VIABILIDAD DE UNA ESTRATEGIA INTERNACIONAL DE DESARROLLO

36. Los dos decenios para e l d e s a r r o l l o , que busc6 implementar e l Sistema de Naciones Unidas han contemplado pos i c iones v o l u n t a r i s tas y o b j e t i vos, p o r l o general , i n s u f i cientemente inst rumentados . E l f racas0 y frustration de es tas "buenas in tenc iones" no es una s i t u a c i 6 n que pueda a t r i b u i r s e s o l o a 10s organismos d e l Sistema de Naciones Uni - das. A f i n de cuentas, e l comportamiento de 6s tos r e f l e j a e l i n t e r & de 10s Paises Miembros. Dicho de o t r a manera, es tos organismos han podido i r has ta donde 10s pafses 10s han dejado, y muchas i n i c i a t i v a s importan- t e s de 10s func ionar ios i n t e r n a c i o n a l e s han s i d o f r u s t r a d a s por l a i n d i - fe renc ia , t a n t o de 10s paises desar ro l lados como de 10s paises en desa- r r o l l o .

37. Despu6s de estos dos decenios, consideramos que es l e g i t i m o preguntarse acerca de l a v i a b i l i d a d de una e s t r a t e g i a i n t e r n a c i o n a l de d e s a r r o l l o que i g n o r e l a e x i s t e n c i a de pos ic iones opuestas e n t r e d i s t i n t o s grupos de paf ses. LHasta qu6 punto puede e x i s t i r una e s t r a t e g i a que armonice o b j e t i vos de d e s a r r o l l o e n t r e 10s paises, cuando muchas veces sus d i n i m i c a s re s u l t a n antagonicas? LQu6 sen t ido ti ene e l p l anteamiento de r e i v i n d i ca- c iones economicas en f a v o r de 10s pa ises subdesarro l lados, cuando no se cuest ionan l a s causas e s t r u c t u r a l e s d e l subdesar ro l lo?

38. Nuestra position es que no puede e x i s t i r una e s t r a t e g i a i n t e r n a c i o n a l de d e s a r r o l l o den t ro de 10 que formalmente se acepta y ent iende. Una e s t r g t e g i a no es o t r a cosa que un con jun to de acciones coherentes e n t r e s f , que se sus ten tan en una concepcif in cornfin, y que conducen a1 cumpl imiento de una s e r i e de metas y o b j e t i v o s p r e - d e f i n i d o s . LPuede e x i s t i r una c o n cepci6n comCn e n t r e 10s que as ien tan su b i e n e s t a r en l a e x p l o t a c i 6 n y d o minaci6n de 10s o t r o s ?

39. Mas que una e s t r a t e g i a l o que se r e q u i e r e es r e p l a n t e a r l a c o n c e p t u a l i - zac i6n d e l d e s a r r o l l o que maneja e l Sistema de naciones Unidas, hacien- do e x p l i c i t a l a opos ic idn de i n t e r e s e s que e x i s t e n a n i v e l i n t e r n a c i o n a l . Hasta e l momento no ha s i d o p o s i b l e un cuest ionamiento r e a l de 10s s i s -

temas de dominacih, que hacen inviable el "otro desarrollo". De ahi, el caricte; eminentemente declarative y formal de las "Estrategias Inter_ nacionales .

40. Pensamos que el Sistema de Naciones Unidas debe part i r de l a base que existen diversas formas de conceptualizar y entender la pmblemitica del desarrollo, y que todas el las deben contar con u n a l t o grado de legitimi dad internacional. En suma, miis que una Estrategia Internacional de De= sarrol lo de lo que se t ra ta es de crear u n marco que d6 viabilidad a 10s procesos hacia el Otro Desarrollo y que impida que las experiencias de esta Tndole se vean bloqueadas internacionalmente.

41. De 10 que se t ra ta r fa es de elaborar org6vcamente una especie de "Carta Fundamental del Desarrollo de 10s Pueblos , donde a par t i r de l a vigencia i r r e s t r i c t a de 10s derechos humanos, y de 10s prop6sitos del Nuevo Orden EconOmico Internacional, se reconozcan diversas a1 ternativas y posibi 1 i - dades de desarrollo. Esta Carta deberTa, en su esencia, dar legitimidad internacional a una nueva conceptual izaci6n del desarrol lo. Esta debe- r i a ser l a puesta en vigencia de 10s principles fundamentales del "otro desarmllo", reconoci6ndose que 10s procesos corresponder5n a realidades hist6ricas especificas, que 10s harin diferentes entre s f , por 10 que se aceptaria que no caben ideas pre-fijadas acerca de cfimo emprender el desarrol lo de 10s pueblos.

42. En l ineas generales, esta "Carta Fundamental del Desarrollo de 10s Pue- blos" deberfa legitimar 10s procesos nacionales que persigan un desarm- 110 dirigido hacia l a satisfacci6n de las necesidades bisicas; que t rans formen las estructuras de poder, eliminando su concentracih; que garan- ticen el ejerci cio de f6rmul as autenticamente demcriiticas ; que garantice l a plena vigencia de 10s derechos humanos y que disefie modalidades de organizaci6n econ6mica conducentes a su cumplimiento; que real ice trans- formaciones internas dirigidas a replantear el rol subordinado que pueda tener u n pais en l a economia internacional; que condene y conduzca a pro cesos de ruptura con cualesquiera formas de imperialismo; y que privile- gie l a autosuficiencia colectiva y l a cooperacifin internacional como sus tento de una verdadera convivencia internacional , en pro de la paz y la- just ic ia social.

List of monographs (continued from pg. 1 )

5. Distribution of wealth and social relations of production: Social relations of production (35 pp), Gui 1 lermo Dtivila; Participation (40 pp), Jose Salcedo

6. Structure of power, human r iqhts , social confl ic t and means of mass communication:

State and transformation of power (51 pp), Ines Garcia; Social conflict (35 pp) , Jose Alvarado; Means of mass communication (25 pp), Francisco Moncloa; Human rights (52 pp), Enrique Bernales.

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

ANOTHER BRITAIN by James Robertson 7 S t . Ann 's V i l l a s London M i l 4RU, England

O r i g i n a l language: Eng l i sh

A b s t r a c t : The paper i s a c a l l f o r a f e a s i b i l i t y s tudy and f o r s o c i a l a c t i o n f o r ano ther deve lopron t i n B r i t a i n . A scenar io o f t r a n s i t i o n i s proposed f rom i n d u s t r i a l i s m , and from t h e p resen t p a t h t o s u p e r - i n d u s t r i a l i s m , t o a more d e c e n t r a l i z e d , more human and s e l f - r e l i a n t p a t t e r n o f development. The au thor d iscusses ano ther development i n terms o f employment, food, h a b i t a t , community development and t rade , and p resen ts a t i m e t a b l e f o r s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n from t h e p resen t t o the y e a r 2000.

UNE AUTRE ANGLETERRE

Resume: Cet a r t i c l e c o n s t i t u e un appel 3 une etude de f a i s a b i l i t e e t 2 l ' a c t i o n pour un a u t r e developpement en Grande Bretagne. 11 propose un scenar io de t r a n s i t i o n de 1 ' i n d u s t r i a l isme e t des tendances au s u p e r - i n d u s t r i a l isme vers un developpement p l u s d e c e n t r a l i s e , p l u s humain e t autonome. L ' a u t e u r examine "un a u t r e developpement" en termes d 'emp lo i , d ' a l i m e n t a t i o n , d ' h a b i t a t , de s e r v i c e s c o l l e c t i f s e t de commerce, e t suqgere un c a l e n d r i e r de t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s s o c i a l e s d ' a u j o u r d ' h u i a l ' a n 2000.

UN OTRO DESARROLLO PARA INGLATERRA

Resumen: E l i n fo rme desea animar un e s t u d i o de f a c t i b i l i d a d y fomentar acc iones s o c i a l e s para un o t r o d e s a r r o l l o en I n g l a t e r r a . Propone un escenar io de t r a n s i - c iOn de l i n d u s t r i a l i s m o y del camino a c t u a l a1 s u p e r - i n d u s t r i a l i s m o , 3 un modelo de desar ro l l o mas descen t ra l i zado , mas humano y a u t o dependiente. E l a u t o r presenta un o t r o d e s a r r o l l o en tenninos d e l empleo, a l imentos , l a h a b i t a - c i 6 n , s e r v i c i o s c o l e c t i v o s y comercio, y p resen ta un c a l e n d a r i o para l a t ransformaciOn s o c i a l desde e l p resen ts hasta e l an0 2000.

ANOTHER BRITAIN

by

T h i s r e p o r t h a s been w r i t t e n f o r i n c l u s i o n i n t h e IFDA D o s s i e r , * which i s b e i n g compiled a s a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Uni ted Nat ions Development S t r a t e g y f o r t h e 1980s and beyond. The r e p o r t was commissioned a s a " f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y " f o r an a l t e r n a t i v e p a t h o f development f o r t h e Uni ted Kingdom.(l) I t s u g g e s t s f u r t h e r a c t i o n t o c l a r i f y such a p a t h and t o b r i n g a b o u t a change of d i r e c t i o n towards it. Its s t a r t i n g assumpt ions a r e a s f o l l o w s .

F i r s t , t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l approach t o t h e development of T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i n t h e l a s t 25 y e a r s , model led on t h e p u r s u i t o f q u a n t i t a t i v e macro-economic growth i n i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s [ i n t h e hope t h a t w e a l t h t h e r e b y c r e a t e d would " t r i c k l e down" and r a i s e t h e s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g a l l r o u n d ) , h a s n o t p roved s u c c e s s - f u l . An a l t e r n a t i v e approach - " a n o t h e r development" - s h o u l d now be adopted. Its aim s h o u l d be t o d e v e l o p p e o p l e ' s c a p a c i t y t o d e f i n e and s a t i s f y t h e i r own needs ( m a t e r i a l and n o n - m a t e r i a l ) , and t o r e a l i s e t h e i r p o t e n t i a l i n harmony w i t h t h e i r env i ronment . S e l f - r e l i a n c e and se l f -deve lopment a r e k e y g o a l s .

Second, " a n o t h e r development" i s needed i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s a l s o . There , i n s t i t u t i o n a l overdevelopment and exces - s i v e m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h p u t a r e now t h e c a u s e o f widespread economic dependency and s o c i a l underdevelopment . Moreover, growing c o m p e t i t i o n from r a p i d l y i n d u s t r i a l i s i n g T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i s f o r c i n g a b a s i c c h o i c e on t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s - whether t o t r y t o a c c e l e r a t e towards a s u p e r - i n d u s t r i a l , hyper-expansion- i s t (HE) f u t u r e , o r t o change d i r e c t i o n towards a p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l , s a n e , humane, e c o l o g i c a l (SHE) f u t u r e i n which human development becomes t h e pr imary g o a l . * *

T h i r d , i f b o t h i n d u s t r i a l i s e d and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s choose " a n o t h e r deve lopment" , n o t o n l y w i l l t h i s o f f e r a b e t t e r f u t u r e t o t h e i r own p e o p l e s . I t w i l l a l s o h e l p t o c r e a t e ( o v e r , s a y , t h e n e x t 25 y e a r s ) a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o r d e r , i n which r e l a t i o n s between p e o p l e s w i l l b e more e q u a l and l e s s e x p l o i t a t - i v e . By c o n t r a s t , f u r t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s p e c i a l i s a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n and d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r i n l i n e w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l economic p r o g r e s s , w i l l t e n d t o e x a c e r b a t e p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t and e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t r e s s on a g l o b a l s c a l e .

* F u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n can b e o b t a i n e d from t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Founda t ion f o r Development A l t e r n a t i v e s (IFDA), 2 P l a c e du Marche, CH-1260 Nyon, S w i t z e r l a n d .

** F o r a f u l l e r d i s c u s s i o n , s e e "The Sane A l t e r n a t i v e " . ( 2

Four th , both negat ive and p o s i t i v e f a c t o r s a re a l r eady foreshadow- ing a change of d i r e c t i o n towards "another development" i n the i n d u s t r i a l i s e d coun t r i e s . A s o l d p a t t e r n s of a c t i v i t y continue t o break down, people w i l l i nc reas ing ly f i n d ways of breaking through t o new ones. Easing t h e breakdown of t h e o l d , ancl. f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e breakthrough t o t h e new, a r e processes of "deco lon i sa t ion" and l i b e r a t i o n " (see Sec t ion 2 below). Pu rpose fu l ly c a r r i e d ou t , they w i l l smooth t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o "another development".

F i f t h , t h i s t r a n s i t i o n w i l l i t s e l f be "another development". I n o the r words, it w i l l mainly be i n i t i a t e d by people i n " c i v i l s o c i e t y " , t he " informal economy", t he " t h i r d system", a c t i n g on pe r sona l and group i n i t i a t i v e s of t h e i r own t o change t h e d i r ec - t i o n of t h e i r l i v e s and of t h e s o c i e t y i n which they l i v e . To concent ra te mainly on mobi l i s ing t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d powers and resources of governments, f i nance , and t h e media i n suppor t of "ano the r development" w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , be se l f -de fea t ing . Reports l i k e t h i s should be con ten t wi th more pe r sona l , more p l u r a l i s t i c , and more modest aims: t o communicate a sense of t h e act'ion which t h e author himself i n t ends t o t ake ( i n t h e hope t h a t mutual coopera t ion may thereby a r i s e wi th some reade r s ) ; and t o h e l p o t h e r r eade r s t o i d e n t i f y p o s s i b l e courses of a c t i o n f o r themselves.

F i n a l l y , I s t a r t wi th t h e knowledge t h a t t h e prospect of "ano the r B r i t a i n " i s i n tune wi th B r i t a i n ' s h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n and c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . A s t h e f i r s t i n d u s t r i a l people , t h e Br i t - i sh a r e among t h e f i r s t t o exper ience the l i m i t s t o i n d u s t r i a l i s m a s a form of development. Moreover, l e i s u r e and q u a l i t y of l i f e have always had a h igh p r i o r i t y i n B r i t a i n , compared wi th pu re ly m a t e r i a l success . This has been seen a s a weakness, when conven- t i o n a l economic growth was t h e ove r r id ing goal . As "another development" g a t h e r s momentum, it w i l l be a s t r e n g t h .

2 . APPROACH

IFDA asked t h a t t h i s s tudy should be conceived a s an ex tens ion t o t h e f i n a l chap te r of "The Sane Al t e rna t ive" . ( 2 ) I t h e r e sugges- t e d t h a t " ano the r development" would be a h igh ly d isaggregated , p l u r a l i s t i c p rocess , and d i scussed how it could be taken forward. A s a device t o enable people t o envisage how they might h e l p t o c r e a t e a people-centred f u t u r e , I combined s i x " t r ans fo rma t ion r o l e s " wi th t h i r t y " a c t i v i t y areas" t o gene ra t e 180 "transforma- t i o n a c t i v i t i e s " .

The s i x t ransformat ion r o l e s a re a s fo l lows.

A) L i f e s t y l e s : changing one ' s pe r sona l way of l i f e s o t h a t it i s more c o n s i s t e n t wi th "ano the r development".

B) Enabling (L ibe ra t ion ) : f o s t e r i n g new growth p o i n t s ( e . g. a l t e r n a t i v e technology, common ownership i n i n d u s t r y , Yoga techniques) which he lp people t o l i b e r a t e themselves from dependence, t o become more s e l f - r e l i a n t , and t o develop t h e i r autonomy.

C) E n a b l i n g ( D e c o l o n i s a t i o n ) : managing t h e breakdown o f e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e t c . , s o a s t o h e l p p r e v i o u s l y dependent p e o p l e t o become more s e l f - r e l i a n t and t o d e v e l o p t h e i r autonomy.

D) M e t a p h y s i c a l R e c o n s t r u c t i o n : c r e a t i n g and communicating new v i s i o n s and paradigms f o r " a n o t h e r development" .

E) S t r a t e g y : mapping t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o " a n o t h e r development"; i d e n t i f y i n g c r u c i a l a r e a s of change , key e n a b l i n g d e c i s i o n s , i m p o r t a n t u n r e s o l v e d prob lems , and p o s s i b l e s t u m b l i n g b l o c k s ; and p r o v i d i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r communication, i n f o r m a t i o n exchange and c r o s s - f e r t i l i s a t i o n .

F) O p p o s i t i o n : oppos ing and a t t e m p t i n g t o o b s t r u c t a c t i v i t i e s - s u c h a s p r a c t i c e s p e r p e t u a t i n g r a c i a l o r s e x d i s c r i m i n a - t i o n , o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f inhumane t e c h n o l o g i e s - which a r e c o n t r a r y t o " a n o t h e r development" .

The t h i r t y a c t i v i t y a r e a s a r e a s f o l l o w s :

1 ) Fami l i e s , Households, L o c a l Communities

2) Roles of t h e Sexes 3) Roles of C h i l d r e n , A d u l t s

and t h e E l d e r l y 4) Land Use and Land Tenure 5) A g r i c u l t u r e and Food 6 ) C o n s e r v a t i o n o f M i n e r a l s

and M a t e r i a l s 7 ) Manufac ture , R e p a i r and

Maintenance o f Things 8) P r o v i s i o n of S e r v i c e s and

Care t o P e o p l e 9 ) P o l i t i c s and Government

10) Economic O r g a n i s a t i o n 11) Management 12) Energy 13) T r a n s p o r t

C i t i e s , Towns and R u r a l R e s e t t l e m e n t

Housing Roles o f P r o f e s s i o n s S c i e n c e and Technology H e a l t h E d u c a t i o n Money and F i n a n c e Work and Employment R e l i g i o n A r t s and C u l t u r e L e i s u r e , E n t e r t a i n m e n t , S p o r t I n f o r m a t i o n , Communications Crime, P r i s o n s , P o l i c e , Law Defence and t h e M i l i t a r y T h i r d World Europe an Community Disarmament and Peace

Many examples o f " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s " can be found i n B r i t a i n t o d a y , c o v e r i n g a l l t h e 30 a c t i v i t y a r e a s l i s t e d above; much i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e a b o u t them; and I am i n t o u c h w i t h many o f them i n t h e c o n t e x t of "Changing D i r e c t i o n " . ( 3 ) But t h e scope f o r f u r t h e r i n i t i a t i v e s o f t h i s k i n d , a s " a n o t h e r development" g a t h e r s momentum, i s v i r t u a l l y l i m i t l e s s . So i n t h i s r e p o r t I s h a l l c o n c e n t r a t e on c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s of t h e " S t r a t e g y " r o l e , remembering always t h a t a s t r a t e g y f o r " a n o t h e r development" w i l l i t s e l f e v o l v e p l u r a l i s t i c a l l y .

3. MAPPING THE TRANSITION

What w i l l a c t u a l l y happen i n B r i t a i n i f " a n o t h e r develowment" t a k e s p l a c e ? What w i l l " a n o t h e r B r i t a i n " b e l i k e ? How q u i c k l y c o u l d it happen? Those o f us who advoca te " a n o t h e r development"

should have answers t o ques t ions l i k e these . With t h i s i n mind, I have he ld p re l imina ry d i scuss ions wi th a number of non-governmen- t a l o rgan i sa t ions and persons about t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a p i l o t p r o j e c t on t h e fo l lowing l i n e s .

F i r s t , we s h a l l p o s t u l a t e a t ime-sca le f o r "ano the r development" i n B r i t a i n . I t should be o p t i m i s t i c , b u t n o t excess ive ly so . For example:

1979 Evidence w i l l cont inue t o sugges t t h a t t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d - c o u n t r i e s , and B r i t a i n i n p a r t i c u l a r , cannot r e l y on cont inued economic growth and t h a t a change of d i r e c t i o n ( " another development" ) may be necessary . The broad o u t l i n e of t h i s change w i l l begin t o become c l e a r e r .

1980 UN w i l l adopt a development s t r a t e g y which emphasises t h e - m e r i t s of " ano the r development". This w i l l add c r e d i b i l i t y t o t h e i d e a of a change of d i r e c t i o n f o r c o u n t r i e s l i k e B r i t a i n .

1985 By t h i s t ime i t w i l l be gene ra l ly recognised t h a t va r ious - a s p e c t s of "ano the r development" a r e a c t u a l l y t a k i n g p l a c e i n B r i t a i n . Moreover, B r i t a i n w i l l be one of t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s whose government has adopted t h e fo l lowing p o l i c y goals :

(1) i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , t o h e l p t o achieve a world economy w i t h i n 2 5 y e a r s i n which m a t e r i a l l y overdeveloped c o u n t r i e s w i l l have converged wi th m a t e r i a l l y underdeveloped c o u n t r i e s around a more e q u a l , permanently s u s t a i n a b l e , m a t e r i a l l y adequate s t anda rd of l i v i n g ;

(2) i n t e r n a l l y , t o move towards g r e a t e r s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y and a b e t t e r balanced economy, more d i r e c t l y concerned wi th enab l ing people t o d e f i n e and meet t h e needs of t h e i r own households, neighbourhoods, and d i s t r i c t s .

1990 By t h i s t ime, many a spec t s of s o c i a l and economic l i f e i n - B r i t a i n w i l l p rovide evidence t h a t a fundamental cliange of d i r e c t i o n towards "another development" has taken p l ace .

2000 B r i t a i n w i l l have moved a long way toward g r e a t e r - economic s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y a t n a t i o n a l , r e g i o n a l , l o c a l and household l e v e l s . The world economy w i l l be on t h e way toward a permanently s u s t a i n a b l e , m a t e r i a l l y adequate s t anda rd of l i v i n g f o r a l l .

Having p o s t u l a t e d t h i s t a r g e t ' t ime tab le f o r "ano the r development" i n B r i t a i n , t h e nex t s t e p w i l l b e t o f i l l it o u t i n more d e t a i l . Des i rable and p o t e n t i a l l y f e a s i b l e changes c o n s i s t e n t with i t w i l l be p o s t u l a t e d i n va r ious f i e l d s (such a s employment, energy, e t c . ) , and q u a n t i t a t i v e va lues w i l l be a t t ached t o t h e s e changes f o r t h e yea r s 1985, 1990 and 2000. The changes t h u s p o s t u l a t e d i n each p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d w i l l then be r econc i l ed wi th one another

t o c r e a t e a more comprehensive p i c t u r e of what " ano the r development" might imply f o r t h e economic and s o c i a l l i f e of B r i t a i n ove r t h e nex t 2 0 yea r s .

The coverage f o r t h e p i l o t p r o j e c t w i l l i n i t i a l l y be a s fo l lows.

(1) Employment i n A g r i c u l t u r e , I n d u s t r y , Se rv i ces and P r o f e s s i o n s ; and new p a t t e r n s of Pa id and Unpaid Work.

I n a q r i c u l t u r e , manufacturing, and s e r v i c e s a l i k e we env i sage t h e f u r t h e r mechanisat ion and automation of l a r g e e n t e r p r i s e s supply ing mass-produced products and impersonal s e r v i c e s , t h e consequent r e l e a s e of many peop le , n o t only t o enjoy l e i s u r e , b u t a l s o t o work (pa id o r unpaid) i n a more s e l f - d e f i n e d way than a t p r e s e n t - on s m a l l fa rms, i n sma l l f i r m s , i n sma l l community e n t e r - p r i s e s , and i n t h e p rov i s ion of goods and s e r v i c e s on a person-to-person b a s i s . So we s h a l l p o s t u l a t e , f o r example : a s h i f t o u t of l a r g e manufacturing and s e r v i c e e n t e r p r i s e s ; a s h i f t i n t o a q r i c u l t u r e ; a s h i f t i n t o sma l l e n t e r p r i s e s ; a s h i f t towards par t - t ime pa id work; more f r e e t i m e ; more equa l d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a i d and unpaid work between men and women; h i g h e r s t a t u s f o r s o c i a l l y u s e f u l work, i nc lud ing unpaid work t h a t i s s o c i a l l y u s e f u l ; and, a t l e a s t dur ing a t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d , an ex t ens ion of t oday ' s t r a n s f e r payment systems (e.9. s o c i a l s e c u r i t y and unemployment b e n e f i t s ) t o provide unpaid workers w i t h a money income.

( 2 ) Food Product ion and Consumption

We s h a l l p o s t u l a t e : changes i n a g r i c u l t u r e and i n d i e t which w i l l make B r i t a i n more s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t i n indigenous types of food and l e s s dependent on imported f e e d i n g s t u f f s , b u t t e r , e t c . This w i l l imply: l e s s meat i n t h e d i e t ; more s m a l l e r farms, pa r t - t ime farming and do- i t -yourse l f ( D I Y ) food-growing; and l e s s ene rgy - in t ens ive , more people- i n t e n s i v e farming.

( 3 ) Urban/Rural P a t t e r n s of S e t t l e m e n t ; ( 4 ' and new P a t t e r n s of Family and Community L i f e

We s h a l l p o s t u l a t e a more d i s p e r s e d p a t t e r n of s e t t l e m e n t countrywide; more people l i v i n g n e a r e r t o t h e i r work; more people growing food i n c i t i e s , more people manufacturing i n t h e count ry , and more people p rov id ing s e r v i c e s d i r e c t l y t o o t h e r people i n both ; more people spending more a c t i v e t ime i n and around t h e i r own home and l o c a l i t y ; more people w i t h t h e i r own foodp lo t s and workshops; i n c r e a s i n g inves tment by households and neighbourhoods i n a l l k inds of equipment, i nc lud ing mechanical and telecommunications equipment; more l i v i n g and working t o g e t h e r by c h i l d r e n , young people , a d u l t s , and t h e e l d e r l y ; and, a t t h e same t ime , b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r more people t o have acces s t o c u l t u r e , r e c r e a t i o n a l t r a v e l , e t c .

( 4 ) Energy Use and Energy Supply b

We s h a l l p o s t u l a t e decreas ing energy use , p a r t l y owing t o h igher e f f i c i e n c y and conservat ion , and p a r t l y owing t o l e s s energy- in tens ive p a t t e r n s of work, l i f e , t r a n s p o r t , e t c . We s h a l l a l s o p o s t u l a t e a more d e c e n t r a l i s e d p a t t e r n of energy supply , based i n c r e a s i n g l y on renewable energy sources and on t h e use of energy now wasted.

( 5 ) Imports and Exports

In g e n e r a l , we s h a l l p o s t u l a t e t h a t dec reas ing q u a n t i t i e s of goods and s e r v i c e s w i l l b e exchanged by B r i t a i n wi th i n d u s t r i a l i s e d and Th i rd World coun t r i e s a l i k e - a s development i n B r i t a i n (and elsewhere) becomes more s e l f - r e l i a n t , indigenous and needs-oriented. I n p a r t i c u l a r , we s h a l l p r o j e c t t h e decreases impl ied under t h e fou r previous headings. We s h a l l a l s o p o s t u l a t e , however, t h a t c e r t a i n types of economic interdependence - and e s p e c i a l l y those which c o n t r i b u t e t o s e l f - r e l i a n t development i n Third World coun t r i e s - w i l l continue t o grow; and t h a t more people i n a l l coun t r i e s w i l l cont inue t o have b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r educa t iona l and r e c r e a t i o n a l t r a v e l , and b e t t e r access t o g l o b a l communications.

Some p re l imina ry numerical f i g u r i n g has been done. ( = ) I t sugges t s t h a t t h e s e f i v e headings may provide a broad enough coverage, b u t no t s o broad a s t o be unmanageably complex, f o r a u s e f u l p i l o t s tudy.

The s c e n a r i o , o r p o s t u l a t e d pa th of development, genera ted i n t h i s way w i l l h e l p t o c l a r i f y many ques t ions : f o r example, does B r i t a i n have enough land f o r "another development"? I t w i l l h e l p t o i d e n t i f y many dec i s ions , i n i t i a t i v e s and p o l i c y changes t h a t w i l l f a c i l i t a t e "another development". I t w i l l r a i s e impor tant ques t ions about o t h e r a r e a s of a c t i v i t y such as t r a n s p o r t , h e a l t h and educat ion . I n s h o r t , t h i s p i l o t p r o j e c t could be t h e f i r s t s t a g e i n t h e development of an ac t ion -o r i en ted economic model o f "another B r i t a i n " . The p r a c t i c a l i t i e s of t h i s p i l o t p r o j e c t w i l l now be exp lo red , i nc lud ing i t s funding.

4 . CLUSTERS O F ISSUES

Important a spec t s of "another B r i t a i n " a r e emerging from many d i f f e r e n t a r eas of i n t e r e s t , i nc lud ing : environmentalism, world development, peace and disarmament, community p o l i t i c s , human- i s t i c psychology, appropr i a t e technology, s e x e q u a l i t y , and a l t e r n a t i v e approaches t o work, h e a l t h , educa t ion , economic o r g a n i s a t i o n , a g r i c u l t u r e , communications and r e l i g i o n . I f a c t i v i s t s i n t h e s e f i e l d s can t a p t h e p o t e n t i a l synergy between them, "ano the r development" w i l l r a p i d l y g a t h e r momentum. A u s e f u l s t r a t e g i c t a s k i s , t h e r e f o r e , t o i d e n t i f y t h e p o t e n t i a l synergy i n p a r t i c u l a r c l u s t e r s of i s s u e s .

One impor tant c l u s t e r of i s s u e s , w i th which I s h a l l cont inue t o be d i r e c t l y i nvo lved , sur rounds t h e f u t u r e of work (and l e i s u r e ) and educa t ion . They a r e c l o s e l y l i nked w i t h a t h i r d s e t of i s s u e s * concerning t h e f u t u r e of money.

Work (and Le i su re )

The nega t ive p rospec t of con t inu ing h igh unemployment and t h e p o s i t i v e demand f o r more meaningful work a r e combining t o gene ra t e momentum f o r " ano the r development" i n t h e fo l lowing ways.

(1) Crea t ing Jobs . P r i o r i t y w i l l cont inue t o s h i f t from c e n t r a l i s e d c a p i t a l - i n t e n s i v e development towards d e c e n t r a l - i s e d employment-intensive development. To t a k e t h r e e examples, ( a ) government could adopt p o l i c i e s f avour ing energy conse rva t ion a s opposed t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of new power s t a t i o n s ; ( b ) i n d u s t r y could adopt s t r a t e g i e s favour ing d u r a b l e , r e p a i r a b l e , r e c y c l a b l e products ; and ( c ) l o c a l government could assume more r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r l o c a l employment. Sys temat ic examination i s now needed of every s e c t o r of t h e economy, t o i d e n t i f y job-crea t ing p o s s i b i l i t i e s such a s t h e s e and t h e a c t i o n r e q u i r e d t o r e a l i s e them.

( 2 ) Saving Jobs . P r i o r i t y may a l s o be s t a r t i n g t o s h i f t from redundancy-creating development t o s k i l l - u t i l i s i n g development. I n e f f e c t , t h i s has been proposed by t h e Lucas Aerospace shopstewards i n t h e i r campaign f o r t h e r i g h t t o work on s o c i a l l y u s e f u l products . ( 6 ) Again, t h e scope f o r redeploying e x i s t i n g s k i l l s t o s o c i a l l y u s e f u l work needs t o be examined throughout t h e economy.

( 3 ) Shar ing Jobs . Par t - t ime employment and work-sharing (e.g. by e a r l i e r r e t i r e m e n t , more s a b b a t i c a l s , longer h o l i d a y s , a s h o r t e r working week, more par t - t ime jobs ) w i l l become more common. Here t o o , i n a mu l t i t ude of s p e c i f i c employment s i t u a t i o n s , t h e p r a c t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s need t o be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y examined.

( 4 ) Paradigm S h i f t . A s t h e dominant " i n d u s t r i a l " paradigm of work a s a f u l l - t i m e job g i v e s way t o a " p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l " paradigm of work a s s o c i a l l y u s e f u l , p e r s o n a l l y f u l f i l l i n g , s e l f -de f ined occupat ion , imuor t an t q u e s t i o n s w i l l have t o be answered. What p sycho log ica l f a c t o r s w i l l e a s e (and impede) a r a d i c a l r e v a l u a t i o n of p a i d and unpaid work a s sou rces of s e l f - e s t eem and s o c i a l esteem? How could t h i s r e v a l u a t i o n be f a c i l i t a t e d by new t r a n s f e r payments systems? How w i l l it r e l a t e t o t h e demand f o r g r e a t e r s ex e q u a l i t y a s r ega rds work? How w i l l it a f f e c t c h i l d r e n and t h e e l d e r l y , c u r r e n t l y de f ined a s pry-employed and post-employed? How w i l l i t a f f e c t l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s , expend i tu re on l e i s u r e , and t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between l e i s u r e and work?

A s t h e q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d about t h e f u t u r e of work under t h e s e four

headings a re explored f u r t h e r , they w i l l i n t e r a c t on one another . They w i l l a l s o i n t e r a c t powerfully wi th ques t ions about t h e f u t u r e of educat ion and money.

Education

"Another B r i t a i n " w i l l involve s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n educa t ion , comparable t o those envisaged f o r work. These changes w i l l be s t imu la t ed by i n c r e a s i n g d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n wi th t h e p r e s e n t educat ion system. Education w i l l come t o be seen a s t h e process of acqu i r ing , n o t paper q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a s now, b u t s k i l l s and exper ience - phys ica l , manual, menta l , psychologica l and i n t e r - pe r sona l - which can h e l p people t o do u s e f u l and rewarding work (pa id o r unpaid) , and t o d i scove r , develop and f u l f i l themselves a s persons . I t w i l l be seen a s a permanent a spec t of l i f e , w i th t h e p o s i t i v e l y i n t e g r a t i n g r o l e of b r ing ing t o g e t h e r home and work, men and women, young and o l d - n o t compartmentalising them a s a t p r e s e n t . I t w i l l be seen a s a process of l i b e r a t i m from dependence on o t h e r people and i n s t i t u t i o n s , i nc lud ing dependence on t eache r s and educa t iona l i n s t i t u t i o n s . The fo l lowing a r e among t h e changes envisaged.

(1) I n s t i t u t i o n a l . Fu-rther d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n and democra t i sa t ion of educa t iona l i n s t i t u t i o n s .

( 2 ) Content . Syl labus changes i n tune wi th t h e p r i n c i p l e s of "ano the r development" , f o r example g iv ing g r e a t e r emphasis t o l o c a l i s s u e s and i n t e r e s t s , co-opera t ive s e l f - r e l i a n c e , humanis t ic psychology, environmental ism, p l a n e t a r y c i t i z e n s h i p , a l t e r n a t i v e f u t u r e s , app ropr i a t e technology, s ex e q u a l i t y , and o t h e r people-centred s u b j e c t s .

( 3 ) V a r i e t . A g r e a t e r p l u r a l i t y of educa t iona l forms, i nc lud fng " f r e e " schoo l s , educat ion "otherwise" (i .e . a t home), and va r ious types of s p e c i a l o r a l t e r n a t i v e schools and co l l eges . In p a r t i c u l a r , informal t each ing arrangements and " s k i l l s exchange" networks w i l l cont inue t o develop o u t s i d e t h e formal economic and educa t iona l systems. The growing d e s i r e t o l e a r n from experienced p r a c t i t i o n e r s ( r a t h e r than from p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t o r s ) , and t h e growing demand f o r l i f e - l o n g l e a r n i n g , may tend t o downgrade t h e r o l e of educa t iona l i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e u n i v e r s i t i e s and schoo l s .

( 4 ) Technology. The l i b e r a t o r y p o t e n t i a l of technology w i l l a c c e l e r a t e "ano the r development" i n educat ion . Aids t o l e a r n i n g , such a s computers and computer t e r m i n a l s , t e l e v i s i o n , and a l l k inds of audio-visual and communica- t i o n s equipment, w i l l enab le l e a r n e r s t o be more s e l f - d i r e c t e d . Information technology w i l l become an i n c r e a s i n g l y impor tant form of equipment i n households and neighbourhood c e n t r e s , he lp ing i n d i v i d u a l s and l o c a l communities t o be more s e l f - r e l i a n t i n c r e a t i n g t h e i r cwi l i v i n g c u l t u r e and enter ta inment .

Excess ive dependence on money i s one of t h e main o b s t a c l e s t o a n o t h e r development" i n work and educat ion - and i n o t h e r f i e l d s a l s o . More democra t ic , l o c a l and pe r sona l c o n t r o l of how money i s s p e n t w i l l be one f e a t u r e of "another B r i t a i n " . Another w i l l be a lower throughput of money, i . e . l e s s expendi ture and l e s s income, f o r a b e t t e r q u a l i t y of l i f e - a t t h e household, co rpo ra t e , governmental , and n a t i o n a l ( i . e . ba lance of payments) l e v e l s a l i k e . The fo l lowing a r e among t h e changes envisaged.

(1) D e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n of t a x a t i o n , banking and o t h e r f i n a n c i a l a c t i v i t i e s , w i th a consequent d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n of investment dec i s ions i n t h e p u b l i c and p r i v a t e s e c t o r s .

( 2 ) Democra t i sa t ion of decision-making i n f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e pension funds and in su rance companies, s o t h a t investment managers become more accountable t o people a f f e c t e d by t h e i r dec i s ions .

( 3 ) Crea t ion of New F i n a n c i a l I n s t i t u t i o n s - such a s l o c a l e n t e r p r i s e t r u s t s , app rop r i a t e technology inves tment t r u s t s , e c o l o g i c a l land bonds, e t c . - which w i l l enab le people t o i n v e s t t h e i r money i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s of " ano the r development" t h a t i n t e r e s t them most, and s o t o use t h e i r money t o h e l p t o c r e a t e t h e k ind of f u t u r e they want.

( 4 ) Reduction of Indebtedness and of t oday ' s i n c r e a s i n g f i n a n c i a l commitments (mortgages, h i r e purchase , c r e d i t c a r d s , pens ion c o n t r i b u t i o n s , i n su rance p o l i c i e s , e t c . ) , which h e l p t o keep p e o p l e ' s noses t o t h e g r inds tone of p a i d employment.

( 5 ) New Government P o l i c i e s on Taxat ion and P u b l i c Expendi ture , which w i 11 enab le people t o reduce t h e i r dependence on money incomes. Examples may inc lude :

a ) i n c e n t i v e s (comparable t o t a x al lowances and inves tment s u b s i d i e s f o r companies) t o encourage households and neighbourhoods t o i n v e s t i n p roduc t ive t o o l s and equipment;

b) an ex t ens ion of t o d a y ' s unemployment b e n e f i t s , s o t h a t more people can on t f o r unpaid work i f they s o wish;

c ) p u b l i c expend i tu re on hous ing (7 ) w i th l and and workshop f a c i l i t i e s a t t a c h e d , s o . that t h e occupants can be l e s s dependent on t h e formal (monetised) economy f o r goods and s e r v i c e s and f o r work.

The development of a model of monetary f lows t o s imu la t e t h e p o s s i b l e impact of t h e s e changes - on p a t t e r n s of household income and expend i tu re , co rpo ra t e income and expend i tu re , p u b l i c f i nance ,

and t h e balance of payments - w i l l make it p o s s i b l e t o explore t h e f i n a n c i a l a spec t s of "another B r i t a i n " . This model w i l l l i n k wi th t h e economic model of "another B r i t a i n " suggested a t t he end of Sec t ion 3 above. I t w i l l t hus h e l p t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e p o s s i b l e i n t e r a c t i o n s between some of t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t new t r e n d s , a s t h e demand (and supply) f o r jobs , f o r money, and f o r purchased goods and s e r v i c e s f l a t t e n s ou t and then d e c l i n e s , (8) and as educat ion focusses i n c r e a s i n g l y on prepar ing people f o r f u l f i l l i n g work, u s e f u l unemployment, and product ive l e i s u r e .

Other Examples

Here a r e two o t h e r examples (among many) where t h e exp lo ra t ion of c l u s t e r s of i s s u e s i s he lp ing t o unlock t h e g a t e s t o an a l t e r n a - t i v e pa th of development i n B r i t a i n . F i r s t , a p r o j e c t on "Appropriate Technology f o r t h e UKV(5) has been explor ing: ( a ) new procedures f o r " technology choice" i n government

and i n d u s t r y , which would encourage t h e development and use of "'humane", "conserver" and " l i b e r a t o r y " technologies ;

(b) t h e e s t ab l i shmen t of " l o c a l e n t e r p r i s e t r u s t s " t o s t i m u l a t e l o c a l economic a c t i v i t y and employment; and

( c ) o t h e r measures t o encourage sma l l bus inesses , i nc lud ing co-opera t ives .

Second, t h e Unit f o r t h e Study of Health P o l i c y ( l 0 ) has been exp lo r ing t h e negat ive r e l a t i o n s h i p s between: ( a ) h e a l t h and convent ional economic growth, (b ) h e a l t h and commercial a d v e r t i s i n g , (c) h e a l t h and t h e media coverage given t o high technology

medicine compared wi th coverage given t o p u b l i c h e a l t h .

5. SOME UNDERLYING QUESTIONS

Inc reas ing i n t e r e s t has been shown i n t h e l a s t few yea r s , both among laypeople and among t h e s p e c i a l i s t s c h i e f l y concerned, i n a l l t h e i s s u e s covered i n t h i s r e p o r t . A number of under ly ing ques t ions o f t e n emerge i n d i scuss ion . These need t o be widely debated and c l a r i f i e d , on t h e fo l lowing l i n e s .

The Dynamics of S o c i a l Transformation

To change t h e dominant d i r e c t i o n of B r i t a i n ' s development w i l l r e q u i r e a t ransformat ion - a p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l r evo lu t ion . How w i l l t h i s come about?

I t w i l l no t be brought about by convent ional types of a c t i o n aimed e i t h e r on t h e one hand a t p o l i t i c a l , economic and s o c i a l reform ( o r r e v o l u t i o n ) or on t h e o t h e r hand a t person'al change and pe r sona l growth. I t w i l l come about a s more and more people - f o r nega t ive o r p o s i t i v e reasons o r a mixture of both - change t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e i r l i v e s and t h e i r work i n ways t h a t f a c i l i t a t e a s o c i a l t ransformat ion . Hence t h e key importance of "transforma- t i o n r o l e s " ( see page 2 above) .

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l r evo lu t ion w i l l n o t emerge from organised c o n f l i c t between c l a s s e s of c i t i z e n s , nor w i l l i t

be brought about through t h e agency of t h e s t a t e . I n c o u n t r i e s l i k e B r i t a i n today n e i t h e r t h a t c o n f l i c t no r t h a t agency can i n i t i a t e s o c i a l t r ans fo rma t ion a s they could i n Marx's time. Nonethe less , Marxist i n s i g h t s do i l l u m i n a t e c r u c i a l a spec t s of t h e p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l r evo lu t ion : f o r example, t h e d i a l e c t i c a l f e a t u r e s of t h e c o n f l i c t between t h e HE and t h e SHE v i s i o n s of pos t - i n d u s t r i a l i s m ; t h e dynamic of breakdown and breakthrough; and t h e o b j e c t i v e and s u b j e c t i v e cond i t i ons r e q u i r e d f o r t h e post- i n d u s t r i a l r evo lu t ion .

The P o l i t i c s and Economics of "Another B r i t a i n "

The p r a c t i c e and theo ry of " ano the r development" i n p o l i t i c s - i .e. s e l f - r e l i a n t , p a r t i c i p a t o r y democracy - a r e underdeveloped i n a B r i t a i n s t i l l dominated by t r a d i t i o n s of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , c e n t r a l i s e d government and uni-dimensional ( " f l a t e a r t h " ) pe rcep t ions of a Lef t /Right p o l i t i c a l spectrum. Thus, al though "ano the r development" embraces bo th t h e d e c e n t r a l i s t co-operat ive s t r a n d i n s o c i a l i s m and t h e d e c e n t r a l i s t s e l f - r e l i a n t s t r a n d i n conservat i sm, it i s n e i t h e r s o c i a l i s t nor c a p i t a l i s t , Labour no r Conservat ive . The Peace People , emerging from t h e bankruptcy of convent ional p o l i t i c s i n Northern I r e l a n d , a r e probably t h e b e s t e x i s t i n g model f o r " ano the r p o l i t i c s " . C l l !

I n s p i t e of E.F. Schumacher's p ionee r ing work on economics a s i f people ma t t e r ed , a l t e r n a t i v e economics i s a l s o underdeveloped i n B r i t a i n . The va r ious post-Keynesian schoo l s now fa sh ionab le - monetarism, s t a t e p lanning , p ro t ec t ion i sm - a r e b l i n d t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of " ano the r development". But, a s h a l f a century ago, t h e urgent cha l l enge of con t inu ing h igh unemployment i s again l i k e l y t o provide t h e s p u r t o t h e nex t breakthrough i n economic though t , and t h u s t o a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r " ano the r economics".

"Another eve lop men tin One Country

Could B r i t a i n go it alone? O r must " ano the r development" be i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n scope?

I n p r i n c i p l e , people i n one count ry could p ionee r "another development" w i thou t i n t e r n a t i o n a l agreement. I n p r a c t i c e , t h i s might i nvo lve economic r i s k s which many people i n B r i t a i n today would t h i n k unacceptable . Moreover, it would be impeded by e x i s t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l arrangements, such a s membership of t h e EEC. These p r a c t i c a l i t i e s need t o be examined i n d e t a i l , i n t h e con tex t o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n s 3 and 4 above.

However, i f " ano the r development" i s good f o r B r i t a i n , i t w i l l a l s o be good f o r o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s . I n f a c t , people i n a l l t h e s e c o u n t r i e s a r e a l r eady t u r n i n g towards "vo lun ta ry s i m p l i c i t y " . So, i n p r a c t i c e , t h e r i s k of going it a lone may no t prove s o s e r i o u s a s it looks a t f i r s t s i g h t . An i n t e r n a t i o n a l movement f o r " ano the r development" i s a l r eady emerging.

P e a c e , Disarmament and "Another Development"

W i l l " a n o t h e r development" h e l p t o promote peace and disarmament? O r w i l l i t , by weakening B r i t a i n ' s m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h , make i t s p e o p l e v u l n e r a b l e t o e x t e r n a l a g g r e s s i o n ? A r e world-wide peace and disarmament p r e - c o n d i t i o n s o f " a n o t h e r development"?

"Another development" w i l l c e r t a i n l y i n v o l v e a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e armaments i n d u s t r y and t h e arms t r a d e . So , i f more and more c o u n t r i e s adopt i t , i t w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i sa rma- ment. T h a t w i l l n o t o n l y r e l e a s e r e s o u r c e s f o r p e a c e f u l p u r p o s e s , b u t a l s o o f f e r s t h e b e s t p r o s p e c t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n t h e l o n g te rm. I n t h e s h o r t t e r m , however, " a n o t h e r development" i n one c o u n t r y c o u l d make i t more v u l n e r a b l e t o m i l i t a r y a g g r e s s i o n , and might h e l p t o d e s t a b i l i s e t h e i n t e r - n a t i o n a l b a l a n c e of t e r r o r . Ways must b e found o f c o u n t e r i n g t h i s f e a r . The r i s k c o u l d be somewhat reduced by " a n o t h e r development" i n d e f e n c e - i . e . t h e c r e a t i o n of a s e l f - r e l i a n t , l o c a l l y b a s e d , n o n - v i o l e n t , d e f e n s i v e c a p a b i l i t y . The r i s k mus t , i n any e v e n t , be compared w i t h t h e r i s k s i n h e r e n t i n a b u s i n e s s - a s - u s u a l approach t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l arms r a c e .

The disarmament lobby and t h e p e a c e movement have made l i t t l e headway i n B r i t a i n i n r e c e n t y e a r s . T h i s i s p a r t l y because t h e y have n o t s q u a r e l y f a c e d p e o p l e ' s g e n u i n e f e a r s ; and i t i s p a r t l y because disarmament and peace have come t o b e r e g a r d e d a s m a t t e r s o f s p e c i a l i s t i n t e r e s t . There i s a g r e a t need now t o c l a r i f y t h e l i n k s between development and p e a c e , i n t e rms which n o n - e x p e r t s can d i s c u s s . (12)

The Role of C o r p o r a t e E l i t e s

~t i s e a s y t o s e e how i n d u s t r i a l , f i n a n c i a l , t r a d e u n i o n , p r o f e s - s i o n a l and government l e a d e r s i n i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s - working t h r o u g h i n t e r n a t i o n a l companies , b a n k s , t r a d e u n i o n s , p r o f e s s i o n a l b o d i e s , a s s o c i a t i o n s l i k e t h e T r i l a t e r a l Commission, and government o r g a n i s a t i o n s l i k e OECD and EEC - c o u l d t r y t o d e v e l o p a s y s t e m of g l o b a l management ( a c o r p o r a t e w o r l d o r d e r ) , aimed a t m a i n t a i n i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l t r a j e c t o r y of economic development and t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l b a l a n c e o f power between i n d u s t r i a l i s e d and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . I t i s n o t s o e a s y t o imagine how t h e s e l e a d e r s c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e e f f e c t i v e l y t o " a n o t h e r development" . The answer i s : by d e c o l o n i s i n g t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s , by g i v i n g t h e i r power away, and by e n a b l i n g p e o p l e now dependent on t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s ( a s c u s t o m e r s , employees, c i t i z e n s , e t c . ) t o become more s e l f - r e l i a n t .

i^y r e c e n t e x p e r i e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t an i n c r e a s i n g number of s e n i o r b u s i n e s s p e o p l e i n B r i t a i n - though t h e y may n o t l i k e t h e i d e a of " d e c o l o n i s a t i o n " f o r i t s own s a k e - a r e now p r e p a r e d t o examine i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r new p r o d u c t s , new s e r v i c e s , and new market- i n g , p e r s o n n e l , and p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s s t r a t e g i e s . More r e c e n t l y , a few forward- looking t r a d e u n i o n i s t s have begun t o r e c o g n i s e t h e need f o r r a d i c a l l y new approaches t o employment and work. P o l i t i c i a n s , though p r i v a t e l y w o r r i e d by t h e e v i d e n t b a n k r u p t c y

of c o n v e n t i o n a l p o l i c i e s , s t i l l f e e l unable t o c o n f e s s t h a t a l t e r - n a t i v e s t o f u l l employment and economic growth s h o u l d b e examined. S e n i o r c i v i l s e r v a n t s a r e s i m i l a r l y c o n s t r a i n e d by t h e i r percep- t i o n s o f t h e f e a s i b l e . Bankers and f i n a n c i e r s a r e s t i l l unaware t h a t " a n o t h e r development" i s on t h e agenda. The q u e s t i o n i s : how can t h e s e c o r p o r a t e e l i t e s b e encouraged t o e x p l o r e t h e p r a c t i c a l - i t i e s of " d e c o l o n i s a t i o n " ?

6 . I N CONCLUSION

A s I s a i d i n S e c t i o n 2 , many r e c e n t i n i t i a t i v e s p o i n t towards a n o t h e r B r i t a i n " . (Two examples a r e Turn ing P o i n t ( 1 3 ) and t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y L i a i s o n Group f o r A l t e r n a t i v e Energy S t r a t e g i e s ( 1 4 ) . ) T h e i r numbers and s i g n i f i c a n c e w i l l grow, a s t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p a t h s o f p r o g r e s s become i n c r e a s i n g l y b locked . I have s u g g e s t e d some s t r a t e g i e s f o r e n c o u r a g i n g them. Here a r e a few more:

a ) commission o p i n i o n s u r v e y s which s t i m u l a t e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t i n t h e i d e a o f " a n o t h e r B r i t a i n " ;

( b ) p u b l i s h s o c i a l f i c t i o n ( 1 5 ) a b o u t l i f e i n " a n o t h e r B r i t a i n " ;

( c ) p e r s u a d e t h e media ( 1 6 ) t o t a k e " a n o t h e r development" s e r i o u s l y ;

[d) p e r s u a d e more g r a n t - g i v i n g f o u n d a t i o n s (17) t o d o t h e same;

(e) i n t r o d u c e t h e c o n c e p t s o f " a n o t h e r development" i n t o management e d u c a t i o n ( 18) ;

( f ) d e v e l o p new l e g a l s t r u c t u r e s f o r d e c e n t r a l i s e d b u s i n e s s and community e n t e r p r i s e s (19) ;

(91 e x p l o r e t h e l i n k s between " a n o t h e r development" and a more f a m i l i a l s o c i e t y (20) ;

( h ) s t i m u l a t e p a r l i a m e n t a r y i n t e r e s t i n a l t e r n a t i v e f u t u r e s ( 2

(i) p r e s s f o r d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n o f t h e media (22) and government a s w e l l a s o f i n d u s t r y and f i n a n c e ;

( j ) m o b i l i s e consumer s u p p o r t f o r " a n o t h e r development" ;

(k) promote a l t e r n a t i v e p o l i c y s t u d i e s ( r e s e a r c h programmes, c o n f e r e n c e s , j o u r n a l , c e n t r e s ) .

My f u r t h e r a c t i o n now w i l l be :

( I ) immedia te ly , t o p u r s u e t h e s p e c i f i c s u g g e s t i o n s f o r a p i l o t s t u d y and monetary model i n S e c t i o n s 3 and 4 ;

( 2 ) more g e n e r a l l y , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f "Changing D i r e c t i o n " , t o s t i m u l a t e f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n and e x p l o r a t i o n of " a n o t h e r development" a s o u t l i n e d i n t h i s r e p o r t ;

( 3 ) t o cont inue t o f a c i l i t a t e networking c o n t a c t s , n a t i o n a l l y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , on va r ious a spec t s of " ano the r B r i t a i n " ;

( 4 ) i n t h e l onge r term, t o cons ide r whether t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n s e t t i n g up a c e n t r e t o develop s t r a t e g i e s f o r " ano the r B r i t a i n " .

I - h a ' ^ look forward t o co-opera t ing w i t h members of t h e IFDA netno- (and w i t h o t h e r s ) on t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s and on complement- a ry a c t i v i t i e s of t h e i r s .

NOTES

(1) Many of t h e persons named i n t h e fo l lowing no te s gave va luab le h e l p for which I am very g r a t e f u l . This does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y imply t h a t they agree w i th what i s s a i d .

( 2 ) "The Sane A l t e r n a t i v e : S ignpos t s t o a S e l f - F u l f i l l i n g Future" is o b t a i n a b l e from t h e au tho r a t 7 S t . Ann's V i l l a s , London W l l 4RU, England. (P r i ce : UK only - Â£1.9 pos t - f r ee ; o u t s i d e UK - $5.00 + 75c s u r f a c e ma i l o r $2.50 a i r m a i l ) .

( 3 ) "Changing Di rec t ion" i s a p r o j e c t embracing much of t h e au tho r ' s c u r r e n t work.

( 4 ) David H a l l and Tom Hancock (Town and Country Planning Assoc i a t i on , 17 Ca r l t on House Te r r ace , London SW1Y 5AS, England) have given va luab le i n fo rma t ion and advice on t h i s a spec t of " ano the r development".

(5) John Davis (10 G r e n f e l l Road, Beaconsf i e l d , Bucks, England) i n p a r t i c u l a r provided u s e f u l f i g u r e s . His p r o j e c t f o r t h e In t e rmed ia t e Technology Development Group on "Appropr ia te Technology f o r t h e UK" i s a v i t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o "ano the r development" f o r B r i t a i n .

( 6 ) CAITS i s t h e b e s t sou rce of informat ion about t h i s campaign ( con tac t : Mike George, Cent re f o r A l t e r n a t i v e I n d u s t r i a l and Technologica l Systems, North E a s t London Po ly t echn ic , Longbridge Road, Daqenham, Essex RM8 2AS, England) .

(7) John Turner (30 Greenwood Road, Hackney, London E8, England) au tho r of "Housing By People" , i s a l s o p repa r ing a cont r ibu- t i o n t o t h e IFDA Doss ier .

(8) B i l l Mart in (Le i su re Consu l t an t s , L i n t Growis, Foxear th , Sudbury, S u f f o l k , England) sugges t s t h a t a model might show a s e r i e s of nega t ive m u l t i p l i e r s i n t h e economic sense and p o s i t i v e m u l t i p l i e r s i n a s o c i a l we l lbe ing sense .

(9) Rodney S t a r e s (9 Oxford Square , Watchf ie ld , M r . Swindon, W i l t s , England) h a s va luab le p r a c t i c a l expe r i ence of s e t t i n g up a Local E n t e r p r i s e T r u s t .

1 0 ) C o n t a c t : P e t e r Draper, Unit f o r t h e Study of Heal th P o l i c y , Dept. of Community Medicine, Guy's H o s p i t a l Medical School , 8 Newcomen S t r e e t , London SE1 l Y R , England) .

(11) Contac t : C i a r a n McKeown, Peace P e o p l e (Fredheim, 224 L i s b u r n Road, B e l f a s t 9 , Nor thern I r e l a n d ) .

(12) The E a s t f i e s t Peace People ( c o n t a c t : P e t e r Cadogan, 1 Hampstead H i l l Gardens, London N W 3 , England) a r e w e l l aware of t h e impor tance which t h e Nor thern I r e l a n d Peace People p l a c e on t h e i r community development a c t i v i t i e s .

(13) C o n t a c t : A l i s o n P r i t c h a r d ( 7 S t . Ann's V i l l a s , London W l l 4RU E n g l a n d ) .

(14) C o n t a c t : Renee-Marie Croose P a r r y ( 8 1 Onslow Square , London SW7 3LT, England) .

(15) The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Founda t ion f o r S o c i a l I n n o v a t i o n ( 5 Rue ~ ? ' A l g e r , 75001 P a r i s , F r a n c e ) a r e u s i n g s o c i a l f i c t i o n a s a means o f c l a r i f y i n g p o s s i b l e f u t u r e s .

(16) The " A l t e r n a t i v e s " column o f The Guardian i s a r e c e n t b r e a k t h r o u g h . H a r f o r d Thomas (82 H i l l w a y , London N6, England) founded it and c o n t i n u e s t o w r i t e r e g u l a r l y i n it.

(17) I n " T r u s t s I n A Time Of Change" W a l l i s Johnson (Joseph Rowntree C h a r i t a b l e T r u s t , B e v e r l e y House, S h i p t o n Road, York YO3 6RB, England) r e f e r s t o B r i t a i n ' s r o l e i n " a n o t h e r development" .

( 1 8 ) The f o l l o w i n g a r e among t h o s e a l r e a d y a c t i v e o r i n t e r e s t e d :

P r o f . Gur th Higgin ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Technology, Loughborough, L e i c e s t e r s h i r e LEI1 3TU, E n g l a n d ) .

P r o f . John Morr i s (Manchester B u s i n e s s School , Booth S t r e e t West , Manchester H15 6PB, England) .

P r o f . C h a r l e s Handy ( S t . G e o r g e ' s House, Windsor C a s t l e , B e r k s h i r e SL4, England) .

Ronnie Lessem, C i t y U n i v e r s i t y , Gradua te B u s i n e s s C e n t r e , 23 Goswell Road, London EC1M 7BB, England) .

P h i l i p S a d l e r , Ashr idge Management C o l l e g e , Berkhamsted, H e r t s HP 4 INS, England) .

(19) A good example i s t h e S c o t t Bader Commonwealth (Wol las ton , Wel l ingborough , Nor thamptonsh i re NN9 7RL, England) - c o n t a c t : G o d r i c Bader o r David R a l l e y .

(20) A Canadian example i s t h e work o f t h e V a n i e r I n s t i t u t e o f t h e Family (151 S l a t e r S t r e e t , Ottawa KIP 5H3, O n t a r i o , Canada) - c o n t a c t : B i l l Dyson.

(21) A U.S. example i s t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l C l e a r i n g h o u s e on t h e F u t u r e (722 House Annex, Washington, DC 20515, USA) - c o n t a c t : Anne Cheatham.

( 2 2 ) T h i s i s t h e aim o f Community Communications ( c o n t a c t : Simon P a r t r i d g e , 9 2 Huddles ton Road, London N7, England) .

J a n u a r y 1979

DE L' AVEN I R DES RELATIONS ECONOMIQUES I NTERNATIONALES

par Sami r Amin I n s t i t u t a f r i cain de developpement @conomique e t de plani f i cation (IDEP) B.P. 3136 Dakar, Senegal (Langue or ig inal e : F r a n ~ a i s )

ON THE FUTURE OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS

Abstract: The paper analyses the concept of the new in ternat ional economic order (NIEO) on i t s way t o f a i l u r e . The ambiguities of the NIEO a re discussed and brought i n t o r e l a t i on with the present stalemate in the negotiations on the Common Fund and the Code of Conduct f o r t r ans fe r of technology, and with the apparent exhaustion of the development offensive of the Third World. The deeper causes of the stalemate - i n pa r t i cu l a r the prolonged contemporary c r i s i s i n the in ternat ional d iv is ion of labour and i t s inherent s t ruc tu ra l cont radic t ions - a re analysed in a h i s to r i ca l perspective based on the evolution of European imper i a l i s t i c expansion s ince the 19th century, the emergence of s o c i a l i s t s t a t e s in the 20th century and t h e i r d i f - f e r en t i a t i on in the recent pas t . In discussing p o s s i b i l i t i e s beyond the NIEO the author predic ts t h a t e i t h e r the forces of global monopolistic capi ta l i sm wi l l overcome the present res is tance , both in the North and the South, and wi l l achieve an in ternat ional d iv is ion of labour i n t h e i r own way, o r t h a t the ac t ive groups and s t a t e s of the Third Horld wi l l continue t o r e s i s t and t o work towards a new order . The prospects of s e t t i n g up a common Third World f ron t t o achieve, f o r ins tance , revis ions i n t he in ternat ional d iv is ion of labour, a re a t present l imi ted . The question of technology, pa r t i cu l a r ly the technology of whole productive systems contro l led by monopolies ( e .g . , turn-key p l a n t s ) , i s a key var iable i n the on-going process of transformation. The present c r i s i s of the NIEO can be in terpre ted e i t h e r as a s t age of development of c a p i t a l i s t expansion o r as a c r i s i s leading t o a t r ans i t i on t o socialism. The author concludes t h a t , in r e a l i t y , a new wave of Third World populism and of popular s t ruggles can be predicted.

SOBRE E L PORVENIR DE LAS RELACIONES ECONOMICAS INTERNACIONALES

Resumen: El informe anal iza e l concept0 de Nuevo Orden Economico Internacional (NOEI) que e s t a en camino de fracaso. Se habla de 1as ambiguedades del NOEI y es tas s e ponen en relacion con e l actual es tado de l a s tablas en que s e conducen l a s negociaciones sobre e l Fondo ComQn y e l Codigo de Conducta para e l t r a s l ado de tecnologia , y en re lac ion con e l agotamiento aparente de l a ofensiva del Tercer Mundo para e l desarro l lo . Las razones mas profundas que determinan esas t ab l a s - especialmente l a c r i s i s contemporanea prolongada en l a d iv is ion internacional del t r aba jo - son analizadas en su perspectiva h i s to r i ca basada en l a evolution de l a expansion imper ia l i s ta Europea desde e l s i g l o XIX, l a emergencia de 10s estados s o c i a l i s t a s del s i q l o X X y su diferenciamiento en e l pasado rec iente . Hablando de posibil idades mas a l l a del NOEI e l autor pronostica que o las fuerzas del c a p i t a l i - siio global monopolista superaran l a r e s i s t enc i a actual tanto en 1as sociedades del Norte como en l a s del Sur y lograran una d iv is ion del t r aba jo a su manera, o 10s grupos y estados del Tercer "undo presentemente ac t i vos continuaran a r e s i s t i r y a t r aba j a r para a lcanzar un nuevo orden. Nota que l a s probabilidades que e l Tercer Mundo monte una f r en t e conun para obtener, por ejemplo, revisiones de l a presente d iv is ion internacional del t r aba jo son l imitadas.

Samir Amin

La f a i l l i t e du Nouvel Ordre Economique I n t e r n a t i o n a l (NOEI) n ' e s t p e u t - 6 t r e pas encore consommee. Mais 2 quelques semaines de l a 5e sess ion de l a CNUCED, q u i se t i e n d r a a M a n i l l e en mai 1979, peut-on p r e t e n d r e que dans un seul domaine l a m ise en oeuvre de l a Char te so lenne l lement adoptee p a r 11Assemb16e Genera le des N a t i o n s Unies en 1974 a i t e n r e g i s t r e un p rogres quelconque ? Simultanement peu t - on a u j o u r d ' h u i c o n t i n u e r a a f f i r m e r que ce q u i u n i t l e s pays du T i e r s Monde l ' e m p o r t e s u r c e q u i l e s d i v i s e ? Que peu t s i g n i f i e r non-a l ignement l o r s q u e 1es superpuissances i n t e r v i e n n e n t i c i e t l a a l ' a p p e l meme des pays du T i e r s Monde dresses l e s uns c e n t r e 1es a u t r e s ? A quelques mois du sommet des Non-a l ign&, p revu pour l ' e t e 1979, 1e T i e r s Monde n ' e s t - i l pas simplement menace de cesser d ' e x i s t e r ?

La f a i l l i t e de l a s t r a t e g i e d i t e du NOEI e t l a decomposi t ion du T i e r s Monde ne s a u r a i e n t neanmoins f a i r e o u b l i e r l a p e r s i s t a n c e de l a c r i s e e t 1e developpement de bouleversements r e e l s dans l e s r e l a t i o n s e n t r e 1 'Oues t e t 1 ' E s t ( b l o c s o v i e - t i q u e e t Ch ine ) . La d e s c r i p t i o n de l ' e c h e c des " n 6 g o c i a t i o n s " Nord-Sud ne s u f f i t done pas. E t l ' a n a l y s e impose que l ' o n r e p l a c e 1es e v o l u t i o n s dans ce domaine dans l e u r s r a p p o r t s avec c e l l e s q u i c a r a c t e r i s e n t 1e systeme mondia l dans son ensemble, aux p l a n s p o l i t i q u e e t economique.

Les o b j e c t i f s du NOEI c o n s t i t u a i e n t un programme coheren t repondant aux a s p i r a - t i o n s des E t a t s du T i e r s Monde. La l o g i q u e i n t e r n e du programme - re levement des p r i x des m a t i e r e s premieres expor tees p a r l e T i e r s Monde, nouveau s o u f f l e d ' i n - d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n d ' e x p o r t a t i o n ve rs l e s pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s fondee s u r l a main- d ' o e u v r e a bon march6 e t l ' abondance des ressources n a t u r e l l e s , a c c e l e r a t i o n du t r a n s f e r t des techno log ies e t r e d u c t i o n de son c o h t - r e f l e t e l e c a r a c t e r e con- t r a d i c t o i r e de l ' a c c u m u l a t i o n du c a p i t a l a l ' e c h e l l e mondia le. D'une p a r t en e f f e t , ce programme s ' i n s c r i t d'emblee dans une p e r s p e c t i v e d 'appro fond issement de l a d i v i s i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e du t r a v a i l : p a r 1e re levement du taux de l a p l u s - v a l u e ( l a s u r e x p l o i t a t i o n de l a f o r c e de t r a v a i l a l a p e r i p h e r i e ) i 1 permet 1e re levement du taux du p r o f i t 2 l ' e c h e l l e mond ia le e t a p p a r a i t done comme un p r o - gramme de developpement c a p i t a l i s t e a c e t t e e c h e l l e . Mais d ' a u t r e p a r t , dans l e cadre de c e t o b j e c t i f c o m u n de developpement c a p i t a l i s t e , l e s s t r a t e g i e s p ropres des monopoles e t des E t a t s i m p e r i a l i s t e s e t ceux des b o u r g e o i s i e s e t des E t a t s de l a p @ r i p h e r i e e n t r e n t en c o n t r a d i c t i o n .

Les monopoles i m p e r i a l i s t e s o n t une i n t e r p r e t a t i o n l i m i t e e du "nouvel o r d r e " . 11 s ' a g i t pour eux de t i r e r davantage p r o f i t de l a main-d 'oeuvre a bon marche e t des ressources n a t u r e l l e s du T i e r s Monde p a r l a d e l o c a l i s a t i o n de segments des p ro - cessus p r o d u c t i f s q u ' i l s c o n t r o l e n t . Dans c e t t e s t r a t e g i c l a d e l o c a l i s a t i o n ne v i s e nu l lement a l a c r e a t i o n d'economies i n d u s t r i e l l e s n a t i o n a l e s i n t e g r e e s dans 1e T i e r s Monde, f u s s e n t - e l l e s ouver tes s u r l ' e x t e r i e u r . Au c o n t r a i r e l ' i n t e r e t des monopoles e s t d ' e x p o r t e r des segments non a r t i c u l e s l e s uns aux a u t r e s de ma- n i e r e a conserve r l e c o n t r o l e de " l ' ensemb le de l a v i e economique a l ' e c h e l l e mond ia le " . Dans ce cadre 1es monopoles peuvent f a i r e des concessions mineures aux p a y s h6tes1 ' , v o i r e meme, dans 1es cas extremes, renoncer 2 l a p r o p r i e t @ f o r m e l l e du c a p i t a l . La concurrence e n t r e ceux -c i , l ' a b s e n c e d ' i n t e g r a t i o n des segments

t r a n s f e r & , l e u r dependance techno log ique comme c e l l e decou lan t de l ' o b l i g a t i o n d ' e x p o r t e r l e s p r o d u i t s s u r 1es marches m e t r o p o l i t a i n s c o n t r 6 l e s p a r l e s monopo les , r e d u i s e n t l e contenu de l a p r o p r i e t e f o r m e l l e du c a p i t a l c a r t o u t c e l a permet aux monopoles d ' imposer a l e u r s p a r t e n a i r e s des c o n d i t i o n s c o n t r a i g n a n t e s a l ' e x t r e m e . C ' e s t l e " l a i s s e z - f a i r e " a l ' e c h e l l e d ' u n monde domine p a r 1es monopo les . Dans ces c o n d i t i o n s 1e f inancement meme de c e t t e d e l o c a l i s a t i o n p a r des moyens p ropres des pays du T i e r s Monde s e r a i t b e n e f i c e supplementa i re pour l e s monopoles vendeurs d ' u s i n e s " c l e s en mains" . C e t t e p o n c t i o n operee a l e u r p r o f i t e s t en e f f e t " i n t e g r e e " dans l a s t r u c t u r e des p r i x . La p o n c t i o n peu t , au demeu- r a n t , s ' e n f l e r de t r a n s f e r t s f i n a n c i e r s v i s i b l e s au t i t r e des ventes de t e c h n i - ques, b r e v e t s e t marques commerciales, comme a c e l u i des i n t e r e t s des p r e t s o c t r o y e s pour s o u t e n i r l ' e x p a n s i o n des u n i t e s . P a r f o i s m6me l e s s t r u c t u r e s de p r i x s o n t d6form6es dans un sens q u i en leve aux segments t r a n s f e r e s l e u r r e n t a - b i l i t e apparente : l e s p r e t s d e s t i n e s a l o r s a combler " l e s d e f i c i t s de g e s t i o n " ne s o n t r i e n d ' a u t r e que des formes de r e s u r r e c t i o n de l ' e t e r n e l l e tendance du c a p i t a 1 au p i l l a g e . Un n e o c a p i t a l f i n a n c i e r , a l ' i m a g e du v i e u x c a p i t a l mercan- t i l i s t e , a p p a r a U a nouveau, comme a l ' a u b e du c a p i t a l i s m e : l ' a c c u m u l a t i o n p r i m i t i v e " e s t permanente.

C e t t e s t r a t e g i e a un nom - e t ce n ' e s t pas un hasard - l e " redep lo iement " . A c t i - vement soutenue p a r l a Banque Mondia le, l e FMI e t l e s a u t r e s ins tances de 1 ' o r - g a n i s a t i o n des E t a t s c a p i t a l i s t e s i n d u s t r i a l i s e s , e l l e f a i t passer pour un "nou- v e l o r d r e " l a m u l t i p l i c a t i o n de nouve l les enc laves - l e s "zones f ranches" . E v i - demment c e t t e s t r a t e g i e r e d u i t au minimum 1e r61e de 1 ' E t a t l o c a l , consigne dans l e s f o n c t i o n s d ' u n e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n chargee simplement de l a p o l i c e de l a f o r c e de t r a v a i l e x p l o i t e e . E l l e v i s e a u s s i a d i v i s e r l e T i e r s Monde, non seulement en accen tuan t l ' e c a r t e n t r e pays a " c ro i ssance f o r t e " e t "pays s tagnan ts " , mais encore en m e t t a n t en concurrence e n t r e eux 1es p remie rs .

Ce que l e s pays du T i e r s Monde, t o u t au moins l e groupe moteur parmi l e s non- a l i g n e s , en tenden t p a r nouvel o r d r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s t passablement d i f f e r e n t . La r e v i s i o n de l a d i v i s i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e du t r a v a i l dans 1e sens i n d i q u e e s t censee accompagner e t r e n f o r c e r l a m ise en p l a c e d ' u n e economie n a t i o n a l e , au tocen t ree e t i n d u s t r i e l l e .

Le ren fo rcement de I ' E t a t n a t i o n a l e t l ' i n t e r v e n t i o n a c t i v e de l a p o l i t i q u e d ' E t a t d e v a i e n t g a r a n t i r , dans c e t t e s t r a t e g i e , que 1 ' i n d u s t r i e ne se ra pas c o n s t i t u e e d ' u n i t e s d e s a r t i c u l e e s , mais que des f i l i e r e s e n t i e r e s du processus p r o d u c t i f s e r o n t mis en p lace . Le recoups a l ' i m p o r t a t i o n des e lements de ces chaines i n t e g r e e s ( s e r i e s d ' u s i n e s achetees " c l e s en ma ins " ) i m p l i q u e un n iveau e l e v e d ' e x p o r t a t i o n , t a n t de m a t i e r e s premieres " t r a d i t i o n n e l l e s " que de p r o d u i t s i n d u s t r i e l s nouveaux. Le succes de l a s t r a t e g i e depend done, dans une l a r g e mesure, de l a c a p a c i t e d ' o b t e n i r 1es concessions q u i c o n s t i t u e n t 1e programme du nouvel o r d r e Gconomique i n t e r n a t i o n a l .

L ' o p p o s i t i o n de ces deux " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s " du nouvel o r d r e e s t apparue dans t o u t e s l e s negotiations concernant l a d i v i s i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e i n d u s t r i e l l e du t r a v a i l e t l a " d ~ l o c a l i s a t i o n " . Les p o i n t s deba t tus concernent l a n a t u r e e t l e c h o i x des i m p l a n t a t i o n s , l e degre de d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n des d e c i s i o n s , l e s m o d a l i t e s du f i n a n - cement e t des t r a n s f e r t s , l e s ques t ions de f o r m a t i o n de personnel e t de g e s t i o n , l ' o u v e r t u r e des marches e x t e r i e u r s . Les E t a t s du T i e r s Monde i n s i s t e n t genera le - ment s u r l ' i m p l a n t a t i o n d ' i n d u s t r i e s auss i completes que p o s s i b l e s , connectees

en a v a l e t en amont 1es unes aux au t res , l a d e f i n i t i o n de r e g l e s d ' a c c o r d pe r - m e t t a n t de soumet t re l a g e s t i o n des u n i t e s i n d u s t r i e l l e s aux p o l i t i q u e s indus - t r i e l l e s d l E t a t , 1e c h o i x pour l a g e s t i o n des u n i t e s de cadres nat ionaux, l ' o u - v e r t u r e des reseaux i n t e r n a t i o n a u x de d i s t r i b u t i o n des p r o d u i t s manufactures aux e n t r e p r i s e s d e l o c a l i sees ( 1 ' aba i ssement des b a r r i e r e s p r o t e c t i o n n i s t e s des pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s e t a n t j uge i n s u f f i s a n t pour p e r m e t t r e l a p e n e t r a t i o n s u r ces marches) , 1e s o u t i e n a l a recherche techno log ique n a t i o n a l e , l a r e g l e m e n t a t i o n des m o d a l i t e s de f inancement (pour e v i t e r p a r exemple qu 'en d e f i n i t i v e l a f i l i a l e d 'une t r a n s n a t i o n a l e ne f i n a n c e ses inves t i ssements p a r l ' a p p e l aux moyens ban- c a i r e s locaux sans f a i r e e n t r e r de c a p i t a u x n e u f s ) , l a r e g l e m e n t a t i o n des t r a n s - f e r t s ( p a r t a g e des r i s q u e s , p la fonds de p r o f i t s expor tab les , o b l i g a t i o n s d ' i n - v e s t i r dans 1 'economic n a t i o n a l e une f r a c t i o n de ceux-c i ) , e t c .

Ces "ex igences" o n t t o u j o u r s e t 6 jugees inaccep tab les p a r l e s t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s , i n t e r e s s e e s seulement p a r l a d e l o c a l i s a t i o n p a r t i e l l e p a r l e moyen de f i l i a l e s p ra t iquement c o n t r o l e e s p a r e l l e s . A l a l i m i t e l a n e g o c i a t i o n elle-m@me perd son sens. Or, p rog ress ivement l a m a j o r i t s des E t a t s du T i e r s Monde s ' e s t a l i g n e e de f a i t s u r l a s t r a t e g i c du redeplo iement . Ne s o n t en p o s i t i o n de negoc ie r que l e s E t a t s q u i r e f u s e n t l ' i m p l a n t a t i o n d i r e c t e des f i l i a l e s e t cherchen t ii l u i sub- s t i t u e r 1 ' a c h a t d ' u s i n e s " c l e s en mains" dans l e cadre d ' u n programme g l o b a l d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n .

La s t r a t e g i c de ces E t a t s c o m p t a i t s u r l a p o s s i b i l i t e de m o d i f i e r favo rab lement 1 ' o r d r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o a r des a c t i o n s combinees. c e r t a i n e s u n i l a t e r a l e s . d 'au - t r e s obtenues p a r v o i e de negoc ia t ions c o l l e c t i v e s d ' E t a t s ii E t a t s (Nord-Sud). L 1 i d 6 e e t a i t , on d o i t s ' e n souven i r , d ' o r g a n i s e r des c a r t e l s de p roduc teurs du T i e r s Monde q u i s e r a i e n t parvenus ii imposer des r e v i s i o n s des p r i x des mat ie res premieres. Le c o n t r 6 l e n a t i o n a l des ressources n a t u r e l l e s d e v a i t p e r m e t t r e non seulement d ' a g i r s u r l ' o f f r e , mais auss i e t s u r t o u t de m e t t r e en oeuvre une p o l t i q u e d ' e x p l o i t a t i o n de ces ressources q u i t i e n n e compte des i n t e r e t s nat ionaux a l o n g terme e t me t te un terme aux rythmes d ' e x p l o i t a t i o n commandes e x c l u s i v e - ment p a r l e s besoins du rnonde developpe. Kenforces de l a s o r t e , l e s pays du T i e r s Monde e s p e r a i e n t d i s p o s e r d ' u n b o u v o i r de n e g o c i a t i o n v e r i t a b l e q u i d e v a i t c o n t r a i n d r e 1e Nord ti f a i r e des concessions : o u v e r t u r e de ses marches, code de c o n d u i t e en m a t i e r e de t r a n s f e r t s de techno log ie , e t c . La c o o p e r a t i o n e n t r e pays du T i e r s Monde ( " l ' a u t o n o m i e c o l l e c t i v e " , " c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e " ) s ' i n s c r i - v a i t dans c e t t e p e r s p e c t i v e pour l a r e n f o r c e r .

Le b i l a n des n e g o c i a t i o n s

Or, 1e b i l a n des n e g o c i a t i o n s ouver tes depu is l a c r i s e p e t r o l i e r e de 1973 e t l ' a d o p t i o n de l a c h a r t e du NOEI en 1974 e s t en f a i t n e g a t i f .

Au p r o j e t d ' o r i g i n e de c a r t e l s de p roduc teurs ayan t recouvre l e c o n t r 6 l e de l e u r s ressources n a t u r e l l e s l a n e g o c i a t i o n au s e i n de l a CNUCED a s u b s t i t u 6 un "programme i n t e g r e " p o r t a n t s u r 18 m a t i e r e s premieres e t l ' e t a b l i s s e m e n t d ' u n Fond commun de s t a b i l i s a t i o n . Or, aucune n e g o c i a t i o n pour ces m a t i e r e s premieres n ' a a b o u t i j u s q u ' a p resen t , t a n d i s que 1es o rd res de grandeurs q u i s o n t en d i s c u s s i o n pour l e c a p i t a l du Fonds commun s o n t b i e n en dessous de n iveau r e q u i s pour donner un sens a 1 ' o p e r a t i o n . Chemin f a i s a n t , 1 ' i d e e d ' i n d e x a t i o n des p r i x des m a t i e r e s premieres a e t e evidemment abandonnees. Para1 le lement , des concessions mineures f a i t e s a

c e r t a i n s (conime 1e systeme Stabex en faveut- des s i g n a t a i r e s des convent ions de Lome) pe rmet ten t de r e t a r d e r des concessions p l u s s u b s t a n t i e l l e s au bene f i ce de 1 'ensemble du T i e r s Monde.

A l ' o b j e c t i f que l e s pays du T i e r s Monde s ' s t a i e n t f i x 6 2 Lima - 25; ; de l a p r o - d u c t i o n e t du commerce mondia l des p t - o d u ~ t s manufactures a l ' h o r i z o n 2000 - on a s u b s t i t u e progress ivement un programme douteux de " l i b e r a l i s m e commercial a l ' e c h e l l e mond ia le " accompagnant des d e l o c a l i s a t i o n s p a r t i e l l e s dans l e cadre du redeplo iement des t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s . Mais 12 encore on ne pen t m6me pas d i r e que ce programme s o i t mis en oeuvre ser ieusement , n i p a r l e s t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s e l l e s - inSmes, n i p a r 1es E t a t s i t i d u s t r i a l i s e s ( v o i r l e s rnesures p r o t e c t i o n n i s t e s p r i s e s dans l e domaine des t e x t i l e s pa r exemple).

Dans l e domaine des t r a n s f e r t s f i n a n c i e r s , l a s s e de l ' e c h e c des appor ts e x t e - r i e u r s (on se souviendra q u ' a 1 ' o r i g i n e 1 ' o b j e c t i f e t a i t de t r a n s f e r e r 1% du PNB; que chaque annee on s ' e l o i g n e un pen davantage de c e t o b j e c t i f ; e t que " q u a l i t a t i v e m e n t " l ' a i d e a beaucoup decu) , l e T i e r s Monde e t a i t passe a l ' o f f e n - s i v e en p renan t p o s i t i o n s u r l a re fo rme du systeme rnoneta i re i n t e r n a t i o n a l , e t en proposant a c e t e f f e t l a c r e a t i o n de nouve l les u n i t e s de paiements i r ~ t e r n a - t i o n a l e s basees s u r l e s p r o d u i t s de base e t l ' e l a b o r a t i o n de r e g l e s pe rmet tan t de s o u t e n i r l e s e f f o r t s de developpement en e t a b l i s s a n t un " l i e n " e n t r e '1 'ernis- s i o n de ces l i q u i d i t e s nouve l les e t l e s besoins des pays du T i e r s Monde. I 1 s ' a g i s s a i t sans doute de p r o j e t s u top iques .

Toujours e s t - i l que l ' o f f e n s i v e du T i e r s Monde dans ces d i r e c t i o n s s ' e s t essou f - f l e e . Progress ivement l e c e n t r e de g r a v i t e des p reoccupa t ions s ' e s t deplace v e r s l a q u e s t i o n de l a d e t t e , q u i d i v i s e l e T i e r s Monde. Simultanement, l o r s q u ' u n pays du T i e r s Monde ne p a r v i e n t p l u s a suppor te r 1e po ids de l a d e t t e , l e FMI e t l e s pays c r e a n c i e r s se r e t r o u v e n t pour l u i imposer, a t r a v e r s une v e r i t a b l e mise en t u t e l l e de l a v i c t i m e q u i r a p p e l l e l e s p r o t e c t o r a t s e t a b l i s au XIXe s i e c l e en O r i e n t e t en Amerique l a t i n e , des p o l i t i q u e s q u i sans e x c e p t i o n n i nuance s a c r i f i e n t g lobalement l e developpement a I ' e q u i l i b r e ex te i - i eu r , en f r a p - p a n t p l u s p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t 1es t r a v a i l l e u r s e t 1es couches 1es p l u s d e f a v o r i s e e s , en d e p i t du d i s c o u r s s u r l e s "besoins de base".

Dans 1e domaine des " t r a n s f e r t s de t e c h n o l o g i e " on s a i t que l ' i d e e d ' u n "code de c o c d u i t e " legalement c o n t r a i g n a n t a 6tG r e j e t e p a r l e s p a r t e n a i r e s i n d u s t r i a - l i s e s . Dans d ' a u t r e s domaines, comme l e d r o i t de l a mer p a r exemple, l e s a s p i - r a t i o n s du T i e r s Monde o n t e t e t r a i t e e s avec 1e p l u s grand mepr i s .

On p o u r r a i t a l l o n g e r i n d e f i n i m e n t l a l i s t e des echecs e t des decep t ions . Sirnul- tanement, on p o u r r a i t s ' i n q u i e t e r du ry thme des "themes nouveaux" proposes au ry thme a c c e l e r e de l a mode, 1e p l u s souvent ambigus e t q u i , de ce f a i t , peuvent e t r e soupconnes d ' e t r e des manoeuvres de d i v e r s i o n . "Popu la t ion " , "Environnement", " p r i o r i t e aux beso ins de base", ' b r i o r i t e a 1 'emplo i 'I, " r e d i s t r i b u t i o n du revenu", t e c h n o l o g i e s i n t e r m e d i a i r e s ou appropr iees" , " coopera t ion e n t r e pays en v o i e de developpement", " sc iences e t techno log ies au s e r v i c e du developpement" se succe- d e n t e t se s u b s t i t u e n t a l ' a b s e n c e de changements dans l e monde r e e l des r e l a - t i o n s i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s .

Les causes de l'echec

Au-dela du constat d'echec, i 1 reste a en analyser 1es causes. Sont-elles pure- ment circonstancielles (la crise economique) ? Peuvent-elles etre attribuees aux "erreurs de tactique" du Tiers Monde (divisions et faiblesses de celui-ci) ? Ou bien ces circonstances et ces faiblesses expriment-elles l'impossibilit6 d'un developpement autocentre dans la peripherie du systeme capital iste contem- ~orain ?

Sans doute la crise, que nous croyons etre principalement une crise structurelle de la division internationale du travail (DIT), est-e11e tenace, comme en t6- moigne 1 'echec des politiques conjoncturelles, "classiques" (monetaires) ou neo- keynesiennes. La crise, amorcee des 1e milieu des annees 60 dans le champ des relations interimperialistes par l'effondrement du systeme monetaire de Bretton Woods, est maintenant sortie de ce cadre pour frapper de plein fouet la vie 6conomique et les systemes de production.

11 n'est pas possible de "pr~voir" l'evolution de la crise qui porte en elle des possibilites contradictoires. L'ensemble des luttes qui l'accompagnent peut en effet conduire a une rupture du marche international integre qui a caracterise - avec llheg@monie des Etats-Unis - le systeme mondial du dernier quart de siecle.

Les ruptures dans le systeme monetaire international, 1es mesures protection- nistes - meme limitees -, 1e renouvellement de "preferences imperiales" se substituant au "liberalisme sans rivages" (par exemple les accords de Lome entre 1'Europe et 1es pays de llA.C.P.), rappellent que des "repliements imperiaux" analogues a ceux qui ont suivi la crise des annees 30 ne sont pas impossibles. 11 va sans dire que la repetition d'un krach financier global pourrait declan- cher une evolution de ce genre. Or, la base pour un krach de ce genre n'existe- t-elle pas dans l'endettement des Etats du Tiers Monde et de 1'Est ?

Force est cependant de constater que, dans l'immediat, les reactions des centres capitalistes vont en sens inverse. Le realignement des imperialismes seconds sur l'imperialisme americain hegemonique est une realit6 dont temoignent de nombreux faits : les efforts conjugues deployes pour maintenir un systeme de paiements multilateraux fonde de facto sur le dollar (en depit des progres de la coordination monetaire europeenne - le Fonds Honetaire Europeen pouvant devenir une piece d'un ensemble preservant l'hegemonie des Etats-Unis), le choix europeen lui-meme qui, avec les "stabilisations" en France, au Portugal, en Espagne et en Grece, renforce l'hegemonie allemande, jusqu'ici courroie de transmission de celle des Etats-Unis. Le mouvement ouvrier lui-m6me ne tend-il pas 2 placer l'accent sur la stabilite monetaire, fit-ce au detriment de l'emploi et de l'unite de la classe ouvriere (en sacrifiant les interets de la fraction des travailleurs "non-integres" - emigres, jeunes, femmes - frappes davantage par 1e chomage, a ceux de 1 "'aristocratie ouvri?2re" qui ne souffre que de 1 'infla- tion ? Cette tendance ne renforce-t-elle pas le realignement ? Evidemment i 1 reste a savoir si le realignement actuel est durable, c'est-2-dire si le marche mondial a la capacite de resister tant au plan politique qu'6conomique a une crise longue.

Or, i 1 faut replacer 1e refus de concessions au Tiers Monde dans ce cadre.

Les tendances e f f e c t i v e s q u i operen t dans l e champ de l a d e l o c a l i s a t i o n d o i v e n t 6 t r e analysees dans ce cadre, en r a p p o r t e t r o i t avec l a q u e s t i o n de l a c i r c u - l a t i o n mond ia le du c a p i t a l ( e t done de l a d e t t e ) .

En e f f e t , l a p e r i o d e a c t u e l l e e s t c a r a c t e r i s e e p a r une grande abondance de c a p i - taux d i s p o n i b l e s pour des r a i s o n s m u l t i p l e s : r a l e n t i s s e m e n t de l a c r o i s s a n c e e t des inves t i ssements dans de nombreux sec teu rs (en p a r t i c u l i e r dans l e s zones non monopol isees de 1 '6conomie) p a r a l l e l s au m a i n t i e n de p r o f i t s e leves dans l e s e c t e u r des monopoles, d 'oU l ' e x c e d e n t des l i q u i d i t e s des t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s ; emis- s i o n i n f l a t i o n n i s t e dans l e s pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s ; r e c y c l a g e des fonds p e t r o l i e r s , e t c . O r , l e s t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s i n d u s t r i e l l e s e t f i n a n c i e r e s son t en p o s i t i o n p r i - v i l i g i e e pour f a i r e c i r c u l e r ces c a p i t a u x a l ' e c h e l l e mondia le, au mepr is , s ' i l l e f a u t , des p o l i t i q u e s d l E t a t . A l a f o i s cause e t e f f e t des f l u c t u a t i o n s spe- c u l a t i v e ~ des changes, ces l i q u i d i t e s o n t largement t r o u v e l e u r v o i e dans l e placement aupres des E t a t s , de 1 ' E s t e t du Sud.

I 1 f a u t i c i d i s t i n g u e r l ' e n d e i t e m e n t des pays de 1 ' E s t de c e l u i des 6 t a t s du T i e r s blonde. En e f f e t , l e s c a p i t a u x p r e t e s aux pays de 1 ' E s t , m6me s ' i l s p ro - v i e n n e n t de c o n s o r t i a p r i v e s avec l ' a v a l des gouvernements, c o n t r i b u e n t c e r t a i - nement a l ' a c c e l e r a t i o n de l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n de ces pays e t i n v i t e n t a r e - i n t e g r e r c e t t e i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n dans 1es @changes mondiaux (ne s e r a i t - c e que pour a s s u r e r l e s e r v i c e de l a d e t t e ) . Par con t re , dans l e s pays du T i e r s Monde, c ' e s t seulement une f r a c t i o n mineure de c e t endet tement q u i s o u t i e n t d i r e c t e m e n t l ' i n d u s t r i e . En f a i t , l e s e x p o r t a t i o n s i n d u s t r i e l l e s du Sud o n t t r e s peu p r o - gresse - 2 I ' e x c e p t i o n de c e l l e s de q u a t r e pays : l a Coree du Sud, TaTwan, Singapour , Hong Kong. La majeure f r a c t i o n de l ' e n d e t t e m e n t , en provenance i c i auss i de c o n s o r t i a p r i v e s , e s t employee a payer l e s i m p o r t a t i o n s couran tes e t a s o u t e n i r l e s a p p a r e i l s d ' E t a t en d i f f i c u l t e .

Sans dou te d e v r a i t - o n nuancer c e t t e o p p o s i t i o n . Apres t o u t I ' a c c e s des pays de 1 ' E s t au march6 f i n a n c i e r o c c i d e n t a l a l l e g e l a p o n c t i o n q u ' i l s operen t s u r l e u r revenu au p r o f i t des depenses m i l i t a i r e s . I 1 r e s t s que p a r l e u r n a t u r e p o l i t i q u e l e s systemes a 1 ' E s t e t au Sud s o n t t r o p d i f f e r e n t s pour que T o n p u i s s e n e g l i - g e r de v o i r que l e s e f f e t s de l ' e n d e t t e m e n t e x t e r i e u r n ' y s o n t pas analogues.

Do i t -on se poser l a q u e s t i o n r e l a t i v e a c e t t e " resurgence du c a p i t a l f i n a n c i e r " ? C e l l e - c i d o i t - e l l e condu i re quand m6me f i n a l e m e n t a l ' a c c e l e r a t i o n de l ' i n d u s - t r i a l i s a t i o n du T i e r s Monde, l ' i n v e s t i s s e m e n t dans l e s i n d u s t r i e s d ' e x p o r t a t i o n e t a n t seulement r e t a r d 6 p a r l a c o n j o n c t u r e ? Ou b i e n c e t t e d e t t e demeurera un po ids mor t , dont 1e s e r v i c e a p p a r a i t r a , comrne ce f u t 1e cas au XIXe s i e c l e , comme une p o n c t i o n p a r a s i t a i r e supp lementa i re s u r 1e revenu ? Dans ce cas, 1e systems a p p a r a i t dans t o u t e sa v u l n 6 r a b i l i t e : fond6 s u r une s e r i e d ' e q u i l i b r e s f r a g i l e s r e s u l t a n t de l a c o n t r a d i c t i o n e n t r e l a m o b i l i t e des c a p i t a u x d ' u n e p a r t e t l e u r i m m o b i l i s a t i o n dans des emplo is non l i q u i d e s de f a c t o d ' a u t r e p a r t . La p e r s p e c t i v e d ' u n k rach f i n a n c i e r ne p e u t a l o r s e t r e exc lue .

Les developpements q u i p receden t i n v i t e n t a r e f l e c h i r s u r l e s m o d i f i c a t i o n s r e e l l e s en cours dans l e s r e l a t i o n s i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s , economiques e t p o l i t i q u e s

Une s t a t i s t i q u e s i g n i f i c a t i v e : e n t r e 1974 e t 1978, t a n d i s que l a p r o d u c t i o n d ' a c i e r dans l ' ensemb le des pays c a p i t a l i s t e s i n d u s t r i a l i s e s d i m i n u a i t de 36 m i l l i o n s de tonnes, e l l e augmenta i t du m6me volume dans 1es a u t r e s r e g i o n s du

monde, principalement grace a l'accroissement de la production des pays de 1'Est (URSS, Pologne, Roumanie, Tch~coslovaquie) et de la Chine, et seulement dans une mesure accessoire par celle du Tiers Monde (et pratiquement cette contribution se limite a 5 pays : le Bresil. le Mexique, 1 'Inde, la Coree du Sud et TaTwan). Telle est la realite : si les rapports economiques se modifient a l'echelle mondiale, c'est entt-e 1 'Quest, 1 'Est et la Chine, non dans le champ des relations Nord-Sud.

Le d6veloppement de 1'Est et de la Chine s'accompagne-t-il de leur volonte de r6integrer la division international? du travail, comme i 1 1e semble ? Et a quelles conditions ? Les monopoles, qui dominent les societes de 1'Ouest et du Sud vont-ils etendre leur domination 2 1'Est et a la Chine, comme certains le proclament ? Le systeme capit.aliste va-t-il devenir a nouveau veritablement mondial, apres avoir ete un temps menace par des constructions socialistes au- tarciques ?

Perspective historique

Les defenseurs de la strategic du NOEI donnent des reponses positives rapides aux questions qui precedent. 11s en tirent argument pour pretendre que la construction d'une economie riationale autocentree et la participation a la division internationale du travail ne sont pas incompatibles. Si I'URSS et m6me la Chine, en depit de la nature non capitalists de teur economie, aspirent a s'integrer dans les echanges mondiaux et m6me 2 traiter avec les transnationales, les Etats du Tiers Monde qui n'ont pas les avantages de ces pays-continents peuvent-ils envisager Line autarcie absurde qui les conaamnerait irr6mediablement a la stagnation ?

Qu'il soit possible de concilier l'integration au systsme mondial et une strate- gie de developpement national, le NOEI devait le demontrer puisque la division internationale du travail devait s'ajuster aux exigences J'J developpement national des pays du Tiers Monde.

Les annees 1970-75, par une conjoncture favorable ont donne l'impression que ce projet etait viable. N'oublions pas en effet la serie de victoires politiques du Tiers Monde durant ces annees : la guerre d'octobre 1973 et la perspective d'un recul du sionisme, l'independance des colonies portugaises en 1974, la victoire des peuples du Vietnam et du Cambodge en 1975, la montee des luttes au Zimbabwe, en Namibie et en Afrique du Sud, la revolution paysanne en Ethiopie, 1es mouvements populaires du Benin et de Madagascar. En Europe du Sud meme, la dSstabilisation paraissait menacer 1e syst@me, en Italie, en France (oCi l'union de la gauche semble pouvoit- l'emporter), en Grece, au Portugal et en Esoagne avec la fin des dictatures. Tous ces evenements se situent dans 1e temps court de quelques annees. Leur simultaneite avec la crise economique se traduit par un "vent de panique" : l'hegemonie americaine paraU definitivement passee; on parle d'un eclatement de 1'Europe. C'est dans cette ambiance qtie le groupe des non-alignes, preside par 1e President Boumedi2ne, definit la plateforme da NOEI.

L'experience historique du developpement ne plaidait-elle pas neanmoins contre 1es theses du NOEJ ? L'experience historique des pays capitalistes industria'ii- s6s n'enseigne-t-elle pas que l'industrialisation et la iin'se en place d'une economie nationale ont toujours 6tC r6alisees en niatit la divis?on internationale

du t r a v a i l , c ' e s t - 2 - - d i r e en c e s s a n t de s ' y i n i c r i r e pass i vemen t cor~f i rmfc i i ien t ai-> "avantages c o m p a r a t i f s " du moment ? C ' e s t d 1 a ; 1 l e u r s p o u r q u o i l a c o n s t r u c t i o n d ' u n e economic n a t i o n a l e a t o u j o u r s i m p l i q u e une p o l i t i q i i e d ' E t a t . L ' E t a t - N a t i o r . de l a b o u r g e o i s i e au XIXe s i e c l e , de l a F rance r e p u b l i c a i n e a l l A1 ien iagne e t an Japon i m p e r i a u x , a e t 5 l ' i n s t r u m e n t i n d i s p e n s a b l e de c e t t e c o n s t r ~ c t i o n . E t , s i c e l l e - c i n ' a pas e t @ r e a l i s e e dans I ' a u t a r c i e , i l n ' e n demeurc pas que 1es r e l o - t i o n s e x t e r i e i i r e s o n t e t e soumises aux ex igences de l a c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t e r n e . Souvent d ' a i l l e u r s ces r e l a t i o n s e x t e r i e u r e s , axees s u r l ' e x p l o i t a t i o n des p r r i - p h e r i e s , o n t t o u t s imp lemen t a c c e l e r e 1es r y t h n ~ e s de l ' a c c u m u l a t i o n i n t e r n e ( c ' e t a i t 1e cas , notamment de 1 ' A n g l e t e r r e e t de l a F r a n c e ) . Pour l e s pays venus p l u s t a r d , ma i s a v a n t l a p e r i o d e i m p e r i a l i s t e - A l l e n a q n c . I t a l i e , E t a t s - U n i s , Japon, A u t r i c n e - H o n q r i e e t R u s s i e -, l a c o n s t r u c t i o n a u t o c e n t r e e a t o u j o u r s i r n p l i q u e l e p r o t e c t i o n n i s m e , I e f i nancemen t p a r 1 ' E t a t des i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s , m e p o l i t i q u e d ' E t a t d ' o r g a n i s a t i o n du sys t6me f i n a n c i e r e t m o n e t a i r e , une p o l i i i q u e d ' C t a t de t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a q r a i r e s v i s a n t a p r o n o u v o i r 1e p r o q r e s de l ' a g r i c u l - t u r e e t l ' a u t o s u f f i s a n c e a l i m e n t a i r e , e t c . B i e n que ces deve lcppen 'ents n a t i o n a u x ne se s o i e n t pas i n s c r i t s dans un c a d r e a u t a r c i q u e , i 1 i f n p o r t e de s i q n a l s r clue l e s r e l a t i o n s e x t e r i e u r e s e t a i e n t t o u j o u r s soumises a l a l o g iqi-ie de 1 'accumi t ia - t i o n i n t e r n e e t a ses e x i g e n c e s e t non l ' i n v e r s e , c o m e i 1 i m p o r t e de s o u i i g n c r que t o u t s s ces e x p e r i e n c e s , 1e <apon d e r n i e r en d a t e , s o n t d r i t e r i e u r e s d l a c o n s t i t u t i o n d ' ~ systeme i m p e r i a l i s t s .

L ' e x p e r i e n c e h i s t o r i q u e des pays a y a n t rompu avec I e c a p i t a l i s m e e s t enco re p l u s e v i d e n t e . I'ion seu le t i ien t 1'URSS e t l a Ch ine o n t ope re des t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s s o c i a - l e s e t economiques i ondamen ta les , mais enco re e l l e s 1 ' o n t f a i t dans I ' a u t a r c i e , une c o n t r a i n t e d ' a i l l e u r s imposGe p a r 1e monde c a p i t a l i s t e . ^ w e l e s p c - t i t s pays d? l a E u r o p e de 1 ' E s t o u t t r a v e r s e une p e r i o d e p r a t i q u e m e n t a u t a r c i q u e , a I ' e p o r l u e des p l a n s s t a l i n i e n s des annees 50, au c o u r s de l a q i i e l l e l ' e s s e n t i e l d ' u n e s t r u c - t u r e economique n a t i o n a l e a e t e m is en p l a c e . Sans d o u t e a u j o u r d ' l i u i ces pays p a r a i s s e n t - i l s s o u h a i t e r s ' i n t e ~ r e r davan taqe dans l e s @changes monaiaux.

Pour c e r t a i n s , c ' e s t I d l ' a v e u de l e u r f a i l l i t c : echec de l ' a g r i c u l t u r e s o i / i e - t i q u e , gchec d ' u n e t e n t a t i v e d ' i n d u s t r i a i i s a t i o n " o r i g i n a l e " de l a Ch ine . Ce ra isor inement e s t c o u r t . 11 passe sous s i l e n c e 1e F a i t e i s e n t i e l que, q u e l l e que s n i t l a n a t u r e des r a p p o r t s de p r o d u c t i o n q u i c a r a c t e r i s e n t ces s o c i e t e s - s o c i a - l i s t e s on :)on -, une economie n a t i o n a l e a u t o c e n t r e e y a e t ? m i s e en p l a c e .

Dans ces c o n d i t i o n s ces pays ne se p r e s e n t e n t pas s u r i e "marche m o n d i a l " en p o s i t i o n de f a i b l e s s e , l o i n de l a . Q u e l l e s que s o i e n t ses f a i b l e s s e s 1'URSS d i s - pose de nombreux a t o u t s : r e s s o u r c e s r i a t u r e l l e s , c o n t r o l ? e t a t i q u e de l a p roduc - t i o n , c a p a c i t e du sys teme p o l i t i q u e de p r o l o n g e r l ' i s o l e m e n t r e l a t i f du pay;, e n i i n ( e t 1 ' a v a n t b q e n ' e s t pas de m o i n d r e i m p o r t a n c e ) pu i ssance m i l i t a i r e p l a n e - t a i r e . Q u a n t a l a Ch ine, i 1 n ' e s t pas d i t q u ' e l l e s o i t p r e t e a a c c e p t e r de passet sous I n s f o u r c h e s caud ines des monopoles, co,ni~ie u n v u l g a i r e pays " sous -dsve l oppe " ; e11e e n t e n d r a sans d o u t e c o n s e r v e r 'la n ~ a i t r i s t ' t o t a l e de ses r e l a t i o n s e x t e r i e u r e s .

Sans d o u t e l e s r e l a t i o n s au s e i n du "camp s o c i a l i s t e " o n t - e l l e s chang f r a d i c a l e - men t . L ' U n i o n s o v i e t i q u e a en e - f e t c h o i s i de t e n t e r d ' e m p S c h w p a r t o u s l e s moyens l a m o d e r n i s a t i o n e t l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n de l a Ch ine e t , ce , a n o t r e a v i s , q u e l que s o i t l a n a t u r e du sys teme p o l i t i q u e e t s o c i a l de c e pays q u i , p a r sa s e u i e t a i l l e s ' i i n p o s e r a i t cornme u n p a r t e n a i r e @ g a l r e n i e t t a n t en q u e s t i o n 1e ~ a r t a g e i l u t t e a l 1 6 c h e l l e p l a n e t a i r e , e n t r e l e s deux supe rpu i ssances a c t u e l l e s ( e t c ' e s t p o u r q u o i ,

a notre avis, toutes les tendances chinoises - de "droite" ou de "gauche" - seront necessairement anti-russes).

Ce changement qui a consacre l'eclatement de l'ancien "systeme socialiste" agit aussi dans le sens d'une reintegration par la Chine du systeme des echanges economiques avec 1'Ouest. Mais i1 en est de meme, bien qu'a un degre moindre, en Europe orientale. Au sein du Comecom, 1'URSS ne tente-t-elle pas d'imposer une specialisation que certains membres jugent contraire a leur interet national ? La Roumanie, comme la Yougoslavie et 1'Albanie dans des circonstances differentes, mais egalement la Hongrie et la Pologne, cherchent a preserver et a developper des structures industrielles nationales autocentrees rnenacees a des degres divers. Cependant, le contrepoids que ces pays peuvent chercher a trouver en accentuant leurs @changes avec 1'Ouest ne jouera-t-il aussi cornme un facteur supplementaire pas en faveur d'une "r6unificationU du march6 mondial ?

Une these qui extrapole jusqu'au bout ces tendances pretend que l'avenir verra ainsi ]'unite du marche mondial retablie. Ainsi dessine-t-on une large fresque historique presentant l'aspect d'un mouvement oscillatoire. L'unite du marche mondial, constituee au XIXe dans le cadre de l'h@gemonie britannique (@talon sterling), menacee a partir de la fin du siecle par la montee des imperialistes rivaux, maintenue tant bien que ma1 jusqu'en 1914, a cesse d'exister pendant la guerre germano-americaine de 30 ans pour la succession britannique" (1914-45), pour etre retablie dans l'apres seconde guerre mondiale dans le cadre de l'hegemonie des Etats-Unis. Menace un temps par la montee des pays de l'Est, ce marche serait neanmoins en voie de reconstitution. Cette fois le temps de l'oscillation serait plus rapide, parce que la distance qui separe 1es pays de 1 'Est et la Chine de 1'Occident ne leur permettrait pas de "jouer seuls", surtout dans la desunion. Ajoutons enfin que l'attitude des pays de 1'Est a l'egard de ceux du Sud temoigne de la priorit6 donnee par les premiers au maintien d'un reseau d'echanges mondiaux multilateraux.

Cependant, la perspective que les monopoles sont en voie d'etendre leur domination aux economies "socialistes" reste a demontrer. On reviendra plus loin sur cette question.

Toujours est-il que la situation des pays du Tiers Monde est tres differente de celle des pays dits socialistes. Les economies du Tiers flonde ont 6te faconnees comme telles, c'est-a-dire dependantes par leur subordination a une division internationale du travail inegale, a 1'6poque imperialiste.

Le mouvement de liberation nationale serait-i1 en mesure de transformer cette relation de dependance et de contraindre 1e systeme mondial 2 s'ajuster a un developpement national autocentre de la peripherie ? Dans ce cas l'imperialisme n'aurait ete qu'une @tape dans l'expansion du capitalisme a l'echelle mondiale non 1e stade supreme de celui-ci, mais simplement un stade intermediaire, assu- rant le passage d'un systeme caracterise par son assymetrie centre/p@ripherie a un systeme global homogene de domination des rapports capitalistes.

Si aujourd'hui le "groupe des 77" apparait sur la scene internationale comme un syndicat de revendications economiques", on ne saurait oublier que la solidarite politique effective des peuples d'Asie et dlAfrique a precede 1e groupement de defense economique. Cette solidarite, d'abord arabo-asiatique, puis etendue a

t o u t e 1 ' A f r i q u e pour d e v e n i r a f r o - a s i a t i q u e , e t a i t c e l l e des E t a t s a y a n t a r rache l e u r independence e t des mouvements encore en l u t t e pour c e l l e - c i , dans l e s annees 1950 e t 60. E11e n ' a jamais englobe 1 'Amer ique l a t i n e , sans dou te p a r c e que 1e probleme de l ' i ndependance ne s ' y p o s a i t pas, mais auss i peu t -Gt re pa rce que ce c o n t i n e n t a p p a r t i e n t 2 l ' a i r e c u l t u r e l l e europeenne. O r , l e mouvement de l i b @ - r a t i o n r e v e t a i t e t r e v e t une d imension c u l t u r e l l e - non europeenne. De s u r c r o i t , l a s o l i d a r i t e p o l i t i q u e a f r o - a s i a t i q u e s ' e s t deployee dans une p e r i o d e c a r a c t @ - r i s e e p a r l 'hegemonie des E ta ts -Un is e t 1e conf inement de 1'URSS. C e l l e - c i , d o n t l ' e g a l i t e de puissance m i l i t a i r e n ' e t a i t pas encore e t a b l i e , e t a i t s u r l a defen- s i v e . Le "non-a l ignement" e t l e " n e u t r a l i s m e p o s i t i f " des o r i g i n e s se s i t u a i e n t dans l e r e f u s des pays nouvel lement independants d ' e n t r e r dans l e s a l l i a n c e s a n t i s o v i e t i q u e s de l a guer re f r o i d e .

Toutes ces c o n d i t i o n s o n t change. Le mouvement de l i b e r a t i o n n a t i o n a l e bourgeo is a a r rache l ' i ndependance ; l e systeme i m p e r i a l i s t e s ' e s t a j u s t e a une n o u v e l l e a l l i a n c e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e des c lasses q u i accompagne une n o u v e l l e d i v i s i o n i n t e r - n a t i o n a l s i n e g a l e du t r a v a i l ( D I T ) ; l a g u e r r e f r o i d e a cede l a p l a c e a l a co- e x i s t e n c e ; 1 'Un ion S o v i e t i q u e s ' a f f i r m e au p l a n m i l i t a i r e a e g a l i t e avec l e s E ta ts -Un is ; l e s deux superpuissances a f f i r m e n t l ' u n e e t l ' a u t r e des o b j e c t i f s p l a n e t a i r e s .

Les bourgeo is ies du T i e r s Monde s o n t - e l l e s capables, dans ces c o n d i t i o n s , de f a i r e f r a n c h i r a l e u r pays une n o u v e l l e e tape : apres l ' i ndependance p o l i t i q u e , peuven t -e l l es c o n q u e r i r l ' i ndependance economique ? La c o n j o n c t u r e des annees 1970-75 s e m b l a i t l e f a i r e c r o i r e . Les annees su ivan tes o n t demontre l a f a i - b l e s s e du p r o j e t . L ' O c c i d e n t s ' e s t r e s s a i s i e t r e u n i f i e , l e f r o n t du T i e r s Monde s ' e s t e f f r i t e ; e t l e T i e r s Nonde, ayan t perdu son autonomie, e s t devenu l e t e r - r a i n d ' e n j e u x e n t r e l e s deux superpuissances. Cependant, 11 a p p a r a i t que l a q u e s t i o n de l a l i b e r a t i o n n a t i o n a l e e s t l o i n d ' e t r e r e g l e e , c o n t r a i r e m e n t 2 c e r t a i n e s o p i n i o n s . L ' impasse du NOEI e t l ' i m p o t e n c e de l a b o u r g e o i s i e s o n t a pe ine demontres que, au rythme o!3 va l ' h i s t o i r e de nos j o u r s , l e s f o r c e s popu- l a i r e s du T i e r s Vlonde p a r t e n t a nouveau 2 l ' a s s a u t , comme en temoignent l e s evenements de 1 ' I r a n .

S ' i 1 ne p a r a i t pas p o s s i b l e d ' e v a c u e r l a necessi t i? au moins d ' u n passage p a r l e r e t r a i t de l a DIT, f u t - i l a u t a r c i q u e , i 1 e s t b i e n e v i d e n t que c e t t e c o n d i t i o n necessa i re n ' e s t jamais s u f f i s a n t e . La Bi rmanie, b i e n q u ' e l l e se s o i t r e p l i e e s u r elle-meme dans une quas i a u t a r c i e , e s t s tagnante, f a u t e de bouleversements dans l e s r a p p o r t s soc iaux de p r o d u c t i o n . Quant aux exper iences " s o c i a l i s t e s " du T i e r s Monde q u i o n t capot6, l a cause de 1'Gchec n ' e n e s t nu l l ement que l e s pays en q u e s t i o n se s e r a i e n t r e t i r e s du systeme mondia l , mais p l u s banalement auss i que l e s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s dans l e s r a p p o r t s soc iaux y o n t 6 t e l i m i t e s .

& -de la du NOEI

Apres l e NOEI, ou va 1e T i e r s Monde ? Va- t - i 1 progress ivement se soumet t re au programme de redep lo iement des monopoles q u i , au-dela de l a c r i s e a c t u e l l e , f i n i r a p a r imposer une n o u v e l l e d i v i s i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e du t r a v a i l ? Ou b i e n l e s E t a t s du T i e r s Monde p a r v i e n d r o n t f i n a l e m e n t 2 f r a n c h i r une n o u v e l l e @tape du d6veloppement c a p i t a l i s t e en imposant l e u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n a l a DIT s u r un p l a n moins i n e g a l , p rog ressan t de l a dependance a 1 ' i n te rdependance ? Ou encore, l e s bourgeo is ies du T i e r s Monde echouant a l e f a i r e , une n o u v e l l e vague de r e v o l t e s p o p u l a i r e s amenera a nouveau l e s peuples du T i e r s Monde a occuper 1e devant de l a scene ?

La these l a p l u s repandue e s t c e l l e cue l e s monopoles f i n i r o n t p a r imposer l e u r s s t r a t e g i e s de redep lo iement . Les t e n t e u r s de l a m ise en oeuvre p r o v i e n d t - a i t p r i n - c ipa lement des ~ i ~ c o n s t a n c e s de l a c r i s e . Au terine de 25 ans de c ro i ssonce f o r t e l e s c lasses o u v r i e r e s de I t O c c i d e n t se r e t r o u v e n t f a i b l e s p c l i t i q u e m e n t (ayan t renonce a Teur p r o j e t de s o c i e t e p r o p r e ) , mais f o r t e s economiquement ( a cause des e f f e t s ou p l e i n emploi de l a p e r i o d e ) . Ce s o n t ces c lasses o ! i v r ie res q u i s 'opposen t au redep lo i sment , q u i a g g r a v e r a i t l e ch6mage au c e n t r e . Les monopoles d o i v e n t d ' a b o r d l e s v a i n c r e , pour m e t t r e en oeuvre e n s u i t e l e u r s t r a t e g i e . C e t t e analyse c o r ~ t i e i i t ce r ta inement une p a r t de i e r i t e . De s u r c t - o i t , l ' i s s u e de ces l u t t e s du c e n t r e e s t , pour 1e moment, encore i n c e r t a i n e . Mais, q u e l l e que s o i t c e t t e i s s u e , l a l u t t ? des c lasses au c e n t r e o c c u p e - t - e l l e l e devant de l a scene a l ' e c h e l l e de l ' e v o l u t i o n mondia le ? Force e s t de c o n s t a t e r que, depu is l ' i m p e - r i a l i s m e , c e t t e l u t t e s ' e n t r e c r o i s e avc-: c s l l e c o n d u i t e pa r 1es peuples de l a p e r i p h e r i e , qu i a en d e f i n i t i v e module l ' e v o l u t i o n a l ' e c h e l l e mondia le d 'une marl iere p l u s marquee.

La s t r a t e g i e de redeplo iement e s t d e j a a l ' o e u v r e en A s i e o r i e r t t a l e (Coree du Sud, TaTwan, Hong-Kong e t S ingapour) a une 6 c h e l l o q u i a donne des r e s u l t a t s t a n g i b l e s , in lassablernent montres en exemple p a r 1es i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t e r n a t i o r i a l e s comme l a Banque Mondia le.

La these l a p l u s f a v o r a b l e aux monopoles met en avan t l e s e f f e t s de cro issance f o r t e de l a s t r a t e g i c du redep lo iement . La reponse r e s t e r a que 1e developpement ne peu t r e s u l t e r d ' i m p l a n t a t i o n s d @ l o c a l i s e e s en desord re e t non a r t i c u l e e s dans des ensembles i n t e y r e e s na t iona lement . D ' a i l l e u r s l a c ro i ssa r i ce i n d u i t e en ques- t i o n e s t necessai rement i n e g a l e a l ' e x t r e m e dans sa d i s t r i b u t i o n , accentuant p a r 15 meme des d i s t o r s i o n s fondamentales dans l ' o r i e n t a t i o n u l t e r i e u r e du developpement. L ' I r a n ne t e m o i g n e - t - i l pas du c a r a c t e r e e x p l o s i f de ce mode de d6veloppement ?

La these " o f f i c i e u s e " des defenseurs locaux de c e t t e s t r a t e g i e dans l e s pays de 1 ' A s i e o r i e n t a l e , notamment en Coree, e s t que l ' a r t i c u l a t i o n en q u e s t i o n e s t c o n s t r u i t e progress ivement p a r une p o l i t i q u e d ' E t a t systemat ique. La s o u s - t r a i - tance au b e n e f i c e de nornbreuses p e t i t e s e t moyennes e n t r e p r i s e s l o c a l e s e s t o r - ganisee, soutenue p a r l r E t a t ; l a re fo rms a g r a i r e e t l a " r e v o l u t i o n v e r t e " ouv ren t des p e r s p e c t i v e s d ' a u t o s u f f i n a n c e a l i m e n t a i r e ; a i n s i progress ivement l e s f i l i a l e s des monopoles son t " e n c e r c l ~ e s " . On ne cache pas que c e t "encerc lement" e s t f a c i - l i t 6 p a r l ' i d e o l o g i e confuceenne de f u s i o n de 1 ' E t a t e t de l ' economie . On l a i s s e entendre ma l i c ieusement que l a Coree uu Nord opere de l a meme inaniere, l e s co- o p e r a t i v e s e t l e s p e t i t e s u n i t e s " s o c i a l i s t e s " s ' a r t i c u l a n t su r l e s grandes u n i - t e s d ' E t a t creees s u r l a base de l ' a i d e e t de l a t e c h n o l o g i e s o v i e t i q u e s . S ' a g i t - i 1 d 'une i l l u s i o n ou b i e n y a - t - i T l a embryon d 'une excep t ion , q u ' i l f a u d r a i t e x p l i q u e r p a r l ' i d e o l o g i e confuceenne ? La q u e s t i o n p r 6 a l a b l e a l a q u e l l e i 1 f a u t repondre e s t evidemment de s a v o i r q u i f i n a n c e q u i : e s t - c e l ' economie n a t i o n a l e q u i f i nance 1 ' a c c u m u l a t i o n des u n i t e s monopo l i s t i ques ou l ' i n v e r s e ? Toute l a p rob lemat ique de 1 'echange , i n e g a l s ' i n s c r i t i c i .

Cependant, l e s E t a t s moteurs du T i e r s Monde n ' o n t pas renonce a l e u r s o b j e c t i f s , au moins au p l a n n a t i o n a l quand b i e n meme l a p o s s i b i l i t e d ' u n " f r o n t commun" imposant une r e v i s i o n g l o b a l e de l a DIT s ' a v e r e r a i t p l u s d i f f i c i l e q u ' i l ne 1e s e m b l a i t .

Le premier de ces ob jec t i f s e s t l e relevement subs tant ie l des pr ix des matieres premieres, c ' e s t - a - d i r e l a captation des rentes miniere e t fonciere . E n e f f e t , i1 semble que jusqu'a notre epoque, l e capi ta l a beneficie d 'un acces quasi l i b r e aux ressources nature l les e t ce a l ' e c h e l l e p laneta i re . Cela para'it evident pour l e s ressources minieres, mais c ' e s t aussi l e cas chaque f o i s que dans 1 ' ag r i cu l tu re d 'expor ta t ion , 1 'absence d'une forme s t ruc tu ree de l a propriete fonciere non paysanne a permis au capi ta l d'echapper a l a ponction de l a rente fonciere absolue. Nous avons developpe sur ces points l a these que l a const i - tu t ion e t l e renforcement d 'une bourgeoisie i n d u s t r i e l l e dans l e Tiers Monde c o n s t i t u a i t l a condition de l a captation a son p r o f i t de ces r en t e s . I1 r e s t e que jusqu'a present seuls 1es pays pe t ro l i e r s sont parvenus 5 ce r e s u l t a t . Or, on ne peut ignorer que leur ac t ion en 1973 e t 1974 convergeait avec l e s ob jec t i f s des t ransnat ionales du pet ro le e t des Etats-Unis (soucieux, semble- t - i l , a l 'epoque, de mettre a l a raison 1'Europe e t l e Japon pour l eu r imposer I e realignement). Doit-on en conclure que l e s bourgeoisies du Tiers Monde sont t rop f a ib l e s pour a g i r s i e l l e s ne peuvent exp lo i t e r des contradic t ions interimpe- r i a l i s t e s ?

Le proje t du NOEI v i s a i t precisement 2 renforcer par l eu r f r o n t commun l e s Eta ts du Tiers Monde vis-a-vis des cent res du systeme. On pensait a l o r s que c e t i n t e - r6.t commun l ' empor t e ra i t sur 1es divergences r e e l l e s d ' inter6t .s immediats. Par exemple, l e s pays candidats 2 l ' expor t a t i on i n d u s t r i e l l e l e s mieux places ont i n t e r s t 2 ce que l e s pr ix des matieres premieres, dont i l s sont plus importa- teurs qu'exportateurs r e s t en t bas. Mais comme ce r t a in s pays d lAsie e t d1Amerique l a t i n e aura ient besoin pour penetrer s u r l e s marches des pays developpes du soutien (moral ? ) de l a c o l l e c t i v i t e du Tiers Monde, on concevait qu'en contre- p a r t i e , i l s sout iendra ient ( toujours moralement ? ) l e s demandes des pays quasi exclusivement exportateurs de matieres premieres ( l lAf r ique en t r e a u t r e s ) . Apres t ou t en dep i t d 'une divergence d ' i n t e r e t s immediats, 1e soutien de 1 'ensemble des 77 a 1'OPEP re s t e e n t i e r . De meme, l e s i n t e r e t s divergents en ce qui concerne l a d e t t e ex t e r i eu re , puisque l e s pays l e s plus " r iches" - ceux dont la croissance e s t f o r t e ou dont l e potent ie l e s t grand - sont aussi ceux qui peuvent s ' e n d e t t e r l e plus aisement sans cra indre - a raison ou a tord - l a ' f a i l l i t e " e t l a mise en t u t e l l e qui menace reellement 1es au t r e s .

A defaut d ' ac t ions communes f o r t e s menees dans l e domains des r e l a t i ons Sud-Nord, l e s Eta ts du Sud peuvent-i ls envisager de s e renforcer par l a mise en oeuvre d 'une s t r a t e g i c de cooperation i n t r a Tiers Monde ( "co l l ec t ive s e l f - r e l i ance" ou "autonomie c o l l e c t i v e " ) pendant e t complement du developpement national auto- cent re ("nat ional s e l f - r e l i ance" ) ? Bien peu a 6 t e amorce ju squ ' i c i s i ce n ' e s t par des conferences, des discours (comme l a Conference de Buenos Aires, "TCDC" en 1978) e t une succession de "p ro j e t s " (comme l e p ro j e t d 'une Banque du Tiers Monde, envisage par l a C N U C E D , s e subs t i t uan t 2 1 'echec de 1 ' in tervent ion du Tiers Monde dans l a reforme du systeme monetaire i n t e rna t iona l , ou celui de t rans- nationales du Tiers Monde, ou encore ce lu i de s t ruc tu re s de recherches technologiques communes). Mais s ' a g i t - i l de p ro j e t s necessairement "utopiques"? Le d i s - cours sur l e "delinking", c ' e s t - a -d i r e l ' a t t e n u a t i o n des r e l a t i ons Nord-Sud par la subs t i t u t ion d 'une in t ens i f i ca t ion des r e l a t i ons i n t r a Tiers Monde, e s t - i 1 seulement u n discours ? La question n ' e s t - e l l e pas, p lu t6 t que de proposer de 'bons programmes" de cooperation i n t r a Tiers Monde a opposer aux "mauvais programmes" (dont on a t t r i b u e r a i t ce carac tere a l ' i gno rance ) , de savoir pourquoi 1es programmes en question sont "mauvais"?

Q u e l l e s t r a t e g i e des s o c i e t e s du T i e r s Monde ?

Ces f a i b l e s s e s i n t e r n e s des s o c i e t e s du T i e r s Monde e t a n t e n r e g i s t r e e s , q u e l l e e s t , p a r d e l i l e d i s c o u r s , l a s t r a t e g i c v e r i t a b l e q u ' e l l e s p o u r r a i e n t m e t t r e en oeuvre ?

L ' a c c e n t m is s u r l a pu issance economique i r r e s i s t i b l e des monopoles i n o t r e epoque tend 3 evacuer l ' a n a l y s e des f a i b l e s s e s des bourgeo is ies e t des c lasses d i r i g e a n t e s du T i e r s Monde. Sans doute, s i l a " t e c h n o l o g i e " pese s i l o u r d dans l a balance 8 n o t r e epoque, c ' e s t que f a i s a n t l ' o b j e t d ' u n e a p p r o p r i a t i o n p a r 1es monopoles, e11e permet i ceux-c i d ' imposer l a vente "en b l o c " de systemes p r o d u c t i f s ( "us ines c l e s en mains") don t une p e t i t e p a r t i e seulement rep resen te des e lements techniques v e r i t a b l e m e n t nouveaux. C e t t e p o s i t i o n permet aux monopo les de c a p t e r non seulement l ' ensemb le des r e n t e s e t des s u r p r o f i t s mais en- c o r e de t i r e r a eux une bonne p a r t i e du p r o f i t normal . Dans ces c o n d i t i o n s , on ne s ' e t o n n e r a i t pas que, m6me s i l ' o b j e c t i f de Lima de 25% de l a p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r i e l l e e t a i t a t t e i n t , l a f r a c t i o n du s u r p l u s g l o b a l r e t e n u par 1es pays du T i e r s Monde l u i s e r a i t t r e s i n f e r i e u r e e t ce independamment de l a p r o p r i e t e f o r m e l l e des i n s t a l l a t i o n s .

11 r e s t e que 1es c o n d i t i o n s que l e s monopoles imposent aux pays du T i e r s Monde s o n t p l u s severes que c e l l e s q u i c a r a c t e r i s e n t l e u r s r e l a t i o n s avec l e s pays de 1 ' E s t e t l a Chine. 11 y a beaucoup de r a i s o n s 3 ce f a i t ; e t aux r a i s o n s genera les d e j 3 evoquees on a j o u t e r a que l e s pays de l ' E s t , e t l a Chine, l o r s - q u ' i l s a c h e t e n t de l a t e c h n o l o g i e , s o n t a u s s i capables de 1 ' a s s i m i l e r e t done de l a r e p r o d u i r e p u i s m6me de l a developper . L ' i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s c i e n t i f i q u e e t techn ique des pays du Sud ne l e permet pas.

B ien entendu l a techno log ie , q u e l l e q u ' e l l e s o i t, n ' e s t jamais n e u t r e p a r r a p - p o r t aux r a p p o r t s de p r o d u c t i o n e t l ' i m p o r t a t i o n de c e l l e - c i a des consequences, en Chine comme en URSS ou dans l e T i e r s Monde. Mais s i l e s pays de 1 ' E s t europeen o n t developpe auss i des techno log ies analogues 3 ceux de I ' O u e s t , ce q u i f a c i l i t e l e u r s @changes e x t e r i e u r s , c ' e s t pa rce q u ' i l s o n t fond6 l e u r developpement s u r des r a p p o r t s soc iaux v o i s i n s de ceux de 1 ' O c c i d e n t e t non parce q u ' i l s s e r a i e n t soumis aux monopoles. Par a i l l e u r s , 11 n ' e s t pas prouve que l a Chine envisage, j u s q u ' i c i une i m p o r t a t i o n massive de techno log ies au p o i n t de deformer ses o r i e n t a t i o n s fondamentales ( " p r e n d r e l ' a g r i c u l t u r e pour base", e t c . ) , encore moins de se soumet t re au d i k t a t des monopoles. Le T i e r s Monde p a r c o n t r e n ' a pas m6me l ' embryon de " techno log ies adaptees" i ses problemes. E t , s ' i l o p t e pour une i n d u s t r i e axee s u r l ' e x p o r t a t i o n , il sera be1 e t b i e n c o n t r a i n t d ' i m p o r t e r , e t en p o s i t i o n f a i b l e , de l a t e c h n o l o g i e i une e c h e l l e massive, de te rm inan ts de ses o r i e n t a t i o n s g l o b a l e s , ne s e r a i t - c e que p a r s u i t e des c o n t r a i n t e s de compe- t i t i v i t e de ses p r o d u i t s s u r 1es marches des pays developpes.

On e s t done renvoye de l a q u e s t i o n apparente - ce11e de l a f o r c e des monopoles - i l a v r a i e q u e s t i o n - c e l l e des r a i s o n s de l a f a i b l e s s e du T i e r s Monde e t de l a n a t u r e de c l a s s e de ses systemes soc iaux.

Que 1 ' on q u a l i f i e done de " c a p i t a l i s t e " en genera l l e developpement en cours a 1 ' E s t e t au Sud, e t de " b o u r g e o i s i e s " l e u r s c lasses d i r i g e a n t e s , ne s u f f i t pas. Car i 1 y a une grande d i f f e r e n c e e n t r e l a " b o u r g e o i s i e n a t i o n a l e " de 1 ' E s t ( s i l ' o n v e u t q u a l i f i e r c e t t e c l a s s e de b o u r g e o i s i e ) e t l e s b o u r g e o i s i e s "neo-com- p radoras" du Sud.

La difference se situe dans les conditions historiques de constitution de ces "bourgeoisies". A l'Est, en URSS ou en Chine, la "bourgeoisie" est une classe nouvelle, issue d'une revolution socialiste, devoyee par la suite. Le temps revolutionnaire est marque par la convergence d'un bloc de classes populaires, anti-capitalistes, comprenant la classe ouvriere, les paysans exploites et di- verses couches moyennes. C'est du sein de ce bloc qui se constitue, pour se se- parer des masses, la nouvelle classe. Cette convergence a rendu possible une construction 6conomique nationals. Elle a, entre autres, permis, par le boule- versement des rapports sociaux a la campagne (la revolution paysanne), le developpement de la base agricole et alimentaire de l'industrialisation. Or, ce temps de convergence manque dans les pays du Sud. La nouvelle bourgeoisie ne se constitue pas a partir d'une revolution paysanne et socialiste. Elle derive directement des classes fa~onnees a l'etape anterieure de 11imp6rialisme. La "crise agricole et alimentaire" du Tiers Monde, incapable de soutenir son in- dustrie par une progression appropriee de son agriculture, est l'expression de cette absence de revolution paysanne. Dans ces conditions, la bourgeoisie n'est pas capable de construire une economic nationale, e11e peut seulement s'alimen- ter de la croissance induite par son insertion au systsme imperialiste.

On dira certes que 1'URSS aussi connait des difficultes alimentaires. Sans doute, mais celles-ci resultent egalement de la rupture de l'alliance ouvrisre et paysanne avec la collectivisation des annees 1930-33. Cela n'est done pas un hasard; cette realite, incontestable, constitue 1e point faible du systems sovietique. L'anciennete relative de cette rupture explique aussi la forme achevee de la nouvelle societe de classes sovietique. Jusqu'i ce jour rien n'autorise a conclure qu'il en est deji de meme en Chine.

Ce contenu de classes des Etats du Tiers Monde analyse, on peut alors mieux comprendre la nature veritable de leur strategic. Celle-ci ne vise pas la construction d'economies nationales rnais seulement l'insertion dans la DIT. L'amelioration de sa position est, dans ces conditions, souvent plus facile a obtenir au detriment des partenaires faibles.

Les ambiguTtes du discours sur "l'autonomie collective" tiennent i cette raison. D'une manisre tres generale, l'ambiance d'un "liberalisme generalise intra Tiers Monde" (les preferences generalisees entre pays du Tiers Monde), les experiences de 'Inarches communs", defunts (comme 1e march6 de 1 'Afrique de 1 'Est), stagnants (marche arabe) ou embryonnaires (CDEAO par exemple) trahissent des objectifs de ce type. Le partenaire puissant envisage par ces programmes de s1ins6rer dans la DIT a son benefice immediat fut-ce au detriment des autres. Le debat sur les sous-imperial ismes" le rappelle. La real it6 des inegalites au sein du Tiers Monde le rappelle encore davantage. Car 1es pays dits les "moins developpes" sont souvent, comme nous l'avons montre, des pays dependants au second degre, annexes des pays dependants de premiere ligne. C'est pourquoi l'exigence d'un developpement autocentre doit etre encore plus fortement ressenti dans les pays 'moins di?veloppes", pour lesquels l'espoir d'un developpement dependant est lui- meme i 11 usoi re.

L'eclatement au plein jour des contradictions au sein du Tiers Monde, tant au plan economique qu'au plan politique (voir les evenements de la corne orientals de llAfrique, du Sahara occidental, de 1'Afrique centrale, du sous-continent indien, de llIndochine, etc.) ne revele pas, i notre avis, une remontee de

" n a t i o n a l i s m e s " anc iens, p r e c a p i t a l i s t e s , l i b e r e s p a r l ' i ndependance recouvree. Meme l o r s q u e ces c o n f l i t s anc iens son t m o b i l i s e s - e t i 1 s I e s o n t - c ' e s t pour 1es m e t t r e au s e r v i c e de s t r a t e g i e s de bourgeo is ies dependantes, c o n s t i t u e e s ou en v o i e de 1 ' e t r e , q u i a s p i r e n t a a m e l i o r e r l e u r p o s i t i o n dans l e systems mon- d i a l au d e t r i m e n t des p l u s f a i b l e s . L ' a p p e l aux puissances e x t e r i e u r e s n ' e s t done pas p u r hasard; c a r c e t appel d o i t p a l l i e r l e s f a i b l e s s e s d ' u n e s t r a t e g i c q u i ne p e u t 6 t r e que f a i b l e pa rce q u ' e l l e ne peu t pas repondre aux a s p i r a t i o n s profondes des masses p o p u l a i r e s , mais seulement, au mieux, l e s m o b i l i s e r s u r des o b j e c t i f s p a r t i e l s q u i ne s o n t pas s u s c e p t i b l e s de r e m e t t r e en cause l a d i r e c t i o n des c lasses e x p l o i t e u s e s . Que c e t t e s t r a t e g i c f a s s e du T i e r s Monde 1 ' e n j e u des superpuissances dans l e u r l u t t e pour l a domina t ion /pa r tage mondiale, b i e n des evenements t e n d e n t a 1e demontrer chaque j o u r davantage.

La " c r i s e " du NOEI, r e p l a c e e dans 1 ' a n a l y s e g l o b a l e des tendances du systeme mondia l , r e v e l e l a n a t u r e double e t c o n t r a d i c t o i r e du processus des t rans fo rma- t i o n s en cours, q u i p e u t e t r e ana lyse comme une etape du developpement du c a p i - t a l i s m e a l ' e c h e l l e mond ia le mais auss i comme un moment de sa c r i s e e t de l a t r a n s i t i o n s o c i a l i s t e " .

Lorsque l ' o n ana lyse l ' e v o l u t i o n en cours comme l ' e x p r e s s i o n du developpement du c a p i t a l i s m e 2 l ' e c h e l l e mondia le, i 1 a p p a r a i t que 1es c e n t r e s nouveaux q u i emergent s o n t 1es pays communistes (Europe o r i e n t a l e , URSS, Chine, e t c . ) e t non l e s pays du T i e r s Monde. Seuls l e s p remie rs s o n t en p o s i t i o n , ayan t r e m p l i l e s c o n d i t i o n s d ' u n e c o n s t r u c t i o n n a t i o n a l s p r e a l a b l e , d ' e n t r e r dans l a DIT s u r un p i e d d ' e g a l i t e .

Mais dans ces termes l ' a n a l y s e e s t u n i l a t e r a l e . Prec isewent p a r ses deux aspects fondamentaux l ' e v o l u t i o n du systeme r e v e t l e c a r a c t e r e a i g u d ' u n e m a n i f e s t a t i o n de c r i s e des r a p p o r t s de p r o d u c t i o n c a p i t a l i s t e , i l l u s t r a n t l e c a r a c t e r e ob jec - t i vement necessa i re de r a p p o r t s nouveaux, v e r i t a b l e m e n t s o c i a l i s t e s .

11 n ' e s t pas i n d i f f e r e n t en e f f e t que l e s c e n t r e s p o t e n t i e l s nouveaux s o i e n t apparus a p a r t i r de r e v o l u t i o n s s o c i a l i s t e s . Que l paradoxe que l ' e x p a n s i o n du c a p i t a l i s m e ne p u i s s e p l u s se f a i r e v e r i t a b l e m e n t que p a r un devoiement de l a t r a n s i t i o n s o c i a l i s t e !

11 n ' e s t pas davantage i n d i f f e r e n t que, l o r s q u e l a t r a n s i t i o n s o c i a l i s t e n ' a pas e t 6 amorcee f f i t - c e pour e t r e dGvoyee, l ' e x p a n s i o n du c a p i t a l i s m e r e s t e de t y p e p e r i p h e r i q u e . La p rob lemat ique de l a l i b e r a t i o n n a t i o n a l e demeure a l o r s e n t i e r e m6me s i , evidemment, l e s c o n d i t i o n s de c e l l e - c i c o n t i n u e n t a changer, comme d ' a i l l e u r s e l l e s o n t t o u j o u r s change dans 1e passe. Une n o u v e l l e vague de l u t t e s p o p u l a i r e s e s t done p r e v i s i b l e , comme en temoigne l a montee du popul isme dans l e T i e r s Monde. Encore une f o i s 1es peuples du T i e r s Monde peuvent b i e n occuper 1e devant de l a scene dans l a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n du monde.

CONT. DE pg. 1

La c u e s t i o n de l a t e c n o l o g i a , especia lmente l a t e c n o l o g i a de s is temas e n t e r o s c o n t r o l a d o s p o r m o n o ~ o l i o s (eg . " t u r n - k e y p l a n t s " ) es una v a r i a b l e c l a v e en e l proceso de transformation. La c r i s i s a c t u a l de l NOEI puede i n t e r p r e t a r s e como una etapa en e l d e s a r r o l l o de l a expansion c a p i t a l i s t a o como una c r i s i s que conduc i ra a una transition a1 s o c i a l i s m o . E l a u t o r concluye d i c i e n d o que en r e a l i d a d se puede p r e v e r una nueva honda de popul ismo en e l T e r c e r Mundo y de luchas popu la res .


WHO BENEFITS FROM EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY'S TRADE PREFERENCES? by Vagn K j e l l b e r g f o r m e r l y a t Centre f o r Development Research, Copenhagen, Denmark now a t 13-1 3, Shoto 1-chome

Shi buya-ku Tokyo 150, Japan

O r i g i n a l language: E n g l i s h

A b s t r a c t : N e i t h e r t h e r e l a t i v e l y generous t a r i f f p re fe rences g r a n t e d by t h e European Economic Community t o some T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s under va r ious associa- t i o n agreements, n o r t h e more l i m i t e d concessions under t h e Genera l i sed System of Preferences, have succeeded i n t h e i r a im o f promot ing e x p o r t - o r i e n t e d indus- t r a i l i z a t i o n i n t h e T h i r d World. Whenever impor ts f rom t h e T h i r d World compete w i t h and t h r e a t e n investments and jobs w i t h i n t h e European Economic Community, p r o t e c t i o n i s t pressures f rom c a p i t a l and l a b o u r l e a d t o t h e imposi - t i o n o f q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s t r i c t i o n s which o v e r r i d e t h e p r e f e r e n t i a l schemes and s e v e r e l y 1 i m i t t h e i r e f f e c t s . Whi le European Economic Community t r a d i n g f i rms a r e g e n e r a l l y i n favour o f i nc reased impor ts f rom the T h i r d World, they do n o t cons ider p r e f e r e n t i a l t a r i f f margins as a de te rmin ing element i n t h e i r pu rchas ing dec is ions ; r e l i a b i l i t y o f p roduc t q u a l i t y and d e l i v e r y dates appear t o be more impor tan t f a c t o r s . Moreover, they a s s e r t t h a t T h i r d Wor ld e x p o r t e r s a r e more i n t e r e s t e d i n i n c r e a s i n g sa les volumes than i n a p p r o p r i a t i n g t h e t a r i f f margins through h i g h e r p r i c e s . Thus, t h e t a r i f f revenue foregone by European Economic Community governments on account o f p r e f e r e n t i a l schemes tends t o end up as a subs idy f o r European Economic Community impor te rs , r a t h e r than f o r T h i r d World e x p o r t e r s o r even f o r European Economic Community consumers. Consequently, T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s shou ld use t h e i r p o l i t i c a l l everage w i t h t h e Community t o r e p l a c e i n e f f e c t i v e p re fe rence schemes w i t h long- te rm s e c t o r a l t r a d e arrangements, s p e c i f y i n g q u a n t i t y , qua1 i t y and d e l i v e r y o f t h e i r e x p o r t s t o t h e European Economic Community, as w e l l as indexed p r i c e s . The European Economic Community t a r i f f revenue thus rega ined (now about US$600 m i l l i o n p.a.) shou ld be added t o Overseas Development Assis tance resource t r a n s f e r s , o u t s i d e t h e 0.7% t a r g e t and p r e f e r a b l y through mu1 t i l a t e r a l channels.

A QUI PROFITENT LES PREFERENCES COMMERCIALES DE LA COMMUNAUTE ECONOMIQUE EUROPEENNE

Resume: Ni l e s p re fe rences t a r i f a i r e s r e l a t i v e m e n t genereuses accordees p a r l a Comunaute economique europeenne A quelques pays du T i e r s Monde dans l e cadre de d i v e r s accords d i s s o c i a t i o n , n i l e s concessions, p l u s 1 i m i tees, prevues p a r 1e Systeme g e n e r a l i s 6 de preferences, n ' o n t a t t e i n t l e u r o b j e c t i f de promot ion d 'une i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n du T i e r s Monde tournee vers l ' e x p o r t a t i o n . D@s que l e s impor-

t a t i o n s en provenance du T i e r s Monde deviennent c o n c u r r e n t i e l l e s e t menacent i nves t i ssements e t emplo is au s e i n de l a CEE, des mesures p r o t e c t i o n n i s t e s r e c l a - mees p a r l e p a t r o n a t e t l e s s y n d i c a t s amenent des r e s t r i c t i o n s q u a n t i t a t i v e s q u i l ' e m p o r t e n t s u r l e s "p re fe rences" e t en l i m i t e n t l e s e f f e t s . B ien que l e s f i r m e s c o m e r c i a l e s de l a CEE s o i e n t generalement en f a v e u r d ' i m p o r t a t i o n accrues en provenance du T i e r s Monde, e l l e s ne c o n s i d e r e n t pas l e s marges t a r i f a i r e s p r e f e - r e n t i e l l e s comme un e lement de te rm inan t dans l e u r d e c i s i o n s d ' a c h a t ; l a con- f i a n c e dans l a q u a l i t 6 du p r o d u i t e t l e s da tes de l i v r a i s o n appara issen t comme des f a c t e u r s p l u s i m p o r t a n t s . En o u t r e , ces f i r m e s a f f i r m e n t que l e s e x p o r t a t e u r s du T i e r s Monde s ' i n t e r e s s e n t davantage a l ' a c c r o i s s e m e n t du volume de l e u r s ven- t e s q u ' a 1 ' a p p r o p r i a t i o n des marges t a r i f a i r e s p a r 1 ' acc ro issement des p r i x . A i n s i , l e s revenus douaniers auxquels l e s gouvernements de l a CEE renoncent en r a i s o n des p re fe rences tenden t a se t rans fo rmer en subsides pour l e s i m p o r t a t e u r s de l a CEE p l u t b t que pour l e s e x p o r t a t e u r s du T i e r s Monde ou l e s consommateurs de l a CEE.

A i n s i , l e s pays du T i e r s Monde a u r a i e n t i n t e r s t 2 u t i l i s e r l e u r i n f l u e n c e p o l i - t i q u e aupres de l a Communaute pour remplacer des p re fe rences inoperan tes p a r des accords commerciaux p a r s e c t e u r e t a l o n g terme q u i s p e c i f i e r a i e n t l e s q u a n t i t e s , l a q u a l i t 6 e t 1es l i v r a i s o n s de l e u r s e x p o r t a t i o n s vers l a CEE, de meme que des p r i x i ndexes . Les revenus t a r i f a i res a i n s i recupÂ¡re ( e n v i r o n 600 mi 11 i o n de d o l l a r s des E ta ts -Un is p a r an) p o u r r a i e n t e t r e a j o u t e s 2 l ' a i d e p u b l i q u e au developpenent , en p l u s de l ' o b j e c t i f de 0.7%, p re fe rab lement dans un c o n t e x t e mu1 t i l a t e r a l .

LQUIEN APROVECHA DE L A S P R E F E R E N C E S C O M E P C I A L E S DE L A C E E ?

Resumen: N i l a s r e l a t i v a m e n t e generosas p r e f e r e n c i a s tarifefias dadas p o r l a CEE -0s pa ises d e l Te rce r Mundo b a j o v a r i e s acuerdos de l a asoc iac ion , n i l a s concesiones mas l i m i t a d a s admi t i das b a j o e l S is tema Genera l izado de P r e f e r e n c i a s han t e n i d o e x i t 0 en su o b j e c t i v o de promover l a ' i n d u s t r i a l i z a c i 6 n h a c i a l a e x p o r t a c i f i n en e l Te rce r Mundo. Cada vez que impor tac iones d e l Te rce r Mundo compi ten con y amenazan i n v e r s i o n e s y empleo d e n t r o de l a CEE, apremios p r o t e c - c i o n i s t a s de c a p i t a l y s i n d i c a t o s r e s u l t a n en l a i m p o s i c i 6 n de r e s t r i c c i o n e s que superanlos esquemas p r e f e r e n c i a l e s y l i m i t a n severamente sus e f e c t o s . Mien- t r a s que f i r m a s comerc ia les de l a CEE es tan generalmente a f a v o r de aumentos en impor tac iones d e l T e r c e r Mundo, e l l a s no cons ide ran margenes de t a r i f a s p r e f e r e n - c i a l e s como elementos determinantes en sus dec is iones de compras. Garan t ias de l a c a l i d a d del p r o d u c t 0 y de l a s fechas de en t rega 1es parecen s e r f a c t o r e s de mayor impor tanc ia . Ademas, a f i r m a n que a 10s expor tadores d e l T e r c e r Mundo l e s i n t e r e s a mas e l aumento d e l volimien de ventas que l a a p r o p r i a c i o n de margenes de t a r i f a s p o r medio de p r e c i o s aumentados. De e s t e modo, 10s i n g r e s o s aduaneros a que renunc ian 10s gobiernos de l a CEE a causa de 10s esquemas p r e f e r e n c i a l e s tenden a r e s u l t a r en subvenciones para 10s impor tadores de l a CEE y no para 10s expor tadores de l T e r c e r Mundo n i s i q u i e r a para 10s consumidores de l a CEE.

Por c o n s i g u i e n t e , 10s p a i s e s de l Te rce r Mundo deben u s a r su i n f l u e n c i a p o l i t i c a con l a CEE para reemplazar i n e f i c a c e s esquemas de p r e f e r e n c i a p o r a r r e g l o s comerc ia les s e c t o r i a l e s , 10s que e s t i p u l a r a n c a n t i d a d , q u a l i d a d y t t & r m i n o s de en t rega de sus expor tac iones des t inadas a l a CEE, as7 como 10s p r e c i o s a jus tados . Los i n g r e s o s a s i recobrados (ce rca de 600 m i l l o n e s de d o l a r e s US a1 ario) p o d r i a n a f iad i r se a 10s fondos de l a ayuda a1 d e s a r r o l l o , encima d e l o b j e c t i v o de 0.7%, p re fe ren temente en un c o n t e x t 0 m u l t i l a t e r a l .

"WHO BENEFITS FROM EEC'S TRADE PREFERENCES?" I/

VAGN KJELLBERG

DENMARK, MAY 1978

INTRODUCTION

Trade p r e f e r e n c e s f o r Third World c o u n t r i e s a r e v e r y much p a r t o f t h e p r e s e n t measures f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Cooperat ion. They a r e a l s o among t h e measures w i t h which t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l System of S t a t e s p l a n t o e s t a b l i s h a New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order .

Trade p r e f e r e n c e s a r e p r i m a r i l y t a r i f f - r e d u c t i o n schemes f o r t h e lower ing of t h e Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) t a r i f f - b a r r i e r s , and a s such t h e i r purpose i s t o promote and d i v e r s i f y Th i rd World expor t of manufactured p roduc t s t o I n d u s t r i a l i s e d Count r i es . Exports of manufactures shou ld h e l p Thi rd World c o u n t r i e s i n t h e i r i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and development. Employment and consumption o p p o r t u n i t i e s would i n c r e a s e . T h i s a g a i n would b r i n g about a be t t e rment of t h e o v e r a l l w e l f a r e i n t h e Th i rd World. The f i r s t systems of t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s s imply r e p l a c e d former c o l o n i a l t r a d e r e l a t i o n s . Trade p r e f e r e n c e s , a s g e n e r a l development coopera t ion measures , were l a t e r fo rmula ted i n UNCTAD i n t h e 1960s and were s u c c e s s i v e l y implemented by t h e I n d u s t r i a l i s e d C o u n t r i e s f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e Third World a s a whole i n t h e form of t h e Genera l i sed System o f P r e f e r e n c e s (GSP).

Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s c o n t i n u e t o a s s e r t t h a t t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s would h e l p them i n main ta in ing o r a c h i e v i n g a compet i t ive edge i n t h e i r e x p o r t s e c t o r s . For example, one of t h e i r s t r o n g arguments i n t h e GATT M u l t i l a t e r a l Trade N e g o t i a t i o n s (MTN) was t h a t "accross t h e board" MEN-tariff r e d u c t i o n s by I n d u s t r i a l i s e d Count r i es would e rode t h e i r p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o such impor tan t e x p o r t markets . 21

I / The "Documentation" f o r t h i s paper was p repared d u r i n g t h e Spr ing of 1978. I t i s o b t a i n a b l e from t h e IFDA S e c r e t a r i a t . Both t h e "Documentation" and t h e p r e s e n t "Policy-Paper" were submi t t ed t o IFDA i n a s t r i c t l y p r i v a t e c a p a c i t y .

21 For an e x c e l l e n t and d e t a i l e d s t u d y of t h e v a r i o u s t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e schemes - s e e : h u r r a y , T. , Trade P r e f e r e n c e s f o r Developing C o u n t r i e s , Macmillan, London, 1977. See a l s o : UNCTAD, Summary of t r a d e b a r r i e r s and p r e f e r e n c e s f a c i n g i n d i v i d u a l deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s i n major developed markets , Research Memorandum No. 57, Geneva, 1976.

I t is, of c o u r s e , unders tandab le t h a t Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s w i l l r e s i s t any changes which w i l l work t o t h e i r own d i sadvan tage . But t h e q u e s t i o n i s r e a l l y whether t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s , i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , have se rved a s c o n s t r u c t i v e development c o o p e r a t i o n measures and whether t h e y , i n t h e f u t u r e , w i l l be l i k e l y t o h e l p Thi rd World c o u n t r i e s i n deve lop ing t h e i r p roduc t ive f o r c e s f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e i r own economies and peop le . I t i s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s q u e s t i o n t h a t t h e paper w i l l d i s c u s s : "Who b e n e f i t s from EEC's t r a d e p re fe rences?" .

P a r t I i s a s h o r t a n a l y s i s of how EEC's t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s and impor t s from t h e Thi rd World have developed over t h e y e a r s . Th i s p a r t i s p r i m a r i l y based on p rev ious g r a d u a t e s t u d i e s of t h e s u b j e c t . P a r t I1 i s a d i s c u s s i o n of how t h e i n d u s t r i a l and commercial s e c t o r s work v i s -a -v i s t h e p r e f e r e n t i a l t r a d e systems of EEC. T h i s p a r t is mainly based on i n t e r v i e w s and d i s c u s s i o n s wi th abou t 16 EEC impor t - f i rms , t h e S e r v i c e s of t h e EEC Commission, some F e d e r a t i o n s of Commerce and I n d u s t r y i n EEC, ACP and ASEAN R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n B r u s s e l s , and UNCTAD o f f i c i a l s concerned wi th t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s .

P o l i c y o p t i o n s a r e mainly sugges ted i n t h e concluding p a r t of t h e paper . The i n e v i t a b l e p reva lence of t h e World C a p i t a l i s t System dur ing t h e 1980s i s t aken as given. There fore , t h e paper on ly s u g g e s t s s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n measures , e .g . o p t i o n s f o r a new United Nations Development S t r a t e g y , which, i n t h e s h o r t run , w i l l b e a g r e e a b l e t o t h e C a p i t a l i s t System and which, a t t h e same t ime, w i l l n e c e s s i t a t e t h e pursuance o f t h i r d w o r l d c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e a s a v i a b l e way of reduc ing t h e impact of t h e e x p l o i t a t i v e World C a p i t a l i s t System.

PART I

EEC has two p r i n c i p a l systems of t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s f o r Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s . One i s t h e system of contractual'i~orth-~outh"~greements, n o t a b l y t h e Lome Convention and EEC's o t h e r coopera t ion agreements w i t h t h e Maghreb and Mashreq c o u n t r i e s . The o t h e r i s t h e autonomous Genera l i sed System of P r e f e r e n c e s (GSP) f o r which EEC u n i l a t e r a l l y ( s u b j e c t t o GATT) can impose t a r i f f s and q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s t r i c t i o n s on any product a t any t ime . R e s t r i c t i o n s such a s t a r i f f q u o t a s , c e i l i n g s and b u t o i r s shou ld n o t be confused w i t h t h e r e a l q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s t r i c t i o n s imposed, f o r example, a s a r e s u l t of t h e M u l t i f i b r e Agreements (MFA). The MFA r e s t r i c t i o n s a r e on ly imposed on impor t s from low-cost Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s which have no s p e c i a l c o n t r a c t u a l t r a d e agreement w i t h EEC, e . g . t h e "GSP b e n e f i c i a r i e s " . The t r a d e p r o v i s i o n s i n EEC's coopera t ion agreements a r e much more favourable.Both primary and manufactured p roduc t s have i n p r i n c i p l e f r e e a c c e s s t o t h e EEC market . Any t a r i f f impos i t ion on q u a n t i t i v e r e s t r i c t i o n i s s u b j e c t t o c o n s u l t a t i o n i n j o i n t i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e p r o v i s i o n s f o r i n d u s t r i a l coopera t ion and t r a d e promotion. Hence, t h e o b j e c t i v e s of EEC's c o n t r a c t u a l t r a d e arrangements a r e t h u s f a r more comprehensive than t h o s e of GSP.

As a g e n e r a l r u l e , any p r e f e r e n t i a l import i n t o EEC must s a t i s f y t h e requirement t h a t t h e product is e i t h e r wholly ob ta ined lproduced o r s u f f i c i e n t l y worked1 processed (normally 50% value-added) i n t h e coun t ry of o r i g i n . However, t h i s r u l e i s c o n s i d e r a b l y modif ied i n t h e c o n t r a c t u a l t r a d e agreements . A l l ACP and EEC c o u n t r i e s a r e cons idered a s one s i n g l e market , s o t h a t any i n t e r m e d i a r y and component can c i r c u l a t e and undergo any value-added p r o c e s s and s t i l l e n t e r

E E C a s a product o r i g i n a t i n g i n whatever ACP count ry t h a t may happen t o a c t a s t h e e x p o r t i n g coun t ry . EEC and Maghreb a r e l ikewise cons idered a s one s i n g l e market. Moreover, a s p e c i a l cumulat ive r u l e of o r i g i n i s a p p l i e d on i m p o r t s from ASEAN, ANDEAN and CACM. The r u l e s of o r i g i n a r e a s such a compromise of t h r e e s e t s of i n t e r e s t s : p r o t e c t i n g p roduc t ive a c t i v i t i e s i n Europe; promoting p roduc t ive a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e Th i rd World; and c o l l a b o r a t i n g reasonab ly w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l f r e e e n t e r p r i s i n g . 31

I t i s obvious t h a t EEC a l l a long h a s pursued a d i s c r i m i n a t o r y p r e f e r e n t i a l t r a d e p o l i c y v i s -a -v i s t h e Th i rd World. C e r t a i n c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e i n A f r i c a , were i n v i t e d t o become p a r t i e s t o comprehensive c o o p e r a t i o n agreements whi le the r e s t of t h e Th i rd World was o f f e r e d only a much more u n c e r t a i n and l i m i t e d GSP a c c e s s t o t h e EEC market . Th i s d i s c r i m i n a t o r y p o l i c y goes back t o t h e time of t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f EEC, t h e t ime of d e c o l o n i s a t i o n .

As an immediate pos t -co lon ia l under tak ing , t h e S i x founding member s t a t e s of EEC e n t e r e d i n t o a s s o c i a t i o n agreement ( t h e Yaund6 Convention) w i t h former Italian, French and Belgian c o l o n i e s i n A f r i c a . I n e f f e c t , what happened was, t h a t t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r Af r ican c o u n t r i e s ob ta ined p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o t h e impor tan t West German market i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l Met ropo l i t an marke t s . Meanwhile, United Kingdom,that had op ted t o s t a y o u t of EEC, con t inued , t o g e t h e r wi th i ts former c o l o n i e s , a p r e f e r e n t i a l t r a d e sys tem f o r t h e Commonwealth.

Hence, dur ing t h e f i r s t p o s t - c o l o n i a l decade t h e m a j o r i t y of A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s had s p e c i a l t r a d e arrangements w i t h one o r more of t h e p r e s e n t major member s t a t e s of EEC. Th is was a pe r iod of s t e a d y economic growth i n Europe. There was a c o n s t a n t heavy demand f o r s t a n d a r d i s e d consumer goods. European c a p i t a l began t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s e e x t e n s i v e l y . The o p p o r t u n i t y was t h e r e , t o move i n t o A f r i c a , t o encourage value-added produc t ion , t o import manufactured p roduc t s i n t o EEC o r B r i t a i n , t o r e a p t h e b e n e f i t s of t h e t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s i n f o r c e a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r time.

Th is d i d n o t happen. Take, f o r example, t h e composi t ion of A f r i c a n A s s o c i a t e s ' e x p o r t s t o EEC. I n 1958, f o o d s t u f f s , beverages and raw m a t e r i a l s made up 82% of t o t a l expor t va lue . Though t h i s s h a r e decreased t o 65% i n 1969 a c l o s e r examinat ion of t h e composi t ion d i s c l o s e s t h a t t h e p r o d u c t s , which s t a t i s t i c a l l y were c l a s s i f i e d a s manufactures , were p rocessed t i m b e r , tanned l e a t h e r and s k i n s , c o t t o n yarn and f a b r i c , and o t h e r semi-processed primary p r o d u c t s . Exports of t h e s e p roduc t s had r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e d i n volumes and u n i t v a l u e s , whi le t h e primary e x p o r t s experienced a s t a g n a t i o n i n u n i t v a l u e s and volumes dur ing t h e same p e r i o d . The t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s i n q u e s t i o n had a p p a r e n t l y f a i l e d t o promote a d i v e r s i f i e d i n d u s t r i a l growth even i n t h e e x p o r t - o r i e n t e d s e c t o r . 41

31 EEC Counci l Regula t ions governing t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s sys tems - of t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s a r e pub l i shed i n : O f f i c i a l J o u r n a l of t h e

European Communities.

41 I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n in A f r i c a dur ing t h e f i r s t p o s t c o l o n i a l decade i s - d i s c u s s e d in: Amin, S. , Neo-Colonialism i n West A f r i c a , Penguin

A f r i c a n L ibra ry , London, 1973.

The f a c t t h a t t h e t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e system of t h a t t ime Was unable t o h e l p b r i n g i n g about a s t r u c t u r a l change i n Euro-African t r a d e r e l a t i o n s i s f u r t h e r s u b s t a n t i a t e d i n Table I , which shows t h e growth and d i s t r i b u t i o n of impor t s by o r i g i n and d e s t i n a t i o n over t h e p e r i o d 1964 - 1973.

TABLE I

S e l e c t e d European Imports from Afr ican Count r i es

Growth i n Imports , 1964-'73 Import i n 1973 percen tage of c u r r e n t v a l u e s a I c u r r e n t rnio. EUA-

c l EEC-ASS .-^' Non-Ass .- EEc-Ass .-^I Non-Ass .-

Germany (F.R. ) 114 161

France 4 1 3 7

United Kingdom 49 43

a / I n 1973, 1 EUA = 1.25 U S $. -

b / Main c o u n t r i e s : Cameroon, Gabon, Ivory Coast , Senega l , Z a i r e . -

c / Main c o u n t r i e s : A l g e r i a , Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, L i b e r i a , Niger ia , - Tanzania, Zambia.

Source: E u r o s t a t , Monthly E x t e r n a l Trade B u l l e t i n , S p e c i a l Number, 1958-75

It is seen i n Table I , t h a t t h e former B r i t i s h and French c o l o n i a l t r a d e s t r u c t u r e s were con t inued d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d . But t h i s d i d n o t d i scourage t h e French and B r i t i s h t o i n c r e a s e , a t comparable r a t e s , t h e i r impor t s from bo th EEC-Associates and Non-Associates. T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e s p e c t i v e systems of p r e f e r e n c e s had a t b e s t p reven ted a d e t e r i o r a t i o n of b u s i n e s s r e l a t i o n s . I n t h e c a s e of Germany t h e r a t e of growth of impor t s from t h e A s s o c i a t e s was much lower than from the Non-Associates. The l a t t e r c o u n t r i e s ' g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y t o e x p o r t compensated by f a r f o r t h e absence of p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o t h e r e s p e c t i v e European c o u n t r i e s .

As a l r e a d y mentioned, i t was decided t o g i v e i t y e t a n o t h e r t r y . I n 1975, soon a f t e r t h e enlargement of EEC, t h e Af r ican s t a t e s sou th of Sahara and a few Caribbean and P a c i f i c s t a t e s e n t e r e d i n t o a coopera t ion agreement w i t h EEC, t h e s o - c a l l e d ACP-EEC Lome Convention. A y e a r l a t e r t h e Maghreb and Mashreq c o u n t r i e s e n t e r e d i n t o s i m i l a r agreements w i t h EEC. By t h e mid 1970s EEC had a s w e l l improved i t s GSP t o cover , i n a d d i t i o n t o manufac tu res , a range of semi-processed and p rocessed a g r i c u l t u r a l p roduc t s .Moreover , s p e c i a l comnercial agreements were a r ranged wi th a number of Asian Commonwealth f o u n t r i e s a s a consequence of B r i t i s h a c c e s s i o n t o EEC. 51

-- 51 See: EEC Counci l Regula t ions , l o c . ~ i t . -

Although t h e new EEC systems of t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s have on ly been i n o p e r a t i o n f o r a few of y e a r s , i t i s a l r e a d y now p o s s i b l e t o p r e l i m i n a r i l y a s s e s s t h e t r a d e r e l a t i o n s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , a s shown i n Tab le 11.

TABLE I1

EEC's impor t s (exc l . o i l impor t s ) from s e l e c t e d g roups of Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s d u r i n g t h e pe r iod 1975-1977

1975 1977 1975-1977 -

O r i g i n b / M ~ ~ . E U A ^ 7 to ta lk ' b t i 0 . E ~ ~ ~ % t o t a l - growth i n %

Thi rd World(exc1. oil)-0' 21,876 100 37,357 100 7 0

d / ACP S ta tes - 5,664 25 8,825 2 4 56

e / Maghreb & I-iashreq- 1,813 8 2,537 7 40

Ind ian sub-continent- f f 1,222 5 2,196 6 80

ASEAN(1ess ing gap ore)^' 1 ,419 6 2,986 8 110

h / Far Eas t , se lec ted- 2,865 1 3 5,097 14 7 8

B r a z i l 2,082 1 0 3,433 9 6 5

Cur ren t v a l u e s . I n 1975, 1 EUA = 1.24 US $; i n 1977, 1 EUA = 1.14 US $.

The sum of t h e pe rcen tages was 67% i n 1975 and 68% i n 1977 of t o t a l (100%) EEC non-oi l impor t s from Thi rd World c o u n t r i e s .

EEC's o i l impor t s from Thi rd World c o u n t r i e s (OPEC) were roughly c a l c u l a t e d t o amount t o Mio.EUA 29,695 i n 1975, and Mio.EUA 37,780 i n 1977.

Data c o r r e c t e d f o r o i l impor t s which amounted t o abou t 113 of t o t a l EEC impor t s from ACP.

Maghreb: A l g e r i a , Morocco, Tunesia (Libya n o t member); Mashreq: Egypt, Jo rdan , Lebanon, S y r i a . D a t a c o r r e c t e d f o r o i l impor t s which amounted t o about 112 of t o t a l EEC impor t s from t h e s e c o u n t r i e s .

Bangladesh, I n d i a , P a k i s t a n , S r i Lanka.

S ingapore was e x c l . because i t s economic s t r u c t u r e resembled t h o s e l i s t e d below. Data c o r r e c t e d f o r o i l impor t s from Indones ia .

Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan (no te : impor t s from Taiwan have no GSP a c c e s s t o EEC).

Sources: E u r o s t a t , Monthly E x t e r n a l Trade B u l l e t i n , v a r i o u s i s s u e s ; ACP: Yeprbcok of Fore ign Trade S t a t i s t i c s 1968-1976; EEC Commission, In format ion : Cooperation-develop men^, v a r i o u s i s s u e s

The f i r s t t h i n g t o n o t i c e i n T a b l e T I i s t h a t t h e i n d u s t r i a l and commercial s e c t o r s w e r e s l o w i n t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f t h e ACP-EEC p r o v i s i o n s f o r t r a d e c o o p e r a t i o n . The ACP s t a t e s , and f o r t h a t m a t t e r t h e Maghreb and Mashreq, j u s t a b o u t managed t o keep t h e i r r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n v i s - a - v i s t h e o t h e r g r o u p i n g s o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . T h i s was n?ainly owing t o f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e i r p r imary e x p o r t s r a t h e r t h a n t o any s t r u c t u r a l changes i n t h e i r e x p o r t s e c t o r s . I t i s o f t e n a r g u e d t h a t i n t h e absence o f t h e Lome C o n v e n t i o n , t h e ACP c o u n t r i e s ' e x p o r t t o EEC w o u l d h a v e s u f f e r e d a r e a l s e t back. T h i s i s t r u e t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t ACP c o u n t r i e s ' ( n o n - o i l ) wor ld e x p o r t s deve loped a t a much s l o w e r r a t e t h a n e x p o r t s t o EEC a l o n e . But i t i s a l s o a f a c t t h a t EEC a t p r e s e n t i m p o r t s o v e r 40% o f ACP c o u n t r i e s ' ( non-o i l ) world e x p o r t s . I n t h e e v e n t t h a t t h e ACP-EEC t r a d e c o o p e r a t i o n becomes r e a l l y s u c c e s s f u l i t may w e l l r e n d e r t h e ACP s t a t e s e v e n more dependent on t h e E E C t r a d e b l o c k , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e y s h o u l d f a i l t o expand t h e i r t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r g r o u p s o f c o u n t r i e s . So f a r , a s T a b l e I1 sho';s, i t was t h e ASEAN and o t h e r F a r E a s t c o u n t r i e s t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d a more t h a n a v e r a g e growth i n t h e i r e x p o r t s t o EEC. D e s p i t e t h e much l e s s f a v o u r a b l e t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s f o r t h o s e c o u n t r i e s , EEC i m p o r t e d a b o u t 20% o f t h e i r t o t a l e x p o r t s o f l i g h t manufactured p r o d u c t s . w

The d i f f e r e n t e x p o r t pe r fo rmances d i v i d e d t h e T h i r d World i n t o c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o a l i t i o n s v i s - a - v i s t h e i r t r a d e n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h EEC. ACP c o u n t r i e s compla ined t h a t t h e t r a d e a s p i r a t i o n s of t h e Lome Convent ion had n o t y e t begun t o m a t e r i a l i s e . They t h e r e f o r e c a l l e d f o r more e f f e c t i v e t r a d e and a i d measu res t o h e l p them t o c a t c h up w i t h o t h e r Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s . The l a t t e r d i d , of c o u r s e , a l s o c a l l f o r b e t t e r p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s . The ASEAN c o u n t r i e s , f o r example , a r g u e d , even though t h e y knew w e l l enough t h a t t h e y d i d much b e t t e r t h a n most ACP c o u n t r i e s , t h a t f o r t h e s a k e of t h e p r i n c i p l e t h e y had t o p r e s s f o r b e t t e r t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s w i t h EEC. For obv ious r e a s o n s any c o u n t r y i s h e s i t a n t t o a c c e p t t h a t o t h e r c o u n t r i e s have c e r t a i n a c q u i r e d r i g h t s which i t is d e p r i v e d o f i t s e l f . Apa r t from t h e g e n e r a l p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s a t s t a k e , Governments (and o t h e r s ) a p p a r e n t l y c o n t i n u e d t o b a s e t h e i r a rgumen t s on t h e economic t h e o r i e s o f t r a d e c r e a t i o n and t r a d e d i v e r s i o n e f f e c t s o f t a r i f f p r e f e r e n c e s . T h i r d World gove rnmen t s c l a imed t h a t t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s were n e c e s s a r y i f t h e i r e x p o r t s e c t o r s were t o become c o m p e t i t i v e , and EEC gove rnmen t s and o t h e r s a rgued t h a t t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s p a r t l y were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r some i n d u s t r i a l d i s p l a c e m e n t and unemployment i n Europe.Z/

fj/ F o r a g e n e r a l s t u d y o f T h i r d World t r a d e s e e : T u l l o c h , P. & Morton, K . , - T r a d e and Deve lop ing C o u n t r i e s , (ODI), Croom Helm, London, 1977.

S e e a l s o : Maf fuzu r Rahman, A.H.M. , Expor t s o f Manufac tu re s from d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , Ro t t e rdam U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1973.

7 / The t h e o r i e s of t a r i f f p r e f e r e n c e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n v a r i o u s works of Bela - B a l a s s a a n d Har ry G. Johnson .

Fo r e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s o f t h e t r a d e c r e a t i o n and t r a d e d i v e r s i o n e f f e c t s of t a r i f f p r e f e r e n c e s s e e : ( i ) K r e i n i n , M.E. , "European I n t e g r a t i o n and the Deve lop ing C o u n t r i e s " , i n B a l a s s a , B. ( e d . ) , European Economic I n t e g r a t i o n ,

Nor th Holland/Arnsterdam, Oxfo rd , 1975. ( i i ) K e b s c h u l l , D . , "The E f f e c t s o f EEC P r e f e r e n c e s t o A s s o c i a t e d S t a t e s on Trade Flows", i n Shia im, A. F,

Yannopoulos , G.N. ( e d . ) , The EEC and t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n C o u n t r i e s , Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , London, 1976.

I t i s t h u s e v i d e n t t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e impact of t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s s t a t i s t i c a l l y seems t o be v e r y - m o d e s t , b o t h "donor" and " b e n e f i c i a r y " s t a t e s a r e a t t a c h i n g much impor t ance t o t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e q u e s t i o n o f a s s e s s i n g t h e r e a l impact o f t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s becomes a s much a q u e s t i o n of c 'xamining how t h e marke t works i n p r a c t i c e . Tha t i s t h e n t h e s u b j e c t of P a r t 11.

PART I1

I n t h e European marke t , a s e l s e w h e r e , two g roups o f p r i n c i p a l economic, a c t o r s a r e conce rned w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s . I m p o r t e r s a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l Firms form one g roup .Domes t i c c a p i t a l and l a b o u r form t h e o t h e r .

Because i t i s t h e l a t t e r g roup which s u f f e r s from c o m p e t i t i v e i m p o r t s , i t i s a l s o t h i s group which seems t o be most conce rned w i t h t r a d e c o n c e s s i o n s f o r t h e T h i r d World. Thus i t i s g e n e r a l l y a l l e g e d t h a t i t i s t h e t a r i f f - c u t s which r e n d e r i m p o r t s f rom t h e T h i r d World unduly c o m p e t i t i v e . EEC i n d u s t r i e s h a v e , i n d e e d , been exposed t o c o m p e t i t i v e p r e s s u r e s . 8 / However, most o f t h e T h i r d World p r o d u c t s which have caused major p rob l ems f o r EEC i n d u s t r i e s a p p e a r t o have been c o m p e t i t i v e i r r e s p e c t i v e of whe the r t h e y have had p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o t h e European m a r k e t s . I n o t h e r words , a s con f i rmed by F I O S ~ E L C I m p o r t e r s and R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of F e d e r a t i o n s of Commerce i n t e r v i e w e d f o r t h i s p a p e r , t h e p r i n c i p a l i n c e n t i v e s t o t r a d e were n o t p r o v i d e d fo: by t h e t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s . I n many c a s e s , I m p o r t e r s t hough t t h a t i t was n o t r e a l l y w o r t h t h e t r o u b l e t o make d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t s t o o b t a i n d u t y - f r e e a c c e s s f o r i m p o r t s from t h e T h i r d World.?/

Major p r o d u c t g roups s u c h a s c l o t h i n g and f o o t w e a r , and mechanical a n d e l e c t r o n i c a r t i c l e s a r e p r i m a r i l y impor t ed f rom F a r E a s t c :oun t r i e s which o n l y e n j o y GSP a c c e s s t o t h e EEC marke t . To o b t a i n d u t y - f r e e o r t a r i f f - r c d 1 7 c e d cus toms c l e a r a n c e f o r t h o s e p r o d u c t s a t a n EEC p o r t of e n t r y was f o r t h e mos t a m a t t e r of good l u c k s i n c e t a r i f f q u o t a s , c e i l i n g s o r b u t o i r s o f t e n were e x h a u s t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e y e a r . I n o r d e r t o be on t i m e i n t h i s " f i i s t come f i r s t s e r v e d game", I m p o r t e r s would t a k e s p e c i a l c a r e t o p l a c e t h e i r o r d e r s t o r d e l i v e r y a t European p o r t s a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t ime . T h i r d World f a c t o r i e s were t h e r e f o r e t r o u b l e d w i t h e x c e s s i v e demands a t c e r t a i n p e r i o d s of t h e y e a r and t h e r e g u l a r c a r g o l i n e r t r a f i c was bu rdened w i t h a c o n c e n t r a t i o n of cons ignmen t s d u r i n g l a t e December e v e r y y e a r .

Inasmuch a s a t t e m p t s t o be " t h e f i r s t " would o b v i o u s l y n o t e n l a r g e t h e o v e r a l l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s , many European I m p o r t e r s w e r e g e t t i n g t i r e d of " t h e game". A f t e r a l l , t h e y o n l y managed t o o b t a i n p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s f o r a b o u t 1 0 - 30% of t h e i r t o t a l i m p o r t s o f p r o d u c t s which were s u b j e c t t o t a r i f f q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s t r i c t i o n s . T h i s p e r c e n t a g e a p p e a r s t o c o r r e s p o n d c l o s e l y w i t h t h e s t a t i s t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e on p r e f e r e n t i a l i m p o r t s . I n 1 9 7 6 , f o r example , a b o u t 30% o f i m p o r t s ( l e s s o i l and a g r i c . p r o d u c t s ) f rom t h e T h i r d World o b t a i n e d p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s . g / F o r 1975 , more d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e , a S T a b l e 111 shows.

8 / See: OECD Development C e n t r e S t u d i e s , Ad jus tmen t f o r T r a d e , P a r i s , 1975 -

91 s e e t h e "Documenta t ion" f o r t h i s p a p e r , l o c . c i t . -

1 0 1 The p e r c e n t a g e was c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f : ( i ) EEC Commission, - U t i l i s a t i o n o f GSP 1 9 7 6 , u n p u b l i s h e d t a b l e , B r u s s e l s , 10 A p r i l 1978 , Rev. 1. ( i i ) E u r o s t a t , ACP: Yearbook of F o r e i g n T rade S t a t i s t i c s , 1968-1976.

TABLE I11

EEC P r e f e r e n t i a l impor t s i n 1975 i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t o t a l impor t s from t h e Thi rd World by s e l e c t e d major product groups and system of t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s .

I n pe rcen tage of t o t a l

CCT^ AC& GSP^ 3rd World

07 E d i b l e v e g e t a b l e s 08 Edib le f r u i t s and n u t s 09 Coffee, t e a , mat6 and s p i c e s 15 Animal and v e g e t a b l e f a t s , waxes and o i l s 16 P r e p a r a t i o n s of meat, of f i s h , of c r u s t a c e a n s o r

mol luscs 1 8 Cocoa and cocoa p r e p a r a t i o n s 20 P r e p a r a t i o n s of v e g e t a b l e s , f r u i t s o r o t h e r

p a r t s of p l a n t s 24 Tobacco 29 Organic Chemicals 39 A r t i f i c i a l r e s i n s and p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s , c e l l u l o s e

e s t e r s and e t h e r s , a r t i c l e s t h e r e o f 41 Raw h i d e s and s k i n s and l e a t h e r 42 A r t i c l e s of l e a t h e r 44 Wood and a r t i c l e s of wood 5 1 & 56 Man-made t e x t i l e f i b r e s

Cotton Carpe t s , mats , and o t h e r f a b r i c s K n i t t e d and c roche ted goods A r t i c l e s of a p p a r e l and c l o t h i n g a c c e s s o r i e s t e x t i l e f a b r i c Footwear I r o n and S t e e l a r t i c l e s Tools , implements and c u t l e r y B o i l e r s , machinery and mechanical a p p l i a n c e s E l e c t r i c a l machinery and equipment O p t i c a l , pho tograph ic , measuring and h o s n i t a l i n s t r u m e n t s

9 1 & 92 Clocks and watches, and audio-equipment 1 27 2 8 97 Toys, games and s p o r t s r e q u i s i t e s 1 34 35

a / CCT i s an abbr . of Common Customs T a r i f f (of t h e EEC). CCT nomenclature - cor responds t o CCNN, a b b r . of Customs Cooperat ion Counci l Nomenclature.

b / A f r i c a n , Caribbean and P a c i f i c S t a t e s , (about 50 s t a t e s ) p a r t i e s t o t h e - Lome Convention. Though t h e t r a d e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e Convention e n t e r e d i n t o f o r c e by 1st J u l y 1975, most of t h e ACP c o u n t r i e s had p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o most of t h e 9 EEC c o u n t r i e s b e f o r e t h a t t ime ( f o r example, t h e FEC-East A f r i c a agreement and t h e B r i t i s h Commonwealth p r e f e r e n c e sys tem) .

c / Two GSP b e n e f i c i a r i e s a r e exc luded , namely Romania and Yugoslavia , they - a r e n o t c l a s s i f i e d a s T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i n t h i s c o n t e x t (moreover, Taiwan i s n o t a GSP b e n e f i c i a r y ) .

Source: EEC Commission, U t i l i s a t i o n of GSP 1975, unpublished t a b l e s , March 1977.

It i s seen i n Tab le 111 t h a t a h igh percen tage of t h e s e l e c t e d impor t s of p rocessed a g r i c u l t u r a l p roduc t s enjoyed p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o EEC and t h a t t h e pe rcen tage s h a r e s of ACP and GSP, r e s p e c t i v e l y , were comparable. The high o v e r a l l pe rcen tage was owing t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r o d u c t s i n q u e s t i o n were of no major concern f o r t h e EEC Common A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y (CAP). The apparen t l i b e r a l p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s f o r t h o s e p a r t i c u l a r p roduc t groups was, t h e r e f o r e , n o t a r e f l e c t i o n of any s p e c i a l EEC "generos i ty" . The absence of "generos i ty" becomes even more e x p l i c i t i n t h e c a s e of t h e v e r y l i m i t e d p r o v i s i o n s f o r p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s f o r impor t s of s e n s i t i v e p r o d u c t s such a s l e a t h e r a r t i c l e s , c l o t h i n g and footwear . I t i s impor tan t t o n o t i c e , a s mentioned b e f o r e , t h a t impor t s of t h o s e p roduc t s from ACP c o u n t r i e s were n e g l i g i b l e d e s p i t e t h e p r o v i s i o n s f o r u n l i m i t e d and du ty- f ree a c c e s s . I n s t e a d such p roduc t s were p r i m a r i l y imported under MFN c o n d i t i o n s whi le some impor t s happened t o e n t e r under t h e GSP. P r e f e r e n t i a l impor t s of t e x t i l e s a l o n e (CCT 50-63) accounted f o r on ly 25% of t h e t o t a l . U /

There has n o t r e a l l y been any improvement of p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s f o r t h o s e p r o d u c t s which a r e threateninno t h e i n t e r e s t s of domest ic c a p i t a l and l a b o u r i n EEC. But t h i s has no t prevented Impor te r s from marke t ing l a r g e volumes of Th i rd World l a b o u r - i n t e n s i v e and s t a n d a r d i s e d l i g h t manufac tu res , t h e q u a l i t y of which was h igh enough t o pe rmi t a r e a s o n a b l e mark-up margin wi thou t c u t t i n g t h e compet i t ive edges s i g n i f i c a n t l y . Another major p a r t of EEC impor t s from t h e Thi rd World was made up of pr imary t r o p i c a l produce, f o r which t h e r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a s been a r a t h e r i n e l a s t i c demand over t h e y e a r s - i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of even r e l a t i v e l y h igh t a r i f f s . g /

Many of t h e in te rv iewed Impor te r s d i s c l o s e d t h a t t h e i r p r i c i n g p o l i c i e s g e n e r a l l y were unaf fec ted by t h e p r o s p e c t s o f p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s , and t h a t they i n any e v e n t h a r d l y f e l t a compet i t ive need f o r p a s s i n g on t h e i r " t a r i f f sav ings" t o a l l o w a lower ing of wholesa le and r e t a i l p r i c e s f o r t h e b e n e f i t of EEC consumers. The Impor te r s a l s o d i s c l o s e d t h a t " t a r i f f sav ings" b a r e l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n of c o s t p r i c e s of Th i rd World e x p o r t s . The Thi rd World p roducers appeared i n most c a s e s t o p r e f e r i n c r e a s e s i n volumes f o r i n c r e a s e s i n u n i t p r i c e s . There fore , inasmuch a s t h e " t a r i f f sav ings" from p r e f e r e n t i a l impor t s were, f o r t h e most, n e i t h e r passed on t o EEC consumers nor t o Th i rd World p roducers , i t was n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o l e a r n t h a t many Impor te r s r e f e r r e d t o such "sav ingsn a s " w i n d f a l l ga ins" on t h e i r own p a r t . On t h e p a r t of t h e EEC budget such "windfa l l ga ins" ought then t o be accounted f o r a s foregone t a r i f f revenues and thence a s a s o r t of subs idy scheme f o r European Impor te r s .

The foregone t a r i f f revenue i s , of c o u r s e , n o t impor tan t i n a b s o l u t e terms. How much i t amounts t o e x a c t l y i s d i f f i c u l t t o de te rmine . In 1976, f o r example, t h e p r e f e r e n t i a l impor t s ( l e s s o i l and a g r i c . p r o d u c t s ) amounted t o abou t US$ 6 b i l l i o n . With a n average t a r i f f r e d u c t i o n of roughly l o % , t h e foregone revenue would be abou t US$ 600 m i l l i o n . Th is sum r e p r e s e n t s , i n r e l a t i v e t e rms ,

111 For an i n t e r e s t i n g a n a l y s i s of t h e value/volume of p r e f e r e n t i a l impor t s - i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e cor responding t o t a l impor t s s e e : den Boer, K . , "The EEC Genera l i sed System of P r e f e r e n c e s ; w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o L a t i n ~ m e r i c a " , Development and Change, Vol. V I , No. 4 , 1975. See a l s o : ( i ) Murray T. , 1 0 c . c i t . ; ( i i ) T u l l o c h , P. & Morton, K . , l a c . c i t .

121 See: 1 9 7 7 S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook, The United Nat ions , 1978. -

t h e same a s a b o u t 12% of EEC c o u n t r i e s ' n e t t r a n s f e r of ODA i n 1976. 131 In o t h e r words , unde r t h e p r e t e x t of a s s i s t i n g t h e Th i rd World, t h e EEC a; member s t a t e s c o u l d a p p a r e n t l y a f f o r d t o f o r e g o r evenues t o European I m p o r t e r s , t h e e q u i v a l e n t of whirii t h e y would f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o a p p r o p r i a t e a d d i t i o n a l l y f o r OUA p u r p o s e s .

To p l a c e t h e argumept k t h e p r o p e r c o n t e x t i t s h o u l d bo r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e f o r e g o n e t a r i f f r e v e n u e s i n q u e s t i o n a c c r u e d a s " w i n d f a l l p i n s " i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h i m p o r t s o f Th i rd World p r o d u c t s which were c o m p e t i t i v e i n most of t h e c a s e s i n which t h e y , Lor one o r t h e o t h e r r e a s o n , e n t e r e d t h e European market under t h e normal MFN t a r i f f s . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s s a f e t o assume t h ~ t European Bus ines s would n o t n e c e s s 3 r i l y change i t s t r a d i n g p r a c t i c e i f t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s were d i s c o n t i n u e d a l t o g e t h e r , n o r h a s t r a d i n g p r a c t i c e changed d rama t i cc i l l y y e t i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e c o n t r a c t u a l p ro . ? i s ions f o r u n l i m i t e d and d u t y - f r e e a c c e s s f o r A f r i c a n p r o d u c t s even though t h e p r o v i s i o n s , w i t h ve ry f a v o u r a b l e r u l e s of o r i g i n , have been i n f o r c e v i s - a -v i s s e v e r a l A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s f o r n e a r l y two d e c a d e s .

The modest impact of t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s i s f u r t h e r r e v e a l e d by t h e f a c t t h a t d e s p i t e t h e h i g h e r t r a n s p o r t c o s t s and t h e g r a d u a l r e - impos i t i on of t a r i f f s on p r o d u c t s f rom, f o r example , t h e F a r E a s t , t h e European I m p o r t e r s were de t e rmined t o c o n t i n u e what t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t o be a r e a s o n a b l e good b u s i n e s s . The way t h e marke t works seems t h u s t o c o n t r a d i c t t h e t h e o r i e s o f t a r i f f p r o t e c t i o n on which t h e p o l i c i e s o f t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s have been deve loped . 141 The c o n t r a d i c t i o n becomes e v e n more a c c e n t u a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e - i m p o s i t i o n of t a r i f f s a p p a r e n t l y have f a i l e d t o b r i n g abou t t h e d e s i r e d p r o t e c t i o n s o t h a t t h e EEC c o u n t r i e s r e c e n t l y had t o t a k e r e c o u r s e i n t i g h t e n i n g t h e M u l t i f i b r e Agreements (MFA) wh ich r e g u l a t e t e x t i l e i m p o r t s f rom t h e s o - c a l l e d GSP b e n e f i c i a r i e s . T h e r e f o r e , g i v e n t h e p r e s e n t l e v e l o f MFN t a r i f f s , i t i s f i r s t and fo remos t p r o d u c t q u a l i t y and r e l i a b l e d e l i v e r y which h e l p i n promoting Th i rd World e x p o r t , and i f t h o s e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e met , t h e n i t i s o n l y e f f e c t i v e n o n - t a r i f f b a r r i e r s s u c h a s MFAs, which seem t o p r o v i d e e f f e c t i v e p r o t e c t i o n f o r domes t i c c a p i t a l anu l a b o u r ^.n Europe.

I f v e r y e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r s were e r e c t e d a g a i n s t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , c o m p e t i t i v e consumer goods from t h e F a r E a s t , i t might encourage European I m p o r t e r s and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Fi rms t o t a k e f u l l advan tage o f t h e f a v o u r a b l e ACP-EEC t r a d e a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h i s i s a l r e a d y b e g i n n i n g t o happen. I m p o r t e r s have , f o r example , begun t o buy l a r g e cons ignmen t s o f s h i r t s from p r o d u c e r s i n M a u r i t i u s . C e r t a i n West A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y I v o r y C o a s t , may soon beg in t o p roduce l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f s t a n d a r d i s e d l a b o u r - i n t e n s i v e consumer goods t o be marke ted i n Europe a t c o m p e t i t i v e p r i c e s and a c c e p t a b l e q u a l i t i e s . But g iven t h e s l u g g i s h demand f o r o r d i n a r y consumer goods i n Europe combined w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l i m p e r a t i v e o f m a i n t a i n i n g a h i g h l e v e l o f employment, t h e n t h e s a v e

1 3 1 E s t i m a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f : ( i ) " ~ t i l i s a t i o n of GSP l976", 1 0 c . c i t . ; -

( i i ) ACP-Yearbook, 1 0 c . c i t . i ( i i i ) O f f i c i a l J o u r n a l o f EC, 1 0 c . c i t . ; ( i v ) OECD, Developmmnt C o o p e r a t i o n , 1977 Review.

1 4 See f o r example: F i n g e r , J . M . and Y e a s t s , A . J . , " E f f e c t i v e P r o t e c t i o n by - T r a n s p o r t a t i o n C o s t s and T a r i f f s : A Comparison of Magni tudes" , Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f Economics, F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 6 .

ACP c o u n t r i e s may e v e n t u a l l y exper ience t h a t t h e EEC c o u n t r i e s w i l l beg in t o invoke sa feguard measures a s provided f o r i n any EEC agreement - however l i b e r a l i t i r - t ends t o be. So whi le ACP c o u n t r i e s i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e might manage t o conquer a p a r t of t h e European market which p r e s e n t l y be longs t o a few F a r Eas t c o u n t r i e s , t h e ACP c o u n t r i e s themselves might l a t e r f a c e t h e same s o r t of s t r o n g EEC b a r r i e r s a g a i n s t t h e i r own produc t s .

The ACP c o u n t r i e s a r e pe rhaps i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n than t h e r a p i d l y i n d u s t r i a l i s i n g Far Eas t c o u n t r i e s . Many of t h e former a r e p o t e n t i a l r esource- r i c h c o u n t r i e s . Th i s , i n i t s e l f , could p rov ide a c o n s i d e r a b l e l everage i n o t h e r p o l i t i c a l and economic a r e a s . However, i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , EEC w i l l pursue a p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c p o l i c y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t domest ic c a p i t a l and l a b o u r c a r r y more p o l i t i c a l weight than i n t e r n a t i o n a l c a p i t a l and commerce. The d i f f e r e n c e of i n t e r e s t s between t h o s e two p r i n c i p a l groups of economic a c t o r s i s widening and t h e r e w i l l be an ongoing s t r u g g l e , accord ing t o t h e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of F e d e r a t i o n s of I n d u s t r i e s and Chambers of Commerce in te rv iewed f o r t h i s paper . I n g e n e r a l , F e d e r a t i o n s o f I n d u s t r i e s wish t o p r o j e c t n a t i o n a l c a p i t a l whereas Chambers of Commerce favour a f r e e t r a d e p o l i c y o r a t l e a s t t r a n s p a r e n t and s imple r e g u l a t o r y measures.

Nobody would r e a l i s t i c a l l y expec t t h e EEC s t a t e s ( o r o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l i s e d r e g i o n s ) t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e i r economies i n any r a d i c a l way i n t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e . Th is i s a f a c t t h a t Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s do b e s t t o reckon w i t h i n t h e i r p lann ing of t h e development of t h e i r p roduc t ive f o r c e s . The I n d u s t r i a l i s e d Count r i es w i l l never demand b i g enough volumes of imported goods t o make i t v i a b l e f o r a l l Th i rd World c o - ~ n t r i e s t o develop e x p o r t - o r i e n t e d economies on t h a t b a s i s a l o n e . I t i s s o much t h e more s u r p r i s i n g t h a t n e a r l y a l l Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s c o n c e n t r a t e on improving t h e i r p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o EEC. On t h e c o n t r a r y , i t is q u i t e unders tandab le t h a t EEC, on i t s p a r t , wants t o use t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s a s a convenient and harmless way of b u i l d i n g good r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e Th i rd World.

Between t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e Th i rd World and t h e i n t e r e s t s of EEC, t h e r e appears t o be room f o r pursu ing a number of p o l i c y o p t i o n s i n t h e f i e l d of t r a d e r e l a t i o n s . A few of such p o l i c y o p t i o n s a r e d i scussed i n t h e fo l lowing , concluding p a r t .

CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

The c r u x of m a t t e r i s , of c o u r s e , t h a t t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s , a s any o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l development coopera t ion measure, is p a r t and p a r c e l of t h e World C a p i t a l i s t System and t h a t i t i s u t t e r l y u n r e a l i s t i c t o expec t t h a t Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s would s e r i o u s l y a t t empt t o break way from t h a t System - break away from t h e domain of North America, Western Europe, Japan, and t h e o i l - r i c h c o u n t r i e s . V i r t u a l l y none of t h e in te rgovernmenta l r e s o l u t i o n s on t h e New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order (p repared by Third World governments) a r e q u e s t i o n i n g t h e C a p i t a l i s t Market System p e r s e bu t a r e i n s t e a d c a l l i n g f o r a r e s t r u c t u r i n g of t h a t System. Take, f o r example, t h e p roposa l f o r drawing up a code of conduct f o r T r a n s n a t i o n a l Corpora t ions . A code of conduct may perhaps r e g u l a t e c e r t a i n b u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e s bu t t h e T r a n s n a t i o n a l Corpora t ions w i l l , f o r c ' e r t a i n , c o n t i n u e t o be t h e main a g e n t s f o r t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s a t i o n of t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode of p roduc t ion and exchange. No d o u b t , t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l System of S t a t e s w i l l go on s u p p o r t i n g t h e expansion of t h e C a p i t a l i s t System u n t i l

i t c o l l a p s e s a s a r e s u l t of i t s own c o n t r a d i c t i o n s - whenever (o r i f e v e r ) t h a t may happen. 151

In t h e absence of any immediate p rospec t s f o r r a d i c a l changes i n "North-South" r e l a t i o n s o r r a p i d development of "South-South" c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n t economies, i t may perhaps be worthwhile f o r Third World c o u n t r i e s t o a t t empt t o r e p l a c e EEC's t r a d e p re fe rence systems w i t h more c o n c r e t e and p r o f i t a b l e t r a d e a r rangements , which a s w e l l would be a c c e p t a b l e t o European Impor te r s and I n t e r n a t i o n a l F i r n s t h a t i n any c a s e w i l l con t inue t o be t h e main economic a c t o r s i n EEC-Third World r e l a t i o n s f o r many y e a r s t o come. Th is does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y imply t h a t t h e Th i rd World i s i n a weak n e g o t i a t i n g p o s i t i o n v i s -a -v i s t h e EEC whose economic (and p o l i t i c a l ) f u t u r e p a r t l y depends on how r e l a t i o n s w i l l develop wi th t h e Th i rd World. I n t h e C a p i t a l i s t Market System, European Impor te r s and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Firms a r e n a t u r a l A l l i e s of t h e Third World. Th is i s a r e a l i t y which t h e Th i rd World should t rans form i n t o a s t r o n g l e v e r a g e f o r t h e n e g o t i a t i o n of s e c t o r a l t r a d e agreements .

A c a s e i n p o i n t i s the ACP s u g a r producing c o u n t r i e s ' agreement w i t h EEC. This permanent agreement ( f o r an i n d e f i n i t e p e r i o d ) was a r e s u l t of t h e economic and p o l i t i c a l power s t r u g g l e r e l a t e d t o t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e B r i t i s h sugar i n d u s t r y a t t h e t ime of B r i t a i n ' s a c c e s s i o n t o EEC. A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e i n d u s t r y h a s argued t h a t B r i t a i n made t h e sugar agreement one of t h e many c o n d i t i o n s f o r j o i n i n g t h e EEC. But s i n c e t h e EEC sugar-beet producing c o u n t r i e s cou ld n o t a c c e p t un l imi ted amounts of ACP s u g a r , a t world market p r i c e s , t o e n t e r t h e EEC market then t h e volume was s p e c i f i e d accord ing t o t h e B r i t i s h demand and a t t h e CAP u n i t p r i c e , which is a d j u s t e d f o r i n f l a t i o n and income movements i n EEC. The u n i t p r i c e i s t h e r e f o r e normally much h i g h e r than t h e world p r i c e . The d i f f e r e n c e i s covered p a r t l y by i n t e r v e n t i o n from t h e EEC budget and p a r t l y by t h e consumers. Though t h e agreement l e a v e s much t o be d e s i r e d , t h e ACP s u g a r producing c o u n t r i e s can a t l e a s t , w i t h same degree of conf idence , p l a n t h e s u g a r s e c t o r of t h e i r economy.

S p e c i a l s e c t o r a l t r a d e agreements do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e i n f o r c e Thi rd World dependence. They may, indeed , s e r v e a s a f i r s t s t e p toward a more economical sound and independent p o s i t i o n e s p e c i a l l y i f such a t r a d e approach were pursued i n c o n c e r t by a number of Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s . European Impor te r s of l i g h t manufactures a r e n o t u n f a m i l i a r wi th long term d e l i v e r y agreements which they o f t e n p r e f e r f o r t h e more haphazard way of going round b idd ing i n compet i t ion w i t h o t h e r Buyers. Impor te r s a r e , f i r s t and fo remos t , i n t e r e s t e d i n p roper d e l i v e r y of p roduc t s of t h e r i g h t q u a l i t y . Th i s i s why many of them have t h e i r own t e c h n i c i a n s pos ted a t Th i rd World f a c t o r i e s w i t h which they have c o n t r a c t s , o r they p l a c e t h e i r o r d e r s a t f a c t o r i e s which a r e renowned s u b s i d i a r i e s of T r a n s n a t i o n a l Corpora t ions . Some of t h e European I n t e r n a t i o n a l Buying Groups (e .g . INTER-COOP and INTERCONTO) would, no doubt , welcome t h e i d e a of e n t e r i n g i n t o s p e c i a l long term agreements w i t h Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s .

1 5 / See, f o r example: ( i ) Radice, H . ( e d . ) , I n t e r n a t i o n a l Firms and Modern - Imper ia l i sm, Penguin, London, 1975; ( i i ) H e l l e i n e r , G . K . ( e d . ) , A World Divided, Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , London, 1976; ( i i i ) T r a n s n a t i o n a l Corpora t ions -- i n World Development, United Nations, E/C. 10138, 1978.

Moreover, Free E n t e r p r i s e s a r e now accustomed t o s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n . Indeed, they sometimes welcome i n t e r v e n t i o n a s a necessa ry measure t o dampening t h e repea ted e r u p t i o n s of c r i s e s i n t h e C a p i t a l i s t System. What Free E n t e r p r i s e s do n o t l i k e a r e complicated systems of s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n s such a s GSP and MFA. I t i s a l s o well-known t h a t Third World Governments and Expor te r s p r e f e r s imple and c o n c r e t e t r a d e arrangements f o r t h e s o r t of complicated agreements wh ich p r e s e n t l y r e g u l a t e t h e i r t r a d e r e l a t i o n s wi th EEC.

There i s , t h e r e f o r e , every reason f o r t h e Third World t o r e c o n s i d e r i t s o p t i o n s v i s - a - v i s EEC. To r e i t e r a t e , t h e e s s e n t i a l p o i n t i s t h a t EEC cannot a f f o r d a breakdown of r e l a t i o n s wi th t h e Th i rd World and t h a t EEC c o u n t r i e s i n t h e p lace of t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s w i l l have t o accep t o t h e r economic means of pursu ing t h e i r p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s v i s -a -v i s t h e Th i rd World. The approach is t o t r ade-of f t h e p r e s e n t systems of t r a d e p r e f e r e n c e s , be i t t h e autonomous GSP o r t h e c o n t r a c t u a l agreements , w i t h new a p p r o p r i a t e long term and " p r i c e indexed" c o n t r a c t s f o r both pr imary and manufactured p roduc t s .

I f t h e Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s were t o t r ade-of f t h e i r t a r i f f p r e f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o EEC, they could r i g h t l y a rgue t h a t s i n c e t h e EEC c o u n t r i e s a t p r e s e n t were p repared t o fo rego t a r i f f revenues of t h e o r d e r of s a y US$ 600 m i l l i o n a n n u a l l y t o whoever manages t o b e n e f i t from i t , mainly i n t h e form of " w i n d f a l l ga ins" (which p e r d e f i n i t i o n i s n o t e s s e n t i a l f o r b u s i n e s s ) , then a t r ade-of f package shou ld perhaps i n c l u d e a p r o v i s i o n f o r t h e t r a n s f e r of such "ex t ra" t a r i f f revenues ( i f n o t a l l revenue from t a r i f f s and l e v i e s c o l l e c t e d on impor t s from t h e Thi rd World) f o r t h e b e n e f i t of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Cooperat ion under t h e c o n t r o l o f , f o r example, c e r t a i n United Nations a g e n c i e s . Such t r a n s f e r s shou ld , o f c o u r s e , be made i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e 0 . 7 % OQI\ t a r g e t i n order t o be meaningful i n t h e c o n t e x t of a t r ade-of f package.

New systems of EEC-Third World c o n t r a c t u a l agreements shou ld be dynamic i n scope and f u n c t i o n . Th i rd World Expor te r s and European Impor te r s and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Firms should a g r e e , w i t h i n t h e framework of e x p l i c i t p r o v i s i o n s f o r Third Korld and European s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n , t o j o i n t l y promote t h e development of a l l p roduc t ive f o r c e s i n t h e Third World. Th is i m p l i e s t h a t t h e domest ic economies i n Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s should b e n e f i t from t h e p roduc t ion and exchange a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e e x p o r t s e c t o r s ( p r o v i s i o n s f o r o f f - s h o r e p roduc t ion would probably be u n d e s i r a b l e ) . It a l s o i m p l i e s , t h a t Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s (governments and t h e i n d u s t r i a l and commercial s e c t o r s ) p r o g r e s s i v e l y w i l l have t o e n t e r i n t o c o n t r a c t u a l agreements (a c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n t approach) i n o r d e r t o f u r t h e r develop t h e i r p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s beyond t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e i r domest ic economies and t h e obvious l i m i t a t i o n s i n "North-South" t r a d e a t any p e r i o d i n t h e p rocess of World Development.


P U B L I C O P I N I O N AND INFORMATION ON T H I R D WORLD R E L A T I O N S I N NORWAY, SWEDEN AND THE NETHERLANDS

by Kristen Ringdal I n s t i t u t t f . Sanfunnsvitenskap Uni versi t e t e t Trondheim N-7000 Trondheim, Norway

Original language: English

Abstract: This paper i s a summary of three brief enquiries conducted in Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands on public opinion about the Third World. The summary analyses the role of different social actors and traditions which may account fo r the relat ive progressiveness of these three countries. Questions are raised about the opinions of people a t large, about the role of off ic ial development assistance (ODA) and i t s steep r i s e over the past decade, and some conclusions are drawn on information policy.

L'OPINION PUBLIQUE ET L ' INFORMATION S U ~ LES RELATIONS AVEC L E T I E R S MONDE EN NORVEGE, EN SUEDE E T AU PAYS BAS

Resume: Ce document decri t t ro i s courtes enquetes conduites en Norvege, en Suede e t au Pays Bas sur l'opinion publique e t l e Tiers Monde. I1 analyse l e role de certains agents e t de traditions sociales qui pourraient expliquer 1e progres- sisme r e l a t i f de ces t ro i s pays. Des questions sont discutees qui concernent l'opinion publique en general, l e r61e e t l a croissance remarquable de l ' a ide publique au developpement pendant la derniere decennie; 1e resume se termine par des remarques sur l a politique de 1 'information.

LA OPINION PUBLICA Y LA INFORMACI~N SOBRE RELATIONES CON EL TERCER MUNDO EN NORUEGA, SUECIA Y EN LOS P A ~ S E S BAJOS

Resumen: Este informe es un descripci6n de t res breves trabajos de investigacibn llevados a cab0 en Noruega, Suecia y en 10s Pai'ses Bajos sobre l a opinibn piiblica y el Tercer Mundo. El resumen analiza e l papel de ciertos agentes sociales y de tradici ones soci ales que podrian enventualmente expl i car el re lat ive progresismo de estos t res pafses. Se discuten cuestiones relativas a la opini6n piiblica en general, a1 papel del auxilio piiblico para el desarrollo y su notable aumento durante el ultimo decenio. En conclusi6n se expresan algunas observaciones sobre l a polftica adoptada en materia de informacibn.

K r i s t e n Ringdal

P U B L I C O P I N I O N AND INFORMATION ON T H I R D WORLD RELATIONS I N NORWAY, SWEDEN AND THE NETHERLANDS

NOTE BY IFDA

Why i s p u b l i c o p i n i o n i n Norway, Sweden and t h e Nether lands on t h e T h i r d World and on the development problemat ique more favourab le and more p rogress ive than pub1 i c o p i n i o n i n o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s ? IFDA asked t h r e e w r i t e r s f rom t h e t h r e e c o u n t r i e s t o r e f l e c t on t h i s ques t ion , each t o conduct a two-week t o u r o f i n t e r v i e w s i n one o f t h e c o u n t r i e s which i s n o t h i s o r h e r own, and t o compare t h e f i n d i n g s toge ther . The b u l k o f i n t e r v i e w s were conducted w i t h people who work on T h i r d World i n f o r m a t i o n i n a p ro fess iona l capac i t y . Due t o t h e b r i e f d u r a t i o n and the modest n a t u r e o f t h e p r o j e c t , no a t tempt was made t o r e - assess t h e general a t t i t u d e o f people a t l a r g e towards the T h i r d World. Nor was i t p o s s i b l e , a t t h i s s tage, t o conduct comparative i n t e r v i e w s i n o t h e r i n d u s t r i a - l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . Some elements o f t h e s tudy could, never the less , l e n d themselves t o a f r e s h d i s c u s s i o n on p u b l i c o p i n i o n towards development.

T h i s summary has been compi led f rom t h r e e r e p o r t s prepared i n June 1978 by Anton Ploeg (Ne ther lands) on Norway, K r i s t e n Ringdal (Norway) on Sweden, and B e r i t Hard (Sweden) on t h e Nether lands. It was w r i t t e n by K r i s t e n Ringdal , and he a lone bears t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e conc lus ions drawn. The t h r e e coun t ry r e p o r t s can be o b t a i n e d f rom IFDA on reques t .

We f e e l t h a t t h e i s s u e o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n on t h e T h i r d World i n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s i s impor tan t , and we would l i k e t o encourage readers t o r e a c t and t o send us t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s ( o f 2-3 t y p e w r i t t e n pages) t o t h e debate.

SUMMARY REPORT

The t h r e e n a t i o n s covered by t h i s s t u d y a r e r e l a t i v e l y p rogress ive i n t h e i r p o l i c i e s toward t h e T h i r d World compared t o o t h e r r i c h n a t i o n s . They a re a t t h e t o p o f t h e OECD s t a t i s t i c s o f o f f i c i a l development ass is tance (ODA) and they have taken a p r o g r e s s i v e s tand a t UNCTAD I V . Why a r e Norway, Sweden and t h e Nether- l ands more p rogress ive than o t h e r r i c h n a t i o n s ?

The progressiveness o f t h e t h r e e n a t i o n s on t h e l e v e l o f o f f i c i a l p o l i c y may be t h e r e s u l t o f p ressure f rom one o r more o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e l e v e l s : t h e e l i t e s , t h e mass media, and p u b l i c op in ion . The e l i t e s c o n s i s t o f o f f i c i a l decis ion-makers - people i n l e a d i n g p o s i t i o n s i n business and l a r g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The mass media i n c l u d e t h e a t t i t u d e s o f j o u r n a l i s t s as w e l l as t h e amount and q u a l i t y o f T h i r d World coverage i n t h e mass media. P u b l i c o p i n i o n i s t h e general a t t i t u d e of people a t l a r g e . Th is has been assessed through p o l l s i n about a dozen c o u n t r i e s i n Europe. We decided t o i n t e r v i e w persons work ing w i t h i n f o r - mat ion on T h i r d World r e l a t i o n s . A t o t a l o f n e a r l y 80 persons were in te rv iewed.

Progressiveness

Why are these three nations more progressive than o ther r ich nations?

The f i r s t point t o make i s t h a t several of those interviewed had doubts about t h e i r progressiveness. In Sweden i t was sa id t h a t t h e i r ODA policy was the bes t in the world, on the o ther hand t h i s was not ref lec ted on the Swedish t rade policy. Private investment in African nations with conservative regimes cont i - nues.

The second point i s t h a t the information workers interviewed did not regard the people a t la rge as well informed, o r spec i a l ly i n t e r e s t ed , i n r e l a t i ons of o ther countries with the Third World, though several in Sweden were of the opinion t h a t the level of knowledge was higher i n t h e i r countries than in West Germany and in the United S ta t e s . In o ther words, none of the persons interviewed mentioned pressure from the "grass roots" as the reason f o r the grea t increase in the ODA of Norway and Sweden in the 1970s.

The t h i r d point i s the importance of people i n leading pos i t ions . In the eyes of those interviewed, the e l i t e s of the p o l i t i c a l pa r t i e s and the large organizations led the way both in the f i r s t phase and l a t e r when the ODA was heavily increased. The d i f f e r en t types of e l i t e s have shown a remarkable agreement on bas ic p r inc ip l e s , without which i t would have been very d i f f i c u l t t o increase the ODA.

Las t ly , no one was of the opinion t h a t the r e l a t i v e l y in tense information work in the three nations was an important f ac to r i n explaining the progressiveness.

Commenting on the socia l and cul tura l background which led t o a favourable a t t i - tude towards development, the people interviewed mentioned the following f ac to r s :

a ) The cul tura l and re l ig ious t r ad i t i ons i n the three countries include a des i r e t o r epa i r the world. This fee l ing has been, and s t i l l i s , very strong and has led t o subs t an t i a l missionary a c t i v i t i e s , ac t ive ly supported by the populations a t home. In the Netherlands the Calvin is t a t t i t u d e - an a t t i t u d e which i s not r e s t r i c t e d t o the followers of the Calvin is t f a i t h but i s a l s o apparent among the Roman Catholics in the country - implied g u i l t fee l ings which favoured not only mission work, but a l so char i ty work l i k e fund-raising and, nowadays, development a id .

b) The p o l i t i c a l t r ad i t i ons in t he three countries emphasize welfare po l i c i e s . In Sweden and Norway, the Social-Democrats have been in o f f i c e almost without in ter rupt ion s ince the 1930s. During t h i s pei-iud the ti; cui;t;-~cz !xx k c : transformed i n t o welfare s t a t e s . In the Netherlands, coal i t i o n governments of Labour and the Catholic party s t a r t e d t h i s process a f t e r World War I1 with the support of the o the r Christian-Democratic pa r t i e s . Having es tabl ished a thorough welfare system, the governments could turn outside t o attempt t o promote a measure of welfare i n the poor countries.

c ) The Netherlands has been a colonial power f o r a long t ime, which led t o close t i e s with Third World countries and an in ternat ional o r i en t a t ion of Dutch en t e r - p r i s e s . The Dutch a r e aware of t h e i r dependence on o ther countries f o r t h e i r

ex is tence . Th is may e x p l a i n t h e g r e a t e r r o l e o f commercial i n t e r e s t s i n Dutch a i d p o l i c i e s compared w i t h those i n Sweden, and e s p e c i a l l y i n Norway. Whi le one Swedish correspondent s a i d t h a t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e economy had been a background f a c t o r i n g e t t i n g Sweden's f o r e i g n a i d programme, t h i s f a c t o r was n o t mentioned a t a1 1 i n Norway.

Commenting more s p e c i f i c a l l y on t h e steep inc rease i n development a i d , t h e most f r e q u e n t reasons mentioned were:

d ) The steady economic growth i n t h e post-war p e r i o d has r e s u l t e d i n enormous inc reases i n t h e standards o f l i v i n g i n t h e t h r e e c o u n t r i e s . Th is p r o s p e r i t y has made t h e people f e e l t h a t they can a f f o r d t o h e l p t h e poor o f t h e wor ld . Fur ther , economic growth made inc reases i n development a i d p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t c u t - t i n g down on wages and s o c i a l s e c u r i t y a t home. Many were o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e s t e p p i n g up o f development a i d cou ld n o t have been accomplished i n per iods o f s t a g n a t i o n l i k e today.

e ) I n Sweden and Norway t h e main p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s were i n agreement on t h e i ssue . Non-Labour governments i n b o t h c o u n t r i e s have i n f a c t n o t made s i g n i f i - c a n t changes i n a i d p o l i c i e s . S i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s i n t h e Nether lands were t h e op in ions o f t h e many a c t i o n groups and an a c t i v e M i n i s t e r i n a M i n i s t r y dominated by Social-Democrats.

f ) The governments have been a c t i v e l y supported (some respondents s a i d 'pushed ' ) by groups o f o p i n i o n leaders i n severa l s e c t i o n s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ( i n t h e Nether lands t h e r e was t a l k o f a 'development l o b b y ' ) . I n Sweden i t was mentioned t h a t r a d i c a l groups have been a b l e t o i n f l u e n c e t h e p o l i t i c i a n s , as t h e y met no res is tance .

g) I n Sweden, t h e government decided, i n 1968, t o inc rease ODA t o 1% o f GNP by t h e mid-1970s. T h i s was s a i d t o have had g r e a t s t r a t e g i c a l importance, making i t imposs ib le f o r t h e government t o reduce t h e s t e p p i n g up o f development a s s i s - tance when t h e economic s t a g n a t i o n s e t i n .

h ) A few o f t h e persons i n t e r v i e w e d i n Norway remarked t h a t elements o f snobbery were i n v o l v e d i n t h a t t h e people p r i d e d themselves t h a t they , as a sma l l n a t i o n , gave an example t o o t h e r n a t i o n s w i t h regard t o f o r e i g n a i d . I n t h e Nether lands, respondents drew a t t e n t i o n t o t h e smal l s i z e of t h e coun t ry - p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t such c o u n t r i e s a r e prone t o show t h a t , a l though s m a l l , they a r e n o t dependent i n t h e i r p o l i c i e s upon b i g g e r n a t i o n s .

People a t l a r g e

How can we e x p l a i n t h e r e l a t i v e "coolness" i n t h e people a t l a r g e ?

We t h i n k two f a c t o r s a re impor tan t : f i r s t o f a l l , f o r e i g n p o l i c y i s an e l i t e domain, e s p e c i a l l y i n sma l l na t ions where f o r e i g n p o l i c y i s fo rmu la ted i n t h e f o r e i g n o f f i c e . The f o r e i g n o f f i c e s , o f course, i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e p a r l i a m e n t s and c o n s u l t t h e l a r g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , b u t t h e p i c t u r e o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y b e i n g r e - mote f rom t h e people a t l a r g e remains. Second, ve ry few see connexions between t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e T h i r d World and t h e i r own concre te l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s . P o l l s show t h a t people a t l a r g e a re much more occupied w i t h the problems o f d a i l y l i f e ,

e .g . , housing, ge t t i ng new roads, be t ter ing the health system, e t c . One might, however, objec t t o t h i s i n r e f e r r ing t o po l l s which show wide acceptance f o r the p r inc ip l e of development a id .

I t i s t r u e t h a t 70-80 per cent of the population in these three countries are i n favour of the idea of development ass is tance; however, t h i s p ic ture becomes more mixed as more concrete questions are posed. This may be understood from the reasons people give f o r development ass is tance . They are primarily moral (of the type "we ought t o help the s tarv ing people in the Third World"). Very few connect the idea of DDA t o j u s t i ce or s e l f - i n t e r e s t in securing peace in the world.

Ea r l i e r research shows t h a t the e l i t e s i n several countries a r e more pos i t i ve in t h e i r Third World or ienta t ion than the population a t l a rge . Why has the p o s i t i - veness i n the e l i t e s not been converted i n t o more progressive policy in o ther r ich countr ies?

This i s a highly complex question and we can only give some h in t s . F i r s t , Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands are not unique as t o r e l i g ion . The same can be sa id of sending miss ionar ies , though the amount of money col lec ted per capi ta f o r such a c t i v i t i e s are among the highest i n the world. To give a f u l l e r answer, one would have t o look a t the h i s to r i ca l experience of the three nations. Along with o ther r ich nat ions , they have developed a welfare socie ty . This may be unique compared with t he United S ta t e s , but ce r t a in ly not compared with West Germany. Rather, we think t h a t the ideology of equal i ty t h a t pervades, especi - a l l y i n the Scandinavian countr ies , i s unique. H i s to r i ca l ly , t h i s has developed from a non-violent so lu t ion to c lass con f l i c t s t h a t evolved from indus t r i a l i za t ion .

Another observation i s t h a t the countries s tudied are small . They have fewer means t o influence in ternat ional po l i c i e s than l a rge r ones. To increase t h e i r p re s t i ge and influence they a re prone t o base t h e i r foreign policy upon the United Nations, where one nation has one vote. In l i n e with t h i s i s the heavy emphasis placed by the United Nations on the 0.7% of GNP t a rge t f o r ODA.

Off ic ia l Develooment Assistance

Why has the ODA of Norway and Sweden increased rapidly in the 1970s in con t r a s t t o most o ther r ich nations?

In addit ion t o f ac to r s mentioned e a r l i e r , economic recession s e t i n l a t e r in Norway and Sweden. For Norway, the North Sea o i l made i t possible f o r the government t o t r y t o 'buy' Norway out of the stagnation.

Another f ac to r i s the reasoning behind the ODA. The large nations have used ODA as an instrument of foreign pol icy , t o secure investments o r exports o r t o s t a - b i l i z e regimes. In Scandinavia, a t l e a s t , the o f f i c i a l reasons a r e based on arguments of s o l i d a r i t y . The ODA i s meant f i r s t of a l l t o serve the i n t e r e s t s of the Third World. This has made Scandinavia l e s s af fec ted by the general f ru s t r a t i on of the major powers as t o ODA as a means of fur ther ing s e l f i n t e r e s t s .

We conclude t h i s pa r t of the paper by pointing out the policy advice from these observations. F i r s t , the uniqueness of the three countries as t o ideology of

e q u a l i t y i s n o t i n s t r u m e n t a l . We can, however, say t h a t i t w i l l be d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d acceptance i n t h e general p o p u l a t i o n f o r inc reased ODA i n any coun t ry as l o n g as s o c i a l s e c u r i t y a t home i s neglected. Second, the p o l i t i c i a n s shou ld n o t take t h e "nega t i ve" p u b l i c o p i n i o n as an excuse f o r c u t t i n g down t h e ODA budgets. As mentioned, the people a t l a r g e a re p o s i t i v e t o t h e i d e a o f ODA, and t h e exper ience o f Norway and Sweden shows t h a t t h e ODA can be inc reased even r a p i d l y w i t h o u t c r e a t i n g severe p o l i t i c a l oppos i t i on .

L a s t l y , i t seems t h a t a p o l i c y o f e q u a l i z a t i o n , b o t h n a t i o n a l l y and between na t ions , w i l l meet most r e s i s t a n c e i n t ime o f economic s tagna t ion . Thus, i n perspec t i ve , t h e weakest groups w i l l b e n e f i t f rom economic growth.

I n f o r m a t i o n p o l i c y

P o l l s show t h a t t h e mass media, e s p e c i a l l y t e l e v i s i o n , a r e t h e main sources of i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e people a t l a r g e . Since t h e media work f rom t h e i m p l i c i t p o l i c y o f r e p o r t i n g "news ", t h e concen t ra t ion i s on t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y : scandals, wars and catastrophes. Thus, i n f o r m a t i o n workers see t h e i r f u n c t i o n as be ing t o en la rge p e o p l e ' s views and t o e x p l a i n t h e background f o r t h e news. I n t h i s way, i n f o r m a t i o n a c t i v i t y on t h e p a r t o f t h e NGOs i s t o coun te rac t t h e impressions f rom t h e media.

I n t h e t h r e e n a t i o n s , t h e S t a t e i s h e a v i l y i n v o l v e d i n i n f o r m a t i o n work. The Dutch government spends around 9 m i l l i o n US d o l l a r s each year ; t h e money i s d i s t r i b u t e d t o NGOs by t h e N a t i o n a l Committee f o r I n f o r m a t i o n and Conscient iza- t i o n . I n Sweden, 3 .4 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s and i n Norway, 1.9 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s a r e spen t on i n f o r m a t i o n f rom t h e S t a t e budgets. SIDA i n Sweden and NORAD i n Norway have adopted t h e p o l i c y o f d e c e n t r a l i z i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s t o NGOs , though they theymselves a l s o do i n f o r m a t i o n work. Most o f t h e people i n t e r v i e w e d had g r e a t b e l i e f i n t h i s p o l i c y o f d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . People have g r e a t e r con f i - dence i n t h e i r own o rgan iza t ions . The NGOs can take i d e o l o g i c a l s tands which an o f f i c i a l i n f o r m a t i o n body i s unable t o . The NGOs see t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o T h i r d World f rom a d i f f e r e n t angle, thus p romot ing a composite p i c t u r e .

The i n f o r m a t i o n workers i n t h e t h r e e c o u n t r i e s had g r e a t conf idence i n personal i n f o r m a t i o n . Th is i n c l u d e s bo th s tudy t r a v e l s t o t h e T h i r d World, as w e l l as personal c o n t a c t between senders and r e c e i v e r s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . I n Sweden, t h i s has r e s u l t e d i n a p r o j e c t on t h e p a r t o f t h e Labour movement t o educate a l o c a l network o f o p i n i o n leaders on i n t e r n a t i o n a l ques t ions . Another p r o j e c t i n t h e same l i n e has been developed by SIDA. The aim i s t o educate l o c a l groups i n schools on r e l a t i o n s h i p s between Sweden and t h e T h i r d World. When completed, t h i s w i l l comprise 3-4,000 persons c o v e r i n g a l l c o u n t r i e s . Th is p r o j e c t i s based on t h e importance o f g e t t i n g T h i r d World r e l a t i o n s i n t o t h e c u r r i c u l a o f t h e schools. The f o r m a t i o n o f t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e w o r l d a t t h i s s tage may have consequences i n a t t i t u d e s t o problems o f t h e T h i r d World i n adul thood.

I n Sweden, t h e concept o f " i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n " o f t e a c h i n g i s accepted as an i d e a l . Th is i s a process t h a t a t p r e s e n t i s i n t h e s t a r t i n g phase. The s tudy o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e a l s o beg inn ing t o t h i n k i n terms o f g e t t i n g T h i r d World pers - p e c t i v e s i n t o s u b j e c t s such as ceramics and weaving. I n t h i s way, they w i l l be a b l e t o reach many who would o therw ise n o t j o i n a s tudy c i r c l e on T h i r d World problems.

D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and personal i n f o r m a t i o n have consequences f o r the t a r g e t groups f o r i n f o r m a t i o n . Most o f t h e NGOs t r y t o reach groups t h a t a re i n t e r e s t e d and l i k e l y t o use t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , the i d e a be ing t h a t these groups a c t as o p i n i o n leaders d i s c u s s i n g T h i r d World r e l a t i o n s i n t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n and s o c i a l n e t - work. Th is a l s o i m p l i e s a view o f t h e r o l e o f i n f o r m a t i o n . Very few i n f o r m a t i o n workers t h i n k t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n does m a t t e r much as t o a f f e c t i n g a t t i t u d e s i n a s h o r t - t e r m perspec t i ve . To eva lua te t h e e f f e c t s o f i n f o r m a t i o n work i s extreme- l y d i f f i c u l t . One must, however, compare the "normal" way o f see ing T h i r d World problems today w i t h 10-15 years ago. I n t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t o u r view o f t h e T h i r d World i s changing. One o f t h e persons i n t e r v i e w e d i n Sweden had r e f l e c t e d on t h i s and he was o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e conscious i n f o r - mat ion work which, however, reaches o u t t o o n l y a segment o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n would g r a d u a l l y change the way t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n t h i n k s about t h e fundamental causes o f pover ty . I n t h e long run, t h i s w i l l mean more than t h e "news" i n t h e media.

F i n a l l y , some words on the con ten t o f i n f o r m a t i o n : a common b e l i e f e x i s t s among t h e i n f o r m a t i o n workers t h a t c o n c e n t r a t i n g on t h e extreme s u f f e r i n g o f t h e poor and on catastrophes has n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e ve ry i m p o r t a n t t o r e p o r t progress p i c t u r i n g a T h i r d World w i t h hope f o r t h e f u t u r e . Secondly, i t i s most i m p o r t a n t t o make i n f o r m a t i o n concrete, f o r example, by comparing t h e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s f o r workers i n Sweden and i n A f r i c a .

INTERACTIONS

ELOHEH, OR THE COUNCIL OF THE UNIVERSE */ by Jimmie Durham-

Some Geneva f r iends and I have been t a l k i n g t o each other about ecology and development f o r a long time.

They t e l l me s to r i es about Indians and I t e l l them s to r i es about Swiss farmers.

Now I am s i t t i n g by the Rhone River i n Geneva t r y i n g t o w r i t e about my own people, the Cherokee, i n t ime t o beat a deadline so t h a t I can go t o a pa r t y t on igh t where there may be people from South America, A f r i c a and d i f f e r e n t par ts o f Europe.

I th ink a l l o f t h a t may have bear ing on an a r t i c l e about ecology and American Indians. A t home I have a c o l l e c t i o n o f stone arrowheads t h a t have been handed down i n my fami ly f o r about seven generations. Jus t t h a t long ago we were i n the "Stone Age", and we have no t y e t passed from t h a t age i n t o any o ther age, p a r t l y because we are not y e t f r ee people and p a r t l y because the "P las t i c Age" does no t please us. Ne i ther does i t please my Geneva f r iends nor most o f the people who l i v e i n i t .

Having been a f f l i c t e d so recent ly and so severely by the P l a s t i c Age, w i t hou t the comparatively gradual move i n t o i t t h a t Europeans have had, American Indians may have a more c lea r view o f humanity's r o l e i n the world. I n t r y i n g t o exp la in t h a t view, I would l i k e t o warn readers against being over ly romantic and i d e a l i s t i c " about Indians or , on the o ther hand, being over ly arrogant and as- suming t h a t we are "p r im i t i ve savages". Both o f those ways o f t h i n k i n g come from racism and have nothing t o do w i t h r e a l i t y .

I th ink we should a lso be a l i t t l e nervous about the phenomenon o f Europeans th ink ing w i t h Th i rd World people about ecology and development; we o f the Th i rd World have ne i t he r the t ime nor the opt ions, nor the p r i o r i t i e s t h a t Europeans have, even though we may agree t h a t Western imper ia l i sm i s a monster i n i t s death throes. I t i s those death throes t h a t we must deal w i t h as we s t rugg le t o regain our places i n h i s to ry .

For example, s o l a r energy may be appropr iate technology f o r Navajo Indians i n New Mexico from a s t r i c t c u l t u r a l p o i n t o f view o r even from an economic p o i n t o f view i f seen i n i s o l a t i o n . But f i r s t the Navajo must spend a l l o f t h e i r energy t o regain t h e i r land and freedom. ( I nd ian reservat ions are c o n t r o l l e d by the U.S. government so t h a t Indians may not use the land they l i v e on.) L i ke o r not, p a r t o f t h a t s t rugg le f o r freedom must be some i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and b u i l d - i n g up o f c a p i t a l , t o be able t o deal w i t h a monster ( t he U.S.) t h a t must be d e a l t w i t h . Th i rd World people do not have the p r i v i l e g e o f t u rn ing t h e i r backs on the economic s t rang le-ho ld o f the U.S. and Europe.

Thus i t may be necessary f o r t h e Navajo t o r a i s e European sheep o r c a t t l e a t t h i s t ime, even though i t i s u l t i m a t e l y e c o l o g i c a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e t o do so, and there - f o r e economica l l y i m p r a c t i c a l i n t h e l o n g run.

But , c o n s i d e r i n g those problems and n e c e s s i t i e s , i t i s a l l the more i m p e r a t i v e t h a t we h o l d on t o o u r v i s i o n o f t h e wor ld , and t h a t o t h e r people beg in under- s t a n d i n g t h a t v i s i o n . We a r e n o t " t r y i n g t o go backwards i n t i m e " as our d e t r a c t o r s , and even some o f o u r f r i e n d s , say. We have always been dynamic and adap t i ve people, as t h a t i s p a r t o f our v i s i o n , o u r s o c i a l ph i losophy . Yet, we do n o t r e a l l y see t ime o r h i s t o r y as a l i n e a r march towards some u t o p i a . We a re n o t , e i t h e r , a g a i n s t technology. We t h i n k t h a t d e f i n i n g human progress o r development i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l terms, o r d e f i n i n g "developed" c o u n t r i e s as techno log i - c a l c o u n t r i e s , i s a f a l s e d e f i n i t i o n . A11 human s o c i e t i e s a t a11 t imes have had technology, and u n t i l r e c e n t l y most human s o c i e t i e s have had t h e technology t h a t s u i t e d t h e i r s i t u a t i o n f a i r l y w e l l . ( I n Western Europe t h a t began changing w i t h t h e Roman conquest.) The problem o f technology and progress i s n o t t h e l e a s t b i t s imple, and I b e l i e v e i t w i l l t a k e t h e involvement o f fl humani ty t h i n k i n g about i t f o r a l o n g t ime t o s o l v e i t .

Persona l l y , I l i k e t h e i d e a t h a t humans have been t o t h e moon, even though going t o the moon i s n o t r e a l l y ve ry h i g h on any l i s t o f human needs, and b e t t e r repre - s e n t a t i v e s o f o u r species cou ld have been chosen over those morons who went.

A t t h i s t ime, however, a lmost a l l o f us s u r e l y agree t h a t most modern technology causes human s u f f e r i n g and a l i e n a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e environment, and t h a t i t i s c o n t r o l l e d by people who do n o t t h i n k o f human values and needs, n o r even o f 1 ong-range p r a c t i c a l i t y .

B u t what many people do n o t see i s t h a t t h e r e i s i n v o l v e d a m e n t a l i t y - a way o f see ing t h e w o r l d - t h a t does n o t d isappear j u s t because a s o c i e t y s tops be ing c a p i t a l i s t . I t i s a m e n t a l i t y t h a t he lped produce c a p i t a l i s m and i m p e r i a l i s m , and then was re -en fo rced by them.

Readers must by now t h i n k t h a t I am rambl ing, as I am supposed t o be w r i t i n g about t h e American I n d i a n view o f ecology. Whether o r n o t I am ramb l ing , my i n t e n t i o n i s t o t r y t o p l a c e t h e I n d i a n way o f t h i n k i n g i n a l e s s e s o t e r i c p o s i t i o n . We a r e u s u a l l y t o o much though t o f as o u t s i d e some "mainstream" o f human even ts .

I n speaking t o Europeans, i t i s u s u a l l y necessary f o r Ind ians t o p o i n t t h a t i f we a re n o t understood i t may be because t h e European way o f t h i n k i n g i s unrea l , and t h a t i t i s a way o f t h i n k i n g t h a t i s i n f l i c t e d upon Europeans, and so, un- n a t u r a l . You see, we do n o t r e a l l y t h i n k you a r e r a c i a l l y i n f e r i o r , j u s t mis- guided.

Now, I s h a l l f i n a l l y beg in t a l k i n g about us. F i r s t I would l i k e t o c l e a r some common misconcept ions. American Ind ians have been i n Nor th America f o r a t l e a s t 70,000 years . Be fo re Columbus o u r p o p u l a t i o n , e x c l u d i n g Mexico, was somewhere around twen ty m i l l i o n o r more. We had an ex t reme ly v a r i e d and n u t r i t i o u s d i e t a l l t h e way across t h e c o n t i n e n t , w i t h no pover ty , and w i t h cures f o r most o f t h e d iseases we knew. Our med ic ina l technology was ex t reme ly s o p h i s t i c a t e d , i n c l u d i n g chemical b i r t h c o n t r o l methods and u n i v e r s a l l y f r e e a s p i r i n ( s o l i c y l i c

acid) for hang-overs. Technological development was in continual progress, a1- though not with the explosiveness that conies with capitalism. ( I would l ike to point out that very much of cap i ta l i s t technological development has been for war, or for relieving the i l l s brought on by technological development, or for sustaining more and more humans to the exclusion of other animals.)

Indian people in North America are very different from one nation to another, culturally and even racial ly . B u t there i s an underlying vision that unifies most of us. Some notable exceptions are the Aztec, Inca, Kwakiatl and Karankawa societ ies , b u t in those instances i t was more a case of twisting the vision around backwards than of having a different vision.

Life s tyles are varied according to the geographical region, since for us culture springs from our l i f e on specific lands, or I should say in specific ecological systems.

I am Cherokee, so I will speak about Cherokees. B u t we are not very different from any of the other nations east of the Mississippi. All Indians of those regions are farmers hunters, a fact so ignored that I think there i s no name in anthropology for that kind of society.

F i r s t l e t me explain what we do, and then I will explain why.

We raise corn, beans, many kinds of squash and pumpkins, tomatoes, melons, and sunflowers, cotton and, of course, tobacco. We also gather many wild plants that are s taples , such as poke, several kinds of nuts, many kinds of f r u i t , buckwheat and water potatoes. We fish for many kinds of fish and also e a t tur- t l e s and crawfish. We hunt, or a t least we used t o , seven different kinds of mammals and twelve kinds of birds that I can think of.

Our gardens are not large compared t o our population because several crops are planted in the same space. For example, beans are planted in such a way that they grow up the corn s talks and squash i s planted in the rows between the corn. Those three kinds of plants benefit each other, and the soi l i s re-fer t i l ized each year by the dead s talks and leaves and by fish scraps. In the spring the earth i s plowed well before planting time, which gives predators and the spring storms a chance t o k i l l many of the grubs and parasites. There i s almost always surplus from the gardens, enough so that each village had warehouses for surplus corn and beans. B u t a crop fai lure was seldom disastrous because we did not depend exclusively upon domesticated crops. The same was true of hunting and fishing. Early British t ravel lers reported seeing huge herds of semi -domesticated turkeys. We could have easily depended exclusively upon those animals for meat, b u t we never thought t o do so. I t would have meant domesticating those animals, which we consider as elder relat ives . Needless to say, such a system as I have just br ief ly described i s completely sound ecologically. I t places humans within the ecological system, instead of in opposition to i t , or "a t the mercy of" i t , as goes the stereotype about us primitives. I t should be clear that i t i s possible for a l l sor ts of development and change to take place within such a system. I t i s s t i l l eminently practical today, and I hope readers are not confused by the way I have switched back and forth from present t o past tense verbes; i t i s only because we are not now allowed to practice that system pompletely, yet I do not want t o speak of us in the past tense.

L e t me now go back t o t h e beginning, though. A t f i r s t t h e r e was o n l y water . A g i a n t t u r t l e dove down t o t h e bot tom and b rough t up some mud on h i s back. That made land. A f t e r some t ime t h e animals decided they wanted some l i g h t , and each k i n d o f animal t r i e d t o s t e a l t h e sun b u t w i t h no success. F i n a l l y , a l i t t l e s p i d e r over i n a c o r n e r s a i d , "Wel l , I w i l l go s t e a l t h e sun". When people asked who i n h e l l she was, she s a i d , "Oh, I am y o u r grandmother, I have always been here b u t j u s t l i k e t o s i t and weave so you f o r g e t about me". Then she went and caught t h e sun i n h e r web and b rough t i t back. B u t a l l these animals were generous so they agreed t h a t o t h e r people c o u l d have i t par t - t ime . Tha t i s why we have n i g h t and day. Soon, t h e buzzard began f l y i n g over t h e l a n d where t h e Cherokees would be. Every t ime he d ipped h i s wing i t made a v a l l e y . That i s why o u r l a n d i s up and down so much.

One t ime, a l l t h e animals were hav ing a counci 1 meeting, and decided t o make humans. They began a r g u i n g because each animal wanted humans t o be l i k e h imse l f . The bear s a i d t h a t humans shou ld l i k e t o s l e e p a l o t , e a t honey, and walk on t h e i r h i n d l e g s sometimes. The deer s a i d humans shou ld be s leek , and be a b l e t o r u n f a s t . And s o on; b u t arguments a r e b o r i n g so everyone began t o f a l l asleep. A l l excep t coyote, t h a t i s . He was j u s t g e t t i n g s t a r t e d , because he l i k e s t o s t a y awake a11 n i g h t . When a l l t h e o t h e r animals were sound asleep, coyote went around and took a b i t e o u t o f each one. He chewed i t a l l up and s p i t i t back ou t . Then he sang a c e r t a i n song and t h e f i r s t human came t o l i f e . That i s why we a r e a l i t t l e l i k e each o f t h e o t h e r animals, b u t we l i k e t o s i n g and make jokes l i k e coyote.

The o t h e r animals a r e o u r e l d e r s . You can e a s i l y see t h a t they a l l know what t o do i n l i f e . B u t humans a r e l i k e young c h i l d r e n t o t h e o t h e r animals; we a re t h e ones who g e t confused and always have t o t h i n k what t o do each day. To be w ise we shou ld watch and l i s t e n t o t h e o t h e r animals. Each person has s p e c i a l a n i - mals who a r e h i s teachers. He must s t a y w i t h them sometimes, and always do what t h e y adv ise .

Readers may have a l r e a d y n o t i c e d t h a t o u r i d e a o f where humans came f rom i s much more s c i e n t i f i c a l l y c o r r e c t than a r e European o r C h r i s t i a n myths. Our way o f t h i n k i n g about humans pu ts us n o t a t t h e c e n t r e o r a t t h e " t o p o f t h e heap", b u t j u s t one k i n d o f animal among many, and n o t even a ve ry smart k i n d a t t h a t . Not knowing what t o do, we must c o n s t a n t l y watch t h e r e s t o f n a t u r e . C e r t a i n l y we cannot see ourse lves as o u t s i d e o f na tu re .

We do n o t c a l l ou rse lves Cherokee; o u r word f o r ourse lves i s "Ani Yun Wiyah", which means something l i k e " t h e people who t r u l y o r i g i n a t e f rom t h i s p lace" . The word "An i " means "people". It i s a l s o used t o make s i n g u l a r nouns f o r animals i n t o p l u r a l nouns. For example, "Wohal i " i s "eagle", b u t t h e o n l y p l u - r a l fo rm i s "Ani Wohal i " - "eagle people" . I n s t e a d o f s a y i n g " th ree eagles" , we say " t h r e e o f t h e eag le people" .

Cherokees a r e d i v i d e d i n t o seven c lans, I am o f t h e w o l f c lan , b u t we have no word t h a t corresponds t o t h e word c lan . To say what c l a n I am f rom I must say ' T s i Watah", which means "I am a w o l f " . The w o l f c l a n as a whole i s c a l l e d "Ani Watah", t h e Wo l f people. Obviously ( t o some people, anyway) I am a human being, b u t I am a l s o a w o l f .

There i s no separation, even in thought and language, between humans and other animals. We never have to ask whether "nature" i s benevolent, malevolent, or neutral; we cannot place ourselves outside of i t to ask such questions. One's family i s , a f t e r a l l , one's family. Of course, neither can other people place themselves outside of nature. They only pretend to , and we can a11 see the horrible resul ts such childish arrogance brings.

The Cherokee word for land i s "Eloheh". That same word also means history, culture, and religion. We have no history and no culture i f we have no land for them to come from. We cannot think of ourselves as existing without existing direct ly in the land. Land for us i s not property, or even a place to build a house and plant crops. I t i s something truly sacred in the most profound sense, and i t i s par t of ourselves.

A11 of our lives are directed towards "tuning in" to the rest of nature. There are ceremonies for a l l so r t s of phenomena. The longest festival i s the Green Corn Dance i n the Spring and in early A u t u m n . There are songs, prayers, and dances for hunting deer, fo r going fishing, e tc . Anthropologists have said that by these ceremonies we are trying to "gain power" over these animals or events. That i s a very twisted way of thinking. What we are really doing i s trying to get ourselves into certain rhythms or certain roods. Mhen I dance the Wolf Dance I am able to p u t myself in a completely different place than where I normal ly am. I see myself and the world through different eyes for a moment, and I partake in someone e l se ' s (the Wolf's) rhythm and power. B u t i t i s reciprocal. I also give my rhythm into those animals or eveitts. In other words, I tune in.

When we pray (s ing) , we pray to the four directions: North, South, East and West. B u t when we take tobacco, as part of the prayer, we f i r s t offer i t t o s i x directions, or powers - those four and up and down. Thus our elders teach us that there are seven directions: North, South, East, West, Up, Down, and inside one's se l f .

So, we are given much responsibility in the world. Each one of us i s a direct- ion. Cherokee government i s by council, which actually consists of every Cherokee. When one goes t o council i t i s a duty to l i s ten carefully to what others are saying and t o say your own thoughts with care and integri ty .

Eloheh can be thought as a council of everything that i s a l ive. The council of the universe. We a l l are in this council to s t a t e ourselves with integri ty , and t o l i s ten carefully to a l l the other members.

I think we place humans as a whole and as individuals in a more r e a l i s t i c perspective than Europeans do.

One does not go out and shoot one's brothers and s i s t e r s fo r sport , or k i l l off an ent i re race of people, such as the Whooping Crane people, for progress or through carelessness.

The more we are part of the land which sustains us and our needs for sustenance, the more fu l f i l l ed we fee l . We l ike to be with our whole family, because everyone says such interesting things.

There i s no technology o r even a philosophy which allows humans t o escape t h i s ear th - t h i s Eloheh - or t o have "mastery" over i t . We wi l l always have t o e a t , and s o we wi l l always have t o depend upon our family fo r grocer ies . Maybe we can ge t unnaturally f a t o r numerous by s t ea l ing the groceries of o ther members of t he family, o r murdering them, but such a s i t u a t i o n cannot l a s t and i t c e r t a in ly does not make the f a t murderers fee l very good.

*/ Of the Cherokee nat ion . Jimmie Durham i s a member of the American Indian - Movement and of the International Indian Treaty Council. He played a key ro l e i n the organization of a non-governmental in ternat ional conference held a t the United Nations i n Geneva in September 1977 which discussed discrimi- nation agains t indigenous populations i n the Americas.

INDUSTRIALIZATION AS PART OF A SELF-RELIANCE STRATEGY

by Shann Turnbu l l1

Â

The IFDA Dossier 2 of November 1978 invi ted comments on "how a new dialogue on indus t r i a l i za t ion could be i n i t i a t e d " . Rather than j u s t propose a dialogue, I would propose a f i v e point plan as a basis f o r i n i t i a t i n g ac t ion .

Indus t r i a l i za t ion i s predicated upon the use of more productive technology. While the t r a n s f e r of technology can be achieved through the purchase of machines, manuals and books, i t usually a l so requires the t r ans fe r of individuals with the re levant knowledge of i t s appl ica t ion . The t r a n s f e r of individuals can be i n i - t i a t e d by e i t h e r the donor o r r ec ip i en t country.

A t the end of the l a s t century, Japan i n i t i a t e d a programme of i ndus t r i a l i za t ion through sending nat ionals t o be t ra ined overseas f o r t h i s express purpose. The success of t h i s s t r a t egy has been outstanding, y e t i t has not been widely encouraged o r followed. The t r ans fe r of individuals from donor countries i s the most commonly employed method f o r t r ans fe r r ing technology. This method can be qu i t e e f f i c i e n t , though l imi ted in ex t en t when carr ied out through the government s ec to r . The dominant, most e f f ec t ive but l e a s t beneficial method of i ndus t r i a - l i z a t ion i s through the operations of transnational corporations (TNCs).

The t r a n s f e r of i ndus t r i a l knowledge through TNCs , with t h e i r present system of perpetual property r i g h t s , represents a very i n e f f i c i e n t technique and can very often be counterproductive f o r developing countr ies . Any corporation which provides stockholders with perpetual property r i gh t s crea tes a means f o r ex t r ac t ing values in excess of the incentive required t o i n i t i a t e new investment and/or the t r a n s f e r of technology. The concept of values i n excess of incent ive o r ' surplus p r o f i t s ' cannot be properly evaluated unless a cashflow system of analys is i s used. Astoundingly, modern economic theory i s not based on the cashflow system of analys is used by TNCs, individuals , and the small businessman. As a r e s u l t , many of t he most g i f t ed and knowledgeable economists are denied in s igh t s i n t o the problems and oppor tuni t ies which TNCs provide f o r a s e l f - r e l i ance indust r ia- l i z a t i o n s t r a t egy .

A cashf low system o f economic a n a l y s i s (paradigm) revea ls t h a t t h e perpe tua l pro- p e r t y r i g h t s o f TNCs c r e a t e t h e means f o r t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y advanced c o u n t r i e s t o e x t r a c t s u r p l u s p r o f i t s f rom t h e poor c o u n t r i e s and t o make t h e r i c h i n t h e r i c h c o u n t r i e s r i c h e r . Th is a b i l i t y i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e b a s i c assumption o f market economies t h a t c o m p e t i t i o n wi 11 l i m i t excessive p r o f i t s . C o r r e c t i o n o f t h i s d e f e c t can be achieved by t h e use o f dynamic p r o p e r t y r i g h t s ( t e n u r e ) .

Dynamic tenure i s c rea ted where monopoly p r o p e r t y r i g h t s t r a n s f e r f rom one c l a s s o f i n d i v i d u a l s t o ano ther c lass on a cont inuous bas is w i t h t h e passage o f t ime . Such arrangements c o u l d be i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n ( c h a r t e r ) o f corpo- r a t i o n s s o t h a t a l l t h e p r o p e r t y r i g h t s o f f o r e i g n ven tu re c a p i t a l i s t s t r a n s f e r - r e d t o r e s i d e n t employees and/or consumers, e t c . a t , say, a r a t e o f 5% p e r annum. Th is c rea tes what i s r e f e r r e d t o as an Ownership T r a n s f e r Corpora t ion (O.T.C.). I f such arrangements were i n t r o d u c e d through t h e p r o v i s i o n o f t a x i n c e n t i v e s i t cou ld p r o v i d e a means o f phasing o u t ( d e - l i n k i n g ) over 20 years a l l e x i s t i n g f o r e i g n p e r p e t u a l p r o p e r t y r i g h t s w h i l e s t i l l a t t r a c t i n g new f o r e i g n inves tment and technology.

The e l i m i n a t i o n o f a l l f o r e i g n ownership over t ime would a l s o e l i m i n a t e t h e ex- p o r t o f va lues i n excess o f i n c e n t i v e a f t e r t h e phase-out p e r i o d . The cap tu re o f these values by r e s i d e n t s would s u b s t a n t i a l l y a c c e l e r a t e domestic development and s e l f - r e l i a n t i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . The p r a c t i c a l i t y and advantages o f t h i s p ro - posal w i l l be d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t imposs ib le , t o e v a l u a t e w i t h o u t u s i n g t h e same method o f cash f low a n a l y s i s as i s u t i l i z e d by t h e TNCs themselves.

The p o t e n t i a l f o r o r g a n i z i n g fi economic development w i t h i n a n a t i o n o r i t s i n t e r n a l reg ions on a s e l f - f i n a n c i n g b a s i s i s l a r g e l y h idden f rom economists who base t h e i r a n a l y s i s on concepts o f ' p r o f i t ' and ' r a t e s o f p r o f i t ' which depend upon a r b i t r a r y and ever-changing accoun t ing convent ions. Cashflow a n a l y s i s makes q u i t e e x p l i c i t t h e f a c t t h a t economic growth i s n o t a ze ro sum process and t h a t everybody can become b e t t e r o f f i f t h e ownership ( t e n u r e ) o f t h e means of p roduc ing g r e a t e r w e a l t h i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y d i s t r i b u t e d . Because o f t h i s , t h e cash f low paradigm r e v e a l s what shou ld be a s e l f - e v i d e n t t a u t o l o g y t h a t a l l economic growth has t h e p o t e n t i a l t o be o rgan ized on a s e l f - f i n a n c i n g bas is .

Economic growth occurs when a s o c i e t y inc reases i t s a b i l i t y t o b o t h produce and consume goods and s e r v i c e s . Technology p rov ides t h e o n l y way t o i n c r e a s e t h e o u t p u t o f a s o c i e t y w i t h o u t r e q u i r i n g an inc rease i n human labour . The use o f technology t o i n c r e a s e t h e o u t p u t p e r person w i l l o n l y c r e a t e growth i n a s o c i e t y i f t h e s o c i e t y concerned can a l s o inc rease i t s a b i l i t y t o pay f o r more goods and s e r v i c e s . The degree t o which a community can inc rease b o t h i t s a b i l i t y t o produce and purchase i t s own o u t p u t w i l l depend upon ( a ) t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e conmu- n i t y owns t h e revenues o f p roduc t ion , and ( b ) t h e e x t e n t t h a t such revenues ex- ceed t h e cos ts t o t h e community o f e s t a b l i s h i n g and o p e r a t i n g t h e more p r o d u c t i v e technology. A1 1 technology which generates economic growth must, t h e r e f o r e , pay f o r a l l i t s c o s t w i t h i n each community and so become s e l f - f i n a n c i n g w i t h i n each community. The f i n a n c i a l problem o f g e n e r a t i n g economic growth i s one o f b r i d g - i n g t h e 'payback p e r i o d ' between t h e t i m e o f i n c u r r i n g t h e c o s t s and o f r e c e i v i n g t h e revenues o f more p r o d u c t i v e technology.

Provided every community can bui 1 d i t s own f inancia l and/or soci a1 i n s t i t u t i o n s t o bridge the 'payback period' of development, then there i s absolutely no j u s t i - f i ca t ion f o r any community t o become dependent upon a l i en c r e d i t i n s t i t u t i o n s . While there could be some const ra in ts on local urban cent res and regions within a nation f o r crea t ing f inancia l i n s t i t u t i o n s t o a1 low se l f-financing local development, there should be no such const ra in ts on a national economy.

The development of se l f - f inancing investment banking i n s t i t u t i o n s in every nation would g rea t ly accelera te the r a t e of economic growth in each country because i t would e l iminate the cos t of i n t e r e s t payments and any devaluation losses on foreign c r e d i t s . This f inancia l de-linking of developing nations would a l so increase t h e i r po l i t i ca l independence. This would not be in the po l i t i ca l or economic i n t e r e s t of the r ich indus t r i a l i zed nations and t h e i r public o r pr iva te s ec to r bureaucracies.

The implementation of a s e l f - r e l i ance development s t r a t egy based on the s e l f - f inancing concept and the more e f f i c i e n t t r a n s f e r of technology i s no t , however, necessar i ly dependent upon any i n i t i a t i v e s by the r ich nat ions . The Third World can, t he re fo re , introduce s e l f - r e l i a n t development s t r a t e g i e s on a uni la tera l bas i s . This may require t h a t they band together t o introduce the f i v e point ac t ion plan as suggested below:

1. Conversion of economic opinion leaders t o the cashflow and tenure methodology (paradigm) of economic and socia l analys is so t h a t new ins igh t s and solu t ions t o the problems of i ndus t r i a l s e l f - r e l i ance can be iden t i f i ed , accepted, developed and implemented.

2. The education of p o l i t i c a l leaders and t h e i r cons t i t uen t s , especia l ly those in the Third World nat ions , t o the new options i den t i f i ed by the cashflow paradigm f o r implementing a self-determined, se l f - f inanced, s e l f - r e l i a n t indus t r i a l i za t ion s t r a t egy .

3 . The United Nations and i t s agencies t o introduce the new se l f -he lp , s e l f - r e l i a n t development s t r a t e g i e s based on:

a ) t r a n s f e r of technology through:

i ) movement of individuals ; i i ) the Ownership Transfer Corporation concept;

b) t he building of local self-financing investment banking and associa ted i n s t i t u t i o n s t o de-link dependent urban a reas , regions and nations from a l i e n sources of c r e d i t and p o l i t i c a l influence while a t t he same time both accelera t ing and democratizing the process of development.

4. The World Bank and a l l o ther governmental in ternat ional f inancia l i n s t i t u t i o n s t o change t h e i r operations from providing in ternat ional c r ed i t s t o teaching c l i e n t nations how t o bui ld t h e i r own i n s t i t u t i o n s so as t o allow a l l domes- t i c development t o become in t e rna l ly se l f - f inancing.

*/ Management and Investment Services Ltd., 33 Bl igh S t r e e t , Sydney, N.S.W., - Austra l ia .

TOWARDS SOLIDARITY CONTRACTS - THE TEVOEDJRE CONCEPT ARTICULATED *I by Reginald Herbold Green-

The contrac t of s o l i d a r i t y i s based f i r s t l y on a diagnosis of the present s t a t e of the world and secondly on a new view of the development of nations. . . . i t can become e f f ec t ive only i f i t recognizes t h a t inequa- l i t i e s e x i s t and i f i t leads t o a t o e l iminate them. . . . the only way out l i e s i n acceptance of a model of poverty by a l l .

- A1 be r t T6vo6djre

However keen the aspi ra t ion towards a completely new economic order may be, there i s no force capable of imposing i t overnight. Although the importance of moral and p o l i t i c a l fac tors cannot be underestimated they a re not enough. We must s t a r t with the objec t ive legal r e a l i t i e s . . .

- Jokica Hadzi Vasileva

So l ida r i t y cannot, of course, replace the s t ruggle f o r radical changes in the in ternat ional d iv is ion of labour and the socio-economic s t r u c t u r e of the developing countr ies , but i t can and should help in t h i s s t rugg le .

- Tamas Szentes

Even though i t i s s e l f i n t e r e s t which motivates t h i s support , the end r e s u l t i s appropr ia te ly ca l led " so l ida r i t y" which i s viewed as any c o m i t - ment t o socia l measures which a re designed t o reduce the cos ts which accompany socia l con f l i c t .

- Sheldon Danziqer and Robert Haveman

These four quotations from "Towards s o l i d a r i t y contrac ts" (Labour and Society, Vol.3 - No.314, 1978, In ternat ional I n s t i t u t e f o r Labour Studies , Geneva) i l l u s t - r a t e the i n t e l l ec tua l appeal, prac t ica l problems, and theore t ica l imprecision of the t op ic a t t he present time. The idea of " so l ida r i t y contrac ts" as an enforceable way of in ternat ional and national socio- and pol i t i co-economi c reconstruction transcending (by recognizing) inequal i ty , s e l f i n t e r e s t and s t ruggle was launched by Albert T6vo6djt-6, d i r e c t o r of the IILS, i n January 1976 and has been the sub jec t of considerable subsequent research and dialogue leading t o t h i s volume of essays r e l a t i n g i t t o the s t ruggle f o r a New Internat ional Economic Order.

As Therese Pang puts i t succinct ly :

The idea of s o l i d a r i t y replaces the missing f ac to r of re turn fo r services rendered not by a p o l i t i c a l f ac to r but by the idea of a super ior i n t e r e s t , common t o both pa r t i e s . ... The s o l i d a r i t y contrac t has t o be f i t t e d i n t o a context i n which there i s as y e t no f ee l ing of s o l i d a r i t y : t he contrac t may thus be viewed as a means of compensating f o r the lack of t h i s f ee l ing of s o l i d a r i t y .

There a r e therefore two elements o r goals t o the " s o l i d a r i t y contrac t" :

1. achieving a form of re la t ionship based on a foundation beyond e i t h e r d i r e c t exchange o r mutual s e l f i n t e r e s t ; and

2. c rea t ing a s t ruc tu re of re la t ionship which includes mutual, enforceable requirements on the contrac t ing pa r t i e s .

On both points confusion appears t o e x i s t both i n t e l l e c t u a l l y and in r ad i ca l ly d i f f e r e n t i n t e rp re t a t i ons among contr ibutors . So l ida r i t y i n family, c l an , sub- c l a s s , c l a s s o r nation usually does go beyond s e l f i n t e r e s t , but i t i s arguable t h a t the foundation from which i t i s b u i l t i s a perceived mutual i n t e r e s t which encompasses "en1 ightened s e l f i n t e r e s t " . Certainly several of the authors s o i n t e r p r e t i t . I f t h i s i s co r r ec t then l e s s unequal exchanges, c o n f l i c t reduction, d i s a s t e r prevention o r l imi t a t i on and other areas of potent ia l perceived mutual s e l f i n t e r e s t may need fu r the r study and dialogue as affording the most p rac t i c - able base t o use i n constructing toward inter-governmental " s o l i d a r i t y contrac ts" .

Many of t he contrac ts posed as examples do not appear t o be enforceable, nor i s i t always c l e a r how the mutual obl iga t ions could be formulated without the ap- pearance (and r e a l i t y ) of in ternat ional agencies as "Platonic Guardians" d i c t a t - ing const ra in ts s e t by indust r ia l ized countries t o Third World receip ients - a process the U N ' S extended family i s a11 too ap t a t performing (of ten unwitt ingly) but hardly one consis tent with " so l ida r i t y contrac ts" . In the absence of a perceived mutual i n t e r e s t i n the r e su l t s and of an operational world governmental ( j u r i d i c a l and enforcement) apparatus, mutual obligations may we1 1 enable each par ty t o pull out i f the o ther de fau l t s , but t h a t i s the opposite of enforcing mutual performance.

The nature of the goals and the imprecision ( o r cont radic t ions) in and among the a r t i cu l a t ed de f in i t i ons r a i s e grave doubts as t o whether "contrac ts of s o l i d a r i t y " a r e even in pr inc ip le a media o r golden mean between the "what we have we hold" a t t i t u d e s of the "great"d second-line i ndus t r i a l powers and the s t ruggle 2 outrance theme of the most single-minded revolut ionar ies . These are hardly -- s t i l l e d by the r epe t i t i ve use of s l i g h t l y refurbished "aid" contrac ts , the c i t i n g of the Lome Convention as a s o l i d a r i t y i n s t i t u t i o n and TNC's as p laus ib le " so l i - d a r i t y contrac t" par tners and the tendency in a majority of the contributions (by no means a l l ) t o t r e a t s t ruggle as a minor secondary contradic t ion , the r e s u l t of misunderstanding o r a concept not even worthy of mention.

More s p e c i f i c a l l y :

a ) Enforceabil i ty i n a legal sense i s not a t t a inab le sho r t of world government. In i t s absence en fo rceab i l i t y must be in ternal t o the p a r t i e s ' own conscien- ces o r perceptions of mutual i n t e r e s t . What levels of consciousness and what dr iv ing forces does t h i s imply?

b) Can one r ea l ly t r e a t the Marxian ( o r f o r t h a t matter the Christ ian or Islamic o r Buddhist) concepts of cont radic t ion and s t ruggle as e i t h e r t o t a l l y out of da te o r secondary? Why and how - and in whose i n t e r e s t ?

c ) Are s o l i d a r i t y contrac ts l i k e l y i n the present in ternat ional and national contexts t o be means t o achieve o r ways t o postpone radical s t ruc tu ra l change? Among whom? Under what conditions?

I s not the concept - especia l ly so long as i t remains imprecise and t i e d t o examples of a id contrac ts - l i ke ly t o prove subjec t t o co-option and serve t o mystify and demobilize? The danger seems even more acute f o r " s o l i d a r i t y contrac ts" than f o r basic human needs, so the p o l i t i c a l and technocra t ic e f f o r t s t o co-opt t h a t radical Third World approach t o the service of multi- national marginal reformism and mu1 t i 1 a t e r a l platonic guardianship should stand as a warning t o " so l ida r i t y contrac t" t heo r i s t s and p rac t i t i one r s .

In pa r t i cu l a r , how does and s t rugg le or iented? African - TNC (e.g. Rio

one t r e a t " so l ida r i t y contrac ts" which are sec t ional Third World and regional bodies? OPEC? The South Tinto Zinc) - i ndus t r i a l i zed countries (e.g. two

successive Labour governments of the U K ) s o l i d a r i t y contrac ts turning on Rossing Uranium - Foreign Investment - Regional Geopolitics - Cheap Power, e t c . , f a r beyond sho r t term p r o f i t and loss so as t o suggest Messrs. Vorster, Duncan and Benn were engaged in a " so l ida r i t y contrac t"?

Except i n specia l - or a t l e a s t a l imited range of - cases , does not so l ida- r i t y with necessar i ly enta i l so l idar i ty aqainst , with some sub-classes, s t a t e s , en t e rp r i s e s , individuals being among those whom s o l i d a r i t y i s agains t? What then? On what c r i t e r i a does one choose between competing, con f l i c t i ng , s t ruggl ing s o l i d a r i t y groupings?

To consider what r o l e " so l ida r i t y contrac ts" can play i t i s necessary t o recal l the point underlined by Paulin Houtondji t h a t s o l i d a r i t y has usually a r i s en out of s t rugg le and - h i s t o r i c a l l y a t l e a s t - usually out of s o c i a l , i n s t i t u t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l o r c l a s s s t ruggle with the r e s u l t t h a t :

For anyone ac t ive ly embroiled i n these con f l i c t s - whether he i s person- a l l y involved o r merely f e e l s t h a t they concern him t o some ex ten t - i t may be s a i d , in s impl i f ied terms, t h a t any s o l i d a r i t y experienced, whether imaginary o r r e a l , whether based on an objec t ive community of i n t e r e s t o r an i l l u s i o n , always appears, in r e t ro spec t , t o have been conceived f o r the purposes of combat . .. uni t ing only in so f a r as i t divides ...

Struggle and s o l i d a r i t y are not separa te - s o l i d a r i t y e x i s t s primarily t o f u r t h e r , and in the context and re la t ionship o f , s t rugg le . True, the objec t of s t ruggle may be a common non-human p e r i l , e .g . , smallpox, some aspects of ecological des t ruct ion , a plague of l ocus t s , but t h a t only underlines the r e a l i t y t h a t s o l i d a r i t y i s inherent ly both combatitive and protec t ive and a l s o t h a t i t i s based on a perceived mutual i n t e r e s t .

In f a c t , a11 but one of the s t ronges t papers i n t he volume, Szentes, Hountondji, Oteiza and Rahman, Vasileva and t h a t pa r t of Chonchol not somewhat a r t i f i c i a l l y l inked t o the opening de f in i t i on of " so l ida r i t y contrac ts" - a l l r ea l ly build from s o l i d a r i t y as a means t o unifying excluded, exploi ted and oppressed persons, primary communities, c lasses o r s t a t e s t o s t ruggle f o r basic change agains t entrenched e l i t e s , i n s t i t u t i o n s and c l a s se s . The exception - WHO team - i s i n a f i e l d i n which a broader s o l i d a r i t y agains t non-human opponents i s l i k e l y t o be more readi ly a t t a inab le , but even so has some a id and pla tonic guardian ad- mixtures which - while qu i t e possibly objec t ive ly necessary today and consis tent with i n i t i a l progress toward making health an "enforceable" ( o r a t l e a s t acces- s i b l e ) bas ic human r igh t - r a i s e questions as t o whether what a r e out l ined a re

t r ue " so l ida r i t y contrac ts" .

This does suggest tha t , i f one thinks and analyses more precisely, there are areas of in ternat ional r e l a t i ons in which " so l ida r i t y contrac ts" could be prac t icable and mobi 1 i z i ng today:

a ) among "1 ike minded" s t a t e s , c l a s s (sub-class) organizations, para1 l e l i n s t i - tu t ions (e .g . , some co-operatives), voluntary bodies: f o r speci f ied objec t ives agreed in the context of a broader ongoing contact and dialogue;

b ) among "1 ike goaled" s t a t e s , i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e a t rade union domestically, o r l ike OPEC vis-a-vis a t l e a s t i t s i ndus t r i - a l i zed (Eas t and West) customers;

c ) among s t a t e s o r i n s t i t u t i o n s perceiving themselves as "common imper i l led" , e .g . , by locus ts o r mass s tarvat ion or cholera.

In t h i s approach " so l ida r i t y contrac ts" would be a form of organizing f o r s t rug- g l e not i t s an th i thes i s . They are a t l e a s t t o some degree s e l f enforcing and capable of having some bu i l t - i n c o n f l i c t resolut ion devices so long as the common objec t ive o r pe r i l remains. They would be a po ten t i a l l y growing, but probably not the dominant, aspect of the attempts t o secure in ternat ional change and a re b u i l t from perceived common i n t e r e s t s (attempting t o broaden the per- ception and commonality) r a the r than r e j ec t ing them. They would not be the only - nor i n the North/South o r the s t a t e / en t e rp r i s e arenas the normal - form of negotiated agreement. To imagine t h a t TNC's can be p laus ib le " so l ida r i t y cont- r a c t " partners (as opposed t o useful pa r t i e s t o a negotiated business contrac t ) as Coppe and Sugranyes argue, i s a form e i t h e r of s e l f delusion o r mystif ication and i s l i k e l y f i r s t t o confuse and demobilize and then t o heighten animosity and increase the violence component in s t ruggle .

The concept of " so l ida r i t y contrac ts" - thus reduced and p a r t i a l l y redefined - seems worth much more careful de f in i t i on , a r t i c u l a t i o n and attempted appl ica t ion i f , and only i f , one constantly bears in mind Paulin Houtondji ' s warning:

l e t us be frank: any t a l k of s o l i d a r i t y i s l i k e l y t o be misleading i f i t takes no account of the existence of violence, b r u t a l i t y and oppres- s ion and disregards the widespread presence of con f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t s within every nation as well as on a world-wide sca l e . . . . I t would in t h a t case be nothing more than one of the many strategems adopted by those in power t o quel l the e f f o r t s f o r l i be ra t ion of the oppressed masses of the world, weaken t h e i r determination, s tave off t h e i r v ic tory .

Or as the present reviewer remarked in a re la ted context - "I agree t h a t wolves and sheep have ce r t a in common i n t e r e s t s i n c o n f l i c t with those of c a t t l e herders but , as a would-be sheep, I am qu i t e unconvinced t h a t the e f f o r t t o c r ea t e a J o i n t Benevolent Society of Sheep and Wolves i s sound - unless one happens t o be a wolf."

*/ The I n s t i t u t e of Development Studies , University of Sussex, Brighton, - Sussex BN1 9RE, England

WHAT IS A STRATEGY

by Johan Galtung

1 . In t roduct ion

St ra tegy, t h a t i s p o l i t i c s . And p o l i t i c s , l i k e anything

e l s e can be done more or l e s s well . To know whether it i s done more wel l

or l e s s we l l , and above a l l t o have some ideas about how it could be done

b e t t e r , a theory of s t r a t egy i s indispensable. Much of t h a t e x i s t s today,

a f t e r a l l t h i s i s what key th inke r s i n t he f i e l d of p o l i t i c s such as von

Clausewitz and Lenin were wr i t i ng about i n very d i f f e r e n t ways, and more

recent ly t he re is t h a t remarkable book ca l l ed St ra tegy f o r a Living Revo-

l u t i o n , by George Lakey. However, t he re i s no dear th of mater ia l i n t h i s

f i e ld . Rather, t he re i s a tendency, p a r t i c u l a r l y well-known from

UN documents and from recentUworld models" t o s top the ana lys i s where "po-

l i t i c s " begins, with formulations l i k e " t h i s , however, i s a p o l i t i c a l ques-

t ion". Of course, t h a t i s where the analys is very of ten should s t a r t , lea-

ding up t o ac t ion d i r ec t ives t h a t a r e c l e a r and j u s t i f i e d i n terms of the

goals t o be obtained - a t l e a s t on paper. It has been the view of the pre-

sent a u t h o r - f o r t he l a s t 20 years o r so - and the work done i n the f i e l d

of peace research i s an example of t h i s - t h a t an analys is without pol icy

implications of a s t r a t e g i c na tu re i s no good analys is . There a r e two

reasons f o r t h i s . F i r s t , as has "been sa id by so many - our task i s not

merely t o r e f l e c t t he world but t o do something about i t , and t o t he extent

we a r e exerc is ing paper-and-pencil operations we can a t l e a s t guide these

operations towards policy implications. Second, and l e s s f requent ly mentio-

ned, when pol icy implications a r e s p e l t out the analys is i t s e l f , both i t s

s t rength and i t s shortcomings, tends t o become much more understandable.

Readers can say t o themselves and t o o the r s "so t h i s i s what you mean !" ;

the author himself might be one of these readers and f e e l t h a t h i s ana lys i s

i s challenged by h i s own impl ica t ions i n t he sense t h a t the whole t h ing

does no t hang well enough together and hence be prompted t o revis ions .

In sho r t , i t i s a good way of fo rc ing a dialogue, t he author with himself ,

the author with t he readers , t he readers among themselves.

I t i s the contention of the present paper t h a t i n order t o

s p e l l out a s t r a t egy one has t o know no t only what the goal of t h a t p o l i t i c a l

a c t l v i t y i s , and ( the j u s t i f i c a t i o n ) - t he answers to these two

questions would be nothing but regular analys is of what i s wrong i n present

soc i e ty and what a b e t t e r soc i e ty might look l i k e . One a l so has t o know

who s h a l l do i t ( t he c a r r i e r s of the s t r a t egy , d i e Trgger, l e s por teurs ) ,

and they a re going to do i t . And more than t h a t , some ideas have to

be given a s t o ( i n s o c i a l space, poss ib ly a l so i n geographical space ) concrete ac t ions have t o be carr ied out , and a ( i n soc i a l time, i n some

cases a l s o i n chronological time ). I t i s only by adding the who, how, where

and when t o t he what and why t h a t a s u f f i c i e n t l e v e l of s p e c i f i c i t y i s

given so t h a t a t l e a s t the th inking of s t r a t e g i e s moves from the realm of

goal formulations t o t he realm of processes.

In saying t h i s one should ca re fu l ly avoid a too sharp d is -

t i n c t i o n between goals and processes i n t h e f i e l d o f p o l i t i c s . Thus, a goal

which i s no t a t t he same time a process becomes a dogma, a r i g i d , a h i s t o r i c a l

f i n a l s t age of development - hence an absurdity. And a process, such as a

p o l i t i c a l f i g h t , which does not a t the same time have some character of

being a goal i n i t s e l f i s hardly worth p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n . This i s so c l e a r l y

seen when one i s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a p o l i t i c a l f i g h t : t he i n t e n s i t y of the

experience, t he joy of pa r t i c ipa t ion , of doing something meaningful - a l l

t h a t goes much beyond expectation of goals t o be r ea l i zed , i t a t t aches t o

t he process i t s e l f . I n f a c t , a f t e r the goal has been "achieved" - the

enemy i s out of t he country, the c l a s s enemy has been eliminated a s a c l a s s -

the aftermath does no t nea r ly carry the same range and d e p t h o f s a t i s f a c t i o n

a s the s t rugg le i t s e l f . This, 'however, i s no t the same a s saying t h a t

s t ruggle is the goal of humankind : one w i l l probably come c lose r t o i m -

por tant i n s i g h t s i n human beings i f one pos tu la ted an undulating p a t t e r n

of s t rugg le a l t e r n a t i n g with goal achievement o r a t l e a s t some r e s p i t e from

s t ruggle a s something worth s t r i v i n g for . And t h i s i s perhaps what the

Chinese mean o r meant when they talked about "a permanent revolution".

S t ra tegy, then, i s t he l i n k between theory and p rac t i ce .

It has t o have an element of e i t h e r to s t e e r c l e a r of t he Scy l l a o f ac t io-

nism without goals and a commitment t o goals without any ac t ion . But what

a good s t r a t e g y i s we never know before i t has been t r ans l a t ed i n t o prac-

t i c e and proven t o work.

2 . The When

I n the l i s t of 6 small words used i n t he in t roduct ion i t

might have been l o g i c a l t o s t a r t with the what and the why - and p rec i se ly

f o r t h a t reason we would l i k e t o s t a r t with the when and the where. I n 2

study of goals the what and the why would dominate, i n a study of processes

of development the when and the where should so t o speak lead the t r a i n of

thought.

We s h a l l s p l i t t he time dimension, the when, i n two aspects :

some r e f l e c t i o n s about when t o s t a r t p o l i t i c a l ac t ion i n an absolute sense,

and when t o i n i t i a t e ac t ions i n a r e l a t i v e sense, meaning by t h a t the time

&r of d i f f e r e n t types of p o l i t i c a l action. We s h a l l r e f e r t o these two

aspects a s " the p r inc ip l e of r i p e time" and "the p r inc ip l e of co r r ec t time

order" r e spec t ive ly , and now proceed under these two headings.

( a ) The p r i n c i p l e of r i p e time. Eas i ly t h i s i s the point t h a t could bes t be

used as a way of d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g between p o l i t i c i a n s and theo re t i c i ans . A

good p o l i t i c i a n has a sense of timing, a t heo re t i c i an may have a sense of

a l l the r e s t but i s not s u f f i c i e n t l y attuned to the seismic waves of t he

p o l i t i c a l landscape t o know when to march forward. There i s a good expression

i n French : a t t end re son heure , but i t i s obvious t h a t i t cu t s both ways.

On the one hand i t i s a warning against he who rushes forward agains t the

t i d a l waves where a l i t t l e b i t of waiting would have given him tremendous

addi t ional energy o r momentum. On the o the r hand it should a l s o serve a s a

warning aga ins t he who does nothing but wai t ing , us ing the "pr incip le of

unripe time" a s a perennial p re t ex t f o r i nac t ion , l e t t i n g a l l t he t i d a l

waves pass , occas ional ly p icking out a counter-wave which can be used as

evidence t h a t he i s co r r ec t i n adapting h i s unperturbed wai t ing posture.

The metaphors used above point t o one simple p r inc ip l e : t o work

with r a the r than agains t t rends tha t a r e present anyhow, e spec i a l ly when they

a re i n t h e " r igh t " d i r ec t ion , but a l so when they a re neu t r a l and can be

s teered somewhat. A s t r a t egy i s a guided or s teered process, and should make

f u l l use of fo rces opera t ing i n the p o l i t i c a l landscape anyhow. As a metaphor

might serve the way i n which women i n many "primitive" s o c i e t i e s give b i r t h :

i n a squa t t i ng pos i t i on , making use of the force of g rav i ty i n addi t ion t o

t h e i r own muscular forces and contrac t ions ; as opposed t o women i n "advanced"

soc i e t i e s l y i n g ho r i zon ta l ly , working ne i the r with nor agains t the pu l l of

gravity.

Thus, the timing question becomes one of knowing when such

soc i a l ly and p o l i t i c a l l y re levant fo rces a r e operating. No doubt survey

analys is may be an important tool here : trend data showing decl ines o r

increases i n ce r t a in a t t i t u d e s may be more important than data g iv ing the

absolute f i gu re s . To be low but on the increase may be b e t t e r than t o high

but on the decl ine - the gradient i n publ ic opinion f igu re s may give more

information about t he p o l i t i c a l forces opera t ing than the absolute f igures .

Thus, an a t t i t u d e which has held a commanding pos i t i on f o r a long time

but shows ind ica t ions of s l i pp ing , and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the center of pol i -

t i c a l opinion formation i n soc i e ty would be l e s s worth gambling on than A

a l e s s widely held opinion r ap id ly gaining adherence, pa r t i cu l a r ly i n the

center of socie ty .

I n saying t h i s i t should be emphasized t h a t by center/periphery

we c e r t a i n l y do not mean b~ur~eoisie/~roletariate. I t i s only t h a t soc i e t i e s

do have s t eep gradients of s o c i a l pos i t i on , these gradients a r e s t rongly

corre la ted with being sender and being r ece ive r of p o l i t i c a l l y r e l evan t

a t t i t u d e s , and f o r t h a t reason it would count more what happens among

s k i l l e d workers i n t he c i t i e s than among uneducated old l ad i e s i n t he

countryside. (1n saying so we have already indica ted four components of

t h i s gradient : age, sex, urban/rural - education - and one could add

others , income, primary versus secondary and t e r t i a r y s ec to r , functionary

vs. worker, and the geographical center/periphery dimensions of any socie ty) .

There i s an o ther , however, much more prec ise but a l s o more d i f f i -

c u l t t o de f ine component i n the question of"whennin the absolute sense.

Again a physica l analogy might be u se fu l : an eskimo who wants t o topple

an iceberg i n t o the water w i l l know t h a t no fo rce he can mobilize i s able

t o do so before the iceberg i s i n a pos i t i on of highly uns table equil ibrium,

a t the very water f ron t . A t t h a t point only a l i t t l e muscle would be su f f i -

c ient . The question of i den t i fy ing when repress ive regimes a r e i n uns table

equil ibrium i s a major one - the point would be no t t o waste forces t r y i n g t o

unsaddle a f i rmly entrenched oppressor, but r a t h e r wait till he i s vulne-

rable . One might say t h a t the upshot of a l l t h i s would be t o argue i n

favour of some kind of p o l i t i c a l , j iu- j i t su ; an a r t of f i g h t i n g where t he

two p r inc ip l e s mentioned a r e f u l l y u t i l i z e d . I n so doing one i s applying

s t r a t e g i e s t h a t the weak can a l s o make use of . And a n o ther upshot of

what has been sa id so f a r i s the c ruc i a l s ign i f i cance of being ready with

the goal once time i s r i p e so as t o avoid being caught i n a dilemma between

not knowing what t o do when t h e time i s r i p e and working aga ins t a l l

soc i a l fo rces with prec ious , even perfec t goals i n mind.

(b) The p r inc ip l e of co r r ec t time order. We now assume t h a t the t o t a l

s t r a t egy has a number of sub-s t ra tegies , t he re a r e many d i f f e r e n t things

to be done, and the question i s : i n what order? The general contention

i s t ha t t h i s i s a much understudied problem i n p o l i t i c a l science i n

general and the s t r a t egy of development i n p a r t i c u l a r , and hence a f i e l d

where some poss ib le new breakthroughs might be made.

Thus, consider t h e following f i v e elements i n almost everybody's

program of development :

(1) power t o t he people

( 2 ) de-coupling, de-l inking from dominant world power s t ruc- t u re s

(5) d i s t r i b u t i o n of access t o production f a c t o r s , more p a r t i - cu l a r ly - contro l over land, water, seeds , and o ther

raw mater ia ls ("land") - c r e d i t f a c i l i t i e s ( " c a p i t a l v ) - education and hea l th "qual i ty of human resources") - technologies ("means of production") - organiza t ion ("mode of production") - transportation/conununication ( d i s t r i b u t i o n f ac to r )

(4) a g r i c u l t u r a l production, - of food s t u f f s - of i n a u s t r i a l raw mater ia ls

(5) i n d u s t r i a l production, - f o r mass consumption - of c a p i t a l goods

Since t h e r e i s nothing about expori: i n t h i s program i t might be

t he t y p i c a l program of an e a r l y phase of s e l f - r e l i ance with much emphasis

on se l f -suff ic iency. Most important, however, i s t he order of implementation

of the 5 points above : i f i t i s no t as indica ted i n t h i s l i s t i t might

very e a s i l y go very wrong. In s h o r t , t he f i e l d of s t r a t e g i e s i s not l i k e

conventional ar i thmet ics : t he order of the f ac to r s i s by no means unim-

por tant . For i n s t ance , i f production comes before d i s t r i b u t i o n r e -d i s t r i -

bution l a t e r may be extremely d i f f i c u l t o r impossible because of the ves ted

i n t e r e s t s created among those who contro l t he production f ac to r s . S imi l a r ly ,

i f de-l inking comes before a change i n the i n t e r n a l power s t ruc tu re t he

masses might even more than before become the v ic t ims of i n t e r n a l oppression.

Fur ther , i f production comes before de-linking the r e s u l t may very e a s i l y

be export or iented production, with surplus value accumulating on the top

r a the r than where i t i s needed. And i f , i n d u s t r i a l production i s stepped

up before ag r i cu l tu ra l production the r e s u l t w i l l e a s i l y be food dependency.

And so on. and so fo r th .

The l i s t above should not be i n t e rp re t ed i n a too r i g i d

manner. Above a l l , i t should not be i n t e rp re t ed i n a l i n e a r manner, meaning

f i r s t one s t a r t s with point ( l ) , then comes point ( 2 ) and so on :

Rather, the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s something l i k e t h i s :

A task i s i n i t i a t e d , but i t i s not concluded - a f t e r some time the system

may be r i p e f o r a second s t e p which i s not concluded e i t h e r , and so on.

Thus, the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of what i s s a id above i s no t the

c l a s s i c a l "revolution f i r s t , then one can go ahead with t he r e s t " . The

point i s r a t h e r t h a t t o do something about number (9 above, the d i s t r i bu -

t i o n of access t o production f a c t o r s , amount of decoupling, of de-

l inking from dominant world power s t r u c t u r e s i s probably indispensable.

And f o r t h i s t o happen amount of power t o the people who see themselves

as the victims of the coupling, t he l i n k with the dominant world power

s t r u c t u r e , i s equally indispensable. But here it might wel l be t h a t merely

the in t roduct ion of more genuine popular representa t ion i n an otherwise

not too wel l functioning padiamentary system, o r some more freedom t o

t rade unions would already be he lp fu l - a f t e r a l l , those among the Third

world countr ies t h a t have a more progressive s tance o f t en has nothing more

than t h a t in terms of "power t o t he people".

A question t h a t now could be r a i s ed would be the following:

accepting the i dea t h a t t he re i s such a th ing a s a wrong time order does

not imply t h a t t he re has t o be a r i p e time order i n terms of the order i n

which c e r t a i n s t r a t e g i e s a r e i n i t i a t e d , whether i t i s according t o t he

f i r s t o r t h e second vers ion i n t h e drawings above. There i s a fou r th very

simple p o s s i b i l i t y : t h a t t he s t r a t e g i e s a r e ca r r i ed out concurrently :

I n o ther words, why not simply t r y t o do everythi-ng a t t he same time ?

There a r e severa l reasons why, and the problem i s an important one.

F i r s t of a l l , one might say t h a t i f t h i s i s poss ib le by a l l

means do so. But t he point of depar ture i s a country or a region o r a

group so s teered from the outs ide through l o c a l , oppressive e l i t e s t h a t

i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o see t h a t i t would a t a l l be possible. Why should t h a t

e l i t e group o r metropolitan power be in t e r e s t ed i n any d i s t r i b u t i o n a t

a l l - point ( 5 ) on the l i s t ? As t h i s i s a r a the r indispensable p a r t i n

a t o t a l s t r a t egy i t sounds un l ike ly t h a t t he re would be any p o l i t i c a l

space f o r any move i n t h a t d i r ec t ion a s long as nothing has been done

about po in t s (1) and ( 2 ) .

But then the re i s a second argument of a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t typee

I t i s qu i t e t rue a s can be observed, tha t an approach t h a t leaves out some

f a c t o r s f o r some time and pu t s them fu r the r down on the agenda by neces s i ty

w i l l be one-sided, d i sequ i l i b ra t ed , uneven. Thus, i n the f i r s t s tage i t

might l ead t o a soc i e ty r i c h i n popular assemblies with considerable r e a l

power, s t i l l with much outs ide penet ra t ion although the bridgehead f o r

t h a t penet ra t ion , the domestic e l i t e s , has been undermined, eroded, done

away with, with a h ighly asymmetric d i s t r i b u t i o n of a l l production a s s e t s ,

and with an economic l i f e based on export of raw mater ia ls and processed

o r assembled goods f o r the world market, and import of luxury goods,

cap i t a l goods, some consumer goods and some food s t u f f . One might say t h a t

i n such a s i t u a t i o n there would be a c l e a r cont radic t ion , evident t o every-

body, between the power distrib:..tion and the d i s t r i b u t i o n of goods and

services i n the socie ty . And one hypothesis would then be t h a t t he more

g l a r ing the contradic t ion , t he more momentum i s generated f o r s o c i a l change.

The reason f o r t h a t i s t h a t the contradic t ion i s not an a b s t r a c t one only t o

be seen i n a s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , it i s very concrete. I t expresses

i t s e l f i n t he rank disequi l ibr ium of so many individuals i n the soc i e ty

concerned : i n concrete persons being high on power and low on goods and

se rv i ces and resources 'to produce these goods and services . I n o ther words,

i t i s i n s i d e people, not only between them. The l a t t e r i s a l s o a s u b s t a n t i a l

bas i s of soc i a l leverage , but when the former i s added i t becomes a tremen-

dous soc i a l force.

In saying so one might be th inking of the I ranian s i t u a t i o n

spr ing 1979 : t he re i s much more power t o t he people, but t he r e s t i s

s t i l l more o r l e s s as i t was under t he shah regime. What one then not ices ,

c l ea r ly , a r e p o l i c i e s of de-coupling, de-l inking from the powers designated

as imper i a l i s t : the United S ta t e s , Soviet Union, Great Br i t a in and I s r a e l .

Continuation along such l i n e s would increase the power l eve l i n s ide the

country and make i t poss ib le to have an even more symmetric power d is -

t r i b u t i o n , i n so doing the contradic t ions between the f i r s t two and the

remaining th ree po in t s on the l i s t would be even more g lar ing . And so on,

and so f o r t h : the bas i c point i s simply systematic use of uneven, unbalanced

development a s a d r iv ing force.

( c ) A note on the r e l a t i onsh ip t o UN s t r a t e g i e s . How does t h i s t i e i n with

UN s t r a t e g i e s ? I f one should give a very sketchy summary of these s t r a t e -

g i e s i t might perhaps be useful t o s t a r t with s t r a t e g i e s i n the f i e l d of

external economic r e l a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t r ade po l i c i e s . And here i t seems

f a i r l y c l e a r t h a t t he UN has had 5 major s t r a t e g i e s :

I. Import s u b s t i t u t i o n

11. Increased export of commodities

111. The New In t e rna t iona l Economic Order

Roughly speaking, t he import subs t i t u t ion phase spearheaded by the UN Economic

Commission f o r Lat in America had a s i t s center - p iece the idea of indust r ia-

l i z a t i o n f o r t h e production of c a p i t a l goods i n t h e Third world i t s e l f , so

a s t o be able t o s u b s t i t u t e f o r import3 and thus decrease the dependency on

the indus t r i a l i zed countries. The reasoning seems r a t h e r pe r f ec t , i n p rac t i ce

whatever t he reason was - cap i t a l goods produced l o c a l l y tended i n t h a t

s tage 'not t o be competitive with t he c a p i t a l goods imported from the F i r s t

world countr ies . Operating on the market conditions the s t r a t e g y became

untenable.

The next s t r a t egy , hence, was an e f f o r t t o be ab l e t o import more

by expor t ing more. The r e s u l t was i n increased d r ive t o produce commodities

demanded by the F i r s t world i n d u s t r i a l machineries and consumption, a t the

well-known r i s k of s u b s t i t u t i n g cash crops f o r subs is tence crops, of l o s ing

raw ma te r i a l s out of t he country without g e t t i n g the added value r e s u l t i n g

from production, and of exposing oneself t o poor, even de t e r io ra t ing , and

a t l e a s t f l u c t u a t i n g terms of t rade . (of these 3 arguments against t h a t

second s t r a t egy the t h i r d one i s most o f t en heard and probably l e a s t important).

The t h i r d s t ra tegy, t he New In t e rna t iona l Economic Order, can be

seen a s a reponse t o the d i f f i c u l t i e s with t he second, with some elements

of a r e tu rn t o the f i r s t but t h i s time on the bas i s of " co l l ec t ive s e l f -

r e l i ance" , on t h e bas i s of the Third world as a whole or i t s cont inenta l and

sub-continental sub-divisions. The focus i s on improving the terms of t r ade ,

and, t o a l e s s e r extent , on import subs t i t u t ion . There may, however, be a

time order involved here : f i r s t i n terms of t r ade , then a u t i l i z a t i o n of

the excess funds generated i n order t o i ndus t r i a l i ze .

I f these a r e the external s t r a t e g i e s , what would then be the i n t e r n a l

s t r a t e g i e s ? I t i s e a s i l y seen t h a t t he most "progressive" one o r a t l e a s t

change-oriented one would be dur ing the f i r s t period,of import subs t i t u t ion .

After a l l , t o b r ing about t h a t major economic change an equal ly subs t an t i a l

soc i a l change i s needed, and the two welded together could very wel l pass

under t he slogan of a "unified approach". Af ter a l l , i ndus t r i a l i za t ion ca r r i ed

i n i t s wake major soc i a l changes i n t he F i r s t world countr ies , i t would a l so

do so i n t h e Second- and Third world countr ies

But under the second s t r a t egy , and to some extent a l so under t he t h i r d

s ince i t i s so c lose ly r e l a t ed t o the second, much l e s s change i s needed in-

t e r n a l l y i n the Third world socie ty . A l l t h a t i s needed i s an economy where

production f a c t o r s a r e not d i s t r i b u t e d , but i n t he hands of a small group t h a t

both contro ls land, raw mater ia ls i n genera l , c a p i t a l , a r e heal thy and educated

enough t o enjoy long l i v e s i n which experience can accumulate and be converted

i n t o fu l l - s ca l e exerc ises of power supported by the s k i l l s embedded i n education,

over technology, and control organiza t ion f o r production, be i t of cash crops o r

of i n d u s t r i a l , mass produced goods. In t h i s type of s t r u c t u r e peasants w i l l

f i r s t be made l and le s s by being evic ted from land they have been c u l t i v a t i n g

because land becomes valuable t o t he owner when it can be used f o r cash crops

r a t h e r than subs is tence crops, a f t e r t h a t the l and le s s labourer w i l l a l so

become labour less labourer because of the in t roduct ion of labour extensive

technology. The s t o r y i s well-known, i t i s repeated everywhere and the bas i c

point i s t he fundamental compat ib i l i ty between an export or iented economy

( the negation o f f a c t o r ( 2 ) on the s t r a g i e s l i s t ) , a n d a h ighly underdeveloped

soc i a l s t r u c t u r e where d i s t r i b u t i o n of power, access t o production f a c t o r s ,

and the consumption of ag r i cu l tu ra l and i n d u s t r i a l goods a r e concerned.

Since the New In t e rna t iona l Economic Order has so many of the same elements,

except f o r t he i n t e rna t iona l accumulation of proceeds from the exchange process

one would assume i n general t h a t NIEO w i l l by and l a rge be compatible with

the maintenance of i n t e r n a l s t a t u s quo,and even r e in fo rce i t .

Thus, the second and t h i r d i n t e rna t iona l development

s t r a t e g i e s of t he United Nations a r e probably by and l a rge i n t e r n a l l y

regress ive . They a re not r e l a t e d t o any acceptable theory as t o l inkages

between ex te rna l and i n t e r n a l s t r a t e g i e s except i f one assumes t h a t the

purpose of these two t rade s t r a t e g i e s i s e s s e n t i a l l y t o maintain i n t e r n a l

s t a t u s quo. As such i t w i l l generate more contradic t ions between c lasses

i n s ide these countr ies , but not wi th in individuals because of the consi-

stency of t he p o l i c i e s pursued. I n t e r n a l i n e q u a l i t i e s w i l l be maintained,

only amplified and consolidated. There w i l l be some exceptions to t h i s :

as educational and hea l th po l i c i e s probably w i l l be i n i t i a t e d there w i l l

be people who have more education and more hea l th than they have power

and economic resources; some of them might be able t o use these two re-

sources and generate some p o l i t i c a l momentum. The l i k e l y outcome of t h a t

type of p o l i t i c a l momentum might be a r e tu rn to the s t r a t egy of import

s u b s t i t u t i o n but a t a higher l e v e l , the l e v e l of not only co l l ec t ive s e l f -

r e l i ance , but a l so na t iona l s e l f - r e l i ance and loca l se l f - re l iance .

* Goals, Processes and I n d i c a t o r s o f Development P r o j e c t , UN U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t u n i v e r s i t a i r e d 'e tudes du d@veloppement, Geneve.

Johan Ga l tung i s a l s o a member o f t h e Counc i l o f IFDA.

Th is paper was presented a t a workshop o f t h e UNU GPID P r o j e c t i n Geneva, 15-16 March 1979.

POUR UNE EXPERIENCE DE COOPERATION EXEMPLAI RE par Ahmed Ben Salah *-' 1. Depuis le milieu de cette decennie, la communaute internationale a adopte une somme impressionante de resolutions et d'idees sur 1es nouveaux rapports qui doivent s'etablir entre 1es nations au plan socio-economique. Mais i1 est de plus en plus evident que, depuis, ces r6solutions et ces idees demeurent lettre morte. Pire encore, une tres nette evolution en sens contraire s'impose de plus en plus dans les rapports internationaux, couverte comme i1 se doit ... par la multiplication des foyers de guerre dans des centres nerveux du Tiers Monde. On a fait beaucoup pour detruire l'enthousiasme et aussi la lucidite qui sont nes des differentes sessions extraordinaires de 1'Assemblee generate des Nations Unies, des travaux courageux des differents groupes non officiels comme le Rapport Dag Hammarskjold 1975 : Que faire? - Un autre developpement. AprGs quoi, on retourne aux pratiques coloniales avec a peine un semblant d'habilete pug- rile, facilitee par 1 'autoritarisme de regimes absurdes dans le Tiers Monde.

2. Mais un fait demeure : la grande majorit@ des Etats ont adopt6 en principe des mesures et des decisions relatives au reamenagement, dans 1e sens d'une cooperation juste, des rapports 6conomiques internationaux. L'etude de synthese preparee par la FIPAD 1e demontre et 1e rappelle s'il en est besoin.1/ 11 en est besoin effectivement. Mais le besoin reel demeure de tenter de 1es appli- quer quelque part dans le monde pour demontrer :

la praticabilite de ces mesures et de ces decisions quand la volonte politique existe;

que l'alternative aux guerrillas coloniales pour la possession directe ou a peine indirecte des sources de matieres premieres, que l'alternative a ce d6veloppement dangereux existe;

que la lutte contre 1es hegemonies militaires, economiques et id6ologiques, quelles que soient leurs couleurs, que cette lutte passe par une nouvelle forme de cooperation, non pour consol ider des regimes pol i tiques, n'importe quels regimes politiques, mais pour se preoccuper de la promotion et des progrSs des peuples et pour 1es reussir dans le cadre de la decouverte qui ne peut se consolider qu'a partir de la satisfaction des besoins sociaux, economiques et culturels des peuples;

que les pays industrialises admettent que leurs peuples ont besoin de co- operer pour 6volue.r dans 1e sens de la promotion des valeurs politiques, intellectuelles, culturelles au service desquelles doivent 6tre mis les enormes moyens materiels et techniques amasses depuis des decennies.

A cet effet, nous sommes quelques-uns a avoir toujours suppose qu'i1 etait possible de tenter une ou plusieurs experiences. ~renons un exemple: la Tanzanie et un pays scandinave, ou l'ensemble des pays scandinaves.

Comment tenter l'experience?

24

On peu t imaginer l e processus s u i v a n t :

r o u vue

c r e a t i o n d 'une commission Tanzanie-Scandinavie;

communication des connaissances s u r 1es soc ie tes , l e s c u l t u r e s e t 1es economies des deux p a r t e n a i r e s ;

e v a l u a t i o n des besoins q u a n t i t a t i f s e t q u a l i t a t i f s au p l a n des i n v e s t i s s e - ments, des cadres, des appor ts technologiques de l a Tanzania;

e v a l u a t i o n de l ' a p p o r t tanzanien, au p l a n m a t e r i e l e t c u l t u r e l , au p a r t e - n a i r e scandinave;

c o n f r o n t a t i o n des e v a l u a t i o n s avec l a r e a l i t 6 des echanges e t des appor ts ;

e tab l i ssement d ' u n p l a n p l u r i a n n u e l de coopera t ion au p l a n du f l u x de c a p i - taux ou d ' a i d e s , de cadres, d ' a p p o r t s c u l t u r e l s , d'echanges comrnerciaux; ce p l a n devant 6 t r e non seulement conforme aux besoins, mais auss i aux r e s o l u t i o n s , dec is ions , mesures e t idees adoptees au n iveau i n t e r n a t i o n a l p a r l e s p a r t e n a i r e s ;

une d e c l a r a t i o n p o l i t i q u e d e v r a i t pouvo i r emaner des p a r t e n a i r e s a l a s i g n a t u r e e v e n t u e l l e d ' u n accord g l o b a l . Ce t te d e c l a r a t i o n p o u r r a i t 6 t r e au p l a n p o l i t i q u e , ideo log ique meme, d 'une importance e x c e p t i o n n e l l e parce q u ' e l l e a u r a i t a f f i r m 6 l a f a i s a b i l i t e des concepts r e l a t i f s ii des r a p p o r t s nouveaux e n t r e l e s E t a t s , e n t r e des s o c i e t e s humaines d i f f e r e n t e s p a r l e u r s c u l t u r e s , l e u r s n iveaux de p r o d u c t i v i t g , p a r l e s natures des d6veloppements souha i tes .

11 s e r a i t e n f i n souha i tab le que l a FIPAD s o i t associee d u r a n t t o u t l e d6- lement du processus e t c e l a en r a i s o n de son a p p o r t precedent e t auss i en

de l ' u t i l i s a t i o n de l ' e x e m p l a r i t e de ce renouveau de l a coopera t ion i n t e r - n a t i o n a l e .

1' G i l b e r t R i s t , Some ma jo r UN r e s o l u t i o n s i n perspec t i ve , FIPAD, Nyon, 1977

* Co-president de l a FIPAD. Ancien s e c r e t a i r e general de 1 ' U n i o n genera le - t u n i s i e n n e du t r a v a i l (UGTT) , anc ien m i n i s t r e du developpement (1961-1969).

A L E T T E R FROM C A L I F O R N I A

The l a s t m a i l i n g o f Doss ie r 4 prompts these remarks i n t h e hope t h a t f r i e n d l y , c r i t i c a l r e a c t i o n s a r e welcome and may se rve a purpose. I w i l l be ve ry b r i e f , though o b v i o u s l y t h e r e i s much t h a t c o u l d be s a i d about any o f the p o i n t s r a i s e d below.

1. I t seems t o me t h a t t h e emphasis on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r which appears t o dominate d i scuss ions i s misp laced. The concep t ion i s grand, b u t t h e power t o do a n y t h i n g about it, i s n o t commensurable w i t h t h e sweep and s c a l e o f t h e idea . More i m p o r t a n t l y , even a success fu l NIEO would s t i l l l eave c a p i t a l i s m i n t a c t ; i n f a c t , i t would more e f f i c i e n t l y implement c a p i t a l i s m (and t h e r e f o r e unequal development) on a w o r l d sca le . Th is i s i n e v i t a b l e , when t h e d i s c u s s i o n i s ca r - r i e d on i n terms o f vague a b s t r a c t i o n s such as Nor th and South, which a re p r a c t i c a l l y meaningless. I n s t e a d , I would l i k e t o see more d i scuss ions of t e r r i t o r i a l developments w i t h i n c i t i e s , req ions , and n a t i o n s . I t i s a t t h i s l e v e l t h a t "a1 t e r n a t i v e " developments have t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b i l i t y o f b e i n g r e a l i z e d .

2. As I read th rough t h e v a r i o u s a r t i c l e s , e s p e c i a l l y B u i l d i n g B locks , I am s t r u c k by t h e absence o f any s e r i o u s con t roversy . Indeed, t h e f o r m a t chosen f o r t h e Doss ie r d o e s n ' t encourage con t roversy , debate, o r d i a l o g u e about any i s s u e o f c e n t r a l impor tance. I t would be r e l a t i v e l y easy, I t h i n k , t o change a l l t h i s . The adversary i s n o t mere ly mainst ream development d o c t r i n e , though t h a t i s o b v i o u s l y t h e p r ime cand ida te f o r t h e r o l e . I t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t h a t such ideas as we propose a r e r e f i n e d and r e c a s t as they come f a c e t o f a c e w i t h oppo- s i t i o n t h a t i s l o y a l . Fo r t h a t m a t t e r , even a debate o r d i a l o g u e w i t h the "enemy" would be s a l u t a r y , so l o n g as t h e s u b j e c t i s o f c o m p e l l i n g i n t e r e s t .

3 . The papers p u b l i s h e d i n t h e Doss ie r tend t o be po lemica l p ieces , w i t h o u t a c l e a r l y d e f i n e d t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n . I t h i n k t h e o r y cannot be avoided i f t h e p o l i c i e s a r e t o be s o l i d l y grounded. I r e a l i z e t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f s t a r t i n g a t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c o u r s e i n t h e pages o f t h e Dossier , b u t I a l s o d o n ' t see how i t can be avoided. There must be some c o n s t r a i n t s on d i scourse , e i t h e r p o l i t i c a l o r t h e o r e t i c a l . The p r a c t i c a l problems t h a t s tand i n t h e way o f t h i s can be overcome, I be1 i e v e .

O ther than t h a t , I am e n j o y i n g t h e Doss ie r and I keep p a s s i n g i t on t o my s tuden ts and f r i e n d s . I ' m g l a d you e x i s t . I t makes o u r work t h a t much e a s i e r .

John Friedmann School o f A r c h i t e c t u r e and Urban P l a n n i n g U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Los Angeles USA

FOOTNOTES / NOTES

THE INTERNATIONAL CENTRE OF THE SWEDISH LABOUR MOVEMENT

The In ternat ional Centre of the Swedish Labour Movement (AIC) was founded in 1978 by the Social Democratic Party (SAP), the Swedish Confederation of Trade Unions (LO) and the Co-operative Union and Wholesale Society (KF) , within the framework of the Workers' Educational Association (ABF). The AIC board i s chaired by Olof Palme.

The AIC has the following main tasks :

Co-ordination: The AIC wi l l be responsible f o r co-ordinating campaigns, col- l ec t ions , delegations, v i s i t s , e t c . , with regard t o in ternat ional i ssues of common i n t e r e s t t o various sec t ions of the labour movement.

. Documentation and research: The AIC wi l l c o l l e c t and process documentation on in ternat ional i ssues , i . a . , in order t o acquire a broad bas is f o r opinion- forming with regard t o in ternat ional i ssues within member organizations.

. Information: The AIC wi l l provide information on in ternat ional issues through seminars, conferences and publications.

AIC statement:

'Democracy, s o l i d a r i t y and equal i ty are values common t o the e n t i r e labour movement. In an increasingly in ternat ional ized world we require increased po l i t i ca l and union co-operation across borders.

"Many countries a r e plagued by poverty, extreme i n j u s t i c e and a lack of democra- t i c r i gh t s . Organizations and movements in various par ts of the world a r e turning more and more often t o the Swedish labour movement t o request s o l i d a r i t y ac t ion and co-operation. The s t ruggle by our popular movements t o change Swedish socie ty has often const i tu ted a source of i n sp i r a t i on . We must become even s t ronger in order t o meet t h i s challenge.

T h e ambition of superpowers and trans-national companies t o increase t h e i r control over individual countries i s threatening t o place large groups of people beyond the opportunity of themselves forming t h e i r soc i e t i e s along democratic l i ne s . ,. . T h e AIC was formed in 1978 as a co-operation organization within the labour movement in order t o re inforce in ternat ional a c t i v i t i e s . The task of the AIC i s , i . a . , t o co-ordinate in ternat ional work within the labour movement, t o carry out s o l i d a r i t y work and t o increase in ternat ional awareness and readiness within the member organizations.

AIC address: Upplandsgatan 3 , S-105 53 Stockholm, Sweden.

IFDA DOSSIER 6 APRIL 1979...Pour une experience' de cooperation exemplaire (Ahmed Ben Salah) . A...

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