TerminologyTerminology

ProblematicProblematic

No generally agreed common vocabularyNo generally agreed common vocabulary

Different terms used to describe identical Different terms used to describe identical or very similar kinds of unit or a single or very similar kinds of unit or a single term used to denote very different term used to denote very different phenomenaphenomena

DefinitionDefinition

Idioms – multi-word phrases whose overall Idioms – multi-word phrases whose overall meanings are idionsyncratic and largely meanings are idionsyncratic and largely unpredictable, reflecting speaker unpredictable, reflecting speaker meanings that are not derivable by meanings that are not derivable by combining the literal senses of the combining the literal senses of the individual words in each phrase according individual words in each phrase according to the regular semantic rules of the to the regular semantic rules of the language.language.

Meanings od idiomsMeanings od idioms

The typical meanings of idioms are not The typical meanings of idioms are not fully compositional.fully compositional.

However – most idioms also have However – most idioms also have possible, though unlikely, literal possible, though unlikely, literal compositional interpretations along with compositional interpretations along with their idiomatic senses. Which meaning is their idiomatic senses. Which meaning is intended usually depends on the context in intended usually depends on the context in which the expression is used.which the expression is used.

ExamplesExamples

Let the cat out of the bag Let the cat out of the bag = reveal a secret= reveal a secret

Take the bull by the horns Take the bull by the horns = take charge of a = take charge of a situationsituation

These are commonly used idioms whose usual These are commonly used idioms whose usual meanings are not fully compositional, but have meanings are not fully compositional, but have to be learned as a whole.to be learned as a whole.

However, these idioms also have possible, However, these idioms also have possible, though rarely intended, literal compositional though rarely intended, literal compositional meaning.meaning.

Fixed expressionsFixed expressions

There are various groups of lexical combinations on the basis of There are various groups of lexical combinations on the basis of their degree of cohesion:their degree of cohesion:

1.1. Free combinations: their components are the freest in regard to Free combinations: their components are the freest in regard to combining with other lexical items, NOUN combining with other lexical items, NOUN murdermurder + + to analyseto analyse, , boast ofboast of, , condemncondemn, , describedescribe……

2.2. Idioms: are relatively frozen expressions whose meanings do not Idioms: are relatively frozen expressions whose meanings do not reflect the meanings of their component parts. Proverbs and sayings reflect the meanings of their component parts. Proverbs and sayings differ from idioms in that they convey folk wisdom or an alleged differ from idioms in that they convey folk wisdom or an alleged general truth, and they are usually more frozen than idioms.general truth, and they are usually more frozen than idioms.

3.3. Collocations: are loosely fixed combinations, e.g. Collocations: are loosely fixed combinations, e.g. to commit to commit murdermurder..

(Benson (Benson et alet al. . Lexicographic Description of EnglishLexicographic Description of English, Amsterdam: , Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1986)John Benjamins, 1986)

Fixed expressionFixed expressionCovers several kinds of multi-word lexical item orCovers several kinds of multi-word lexical item orphraseological unitphraseological unit, i.e. holistic units of two or more words:, i.e. holistic units of two or more words:

frozen collocationsfrozen collocations (e.g. (e.g. in retrospectin retrospect, , kith and kinkith and kin; ; a foregone a foregone conclusionconclusion, , in effectin effect, , beg the questionbeg the question))grammatically ill-formed collocationsgrammatically ill-formed collocations (break the conventional grammatical (break the conventional grammatical rules of English, e.g. rules of English, e.g. by and largeby and large, , stay putstay put))pproverbsroverbs (e.g. (e.g. every cloud has a silver liningevery cloud has a silver lining; ; first come first servedfirst come first served))routine formulaeroutine formulae (e.g. (e.g. alive and wellalive and well, , pick and choosepick and choose, , you knowyou know))ssayingsayings (include formulae such as quotations, catch-phrases, and truisms, (include formulae such as quotations, catch-phrases, and truisms, e.g. e.g. an eye for an eyean eye for an eye, , don’t let the bastards grind you downdon’t let the bastards grind you down))ssimilesimiles (e.g. (e.g. as good as goldas good as gold, , like lambs to the slaughterlike lambs to the slaughter))

Fixed expression also subsumes Fixed expression also subsumes idiomsidioms..Idioms - used to refer loosely to semi-transparent and opaque metaphorical Idioms - used to refer loosely to semi-transparent and opaque metaphorical

expressions, e.g. expressions, e.g. spill the beansspill the beans, , burn one’s candle at both endsburn one’s candle at both ends..

IdiomsIdioms

Idiom – an ambiguous termIdiom – an ambiguous term

In lay or general use – idiom has two main In lay or general use – idiom has two main meanings:meanings:

1. Idiom is a particular manner of expressing 1. Idiom is a particular manner of expressing something in language, music, art, etc., which something in language, music, art, etc., which characterizes a person or a groupcharacterizes a person or a group

Ex.: …Ex.: …the most fantastic (performance) I have the most fantastic (performance) I have seen in the strict seen in the strict idiomidiom of the music hall of the music hall comediancomedian..

IdiomsIdioms

2. Idiom is a particular lexical collocation 2. Idiom is a particular lexical collocation or phrasal lexeme, peculiar to a language:or phrasal lexeme, peculiar to a language:

Ex.: Ex.: The French translations, however, of The French translations, however, of my English speeches were superb (except my English speeches were superb (except for rare instances where the translator was for rare instances where the translator was unfamiliar with some out-of-the-way unfamiliar with some out-of-the-way English English idiomidiom I had used). I had used).

IdiomsIdioms

Narrower uses of idiom: idiom is a unit that Narrower uses of idiom: idiom is a unit that is fixed and semantically opaque or is fixed and semantically opaque or metaphorical, or not the sum of its parts metaphorical, or not the sum of its parts (e.g. (e.g. kick the bucketkick the bucket, , spill the beansspill the beans).).Broader uses of idiomBroader uses of idiom: idiom is a general : idiom is a general termterm for many kinds of multi-word item, for many kinds of multi-word item, whether semantically opaque or notwhether semantically opaque or not (in (in this use the term this use the term idiomidiom is equivalent to the is equivalent to the term term fixed expressionfixed expression))

Main factors in defining FEIsMain factors in defining FEIs

Idiomaticity is a universal linguistic phenomenon in natural Idiomaticity is a universal linguistic phenomenon in natural languageslanguagesThe fundamental question - whether a string of words can be The fundamental question - whether a string of words can be considered a unit (i.e. free combination) or FEIconsidered a unit (i.e. free combination) or FEI3 principal factors in trying to define fixed expressions:3 principal factors in trying to define fixed expressions:

1.1. INSTITUTIONALIZATION: the process by which a string or INSTITUTIONALIZATION: the process by which a string or formulation becomes recognized and accepted as a lexical item formulation becomes recognized and accepted as a lexical item of the language. The main criterion is the frequency with which of the language. The main criterion is the frequency with which the string recurs.the string recurs.

Problems: most fixed expressions occur infrequently; FEIs may be Problems: most fixed expressions occur infrequently; FEIs may be localized within certain sections of a language community, and localized within certain sections of a language community, and peculiar to certain varieties or domains; some FEIs are no longer peculiar to certain varieties or domains; some FEIs are no longer current in the lexicon, but were institutionalized in former times current in the lexicon, but were institutionalized in former times (e.g. (e.g. put one’s eyes togetherput one’s eyes together, , swim between two watersswim between two waters).).

Main factors in defining FEIsMain factors in defining FEIs

2. LEXICOGRAMMATICAL FIXEDNESS: implies 2. LEXICOGRAMMATICAL FIXEDNESS: implies some degree of lexicsome degree of lexical and grammatical al and grammatical defectiveness in units, f.e. with preferred lexical defectiveness in units, f.e. with preferred lexical realizations and often restrictions on aspect, realizations and often restrictions on aspect, mood, or voice (e.g. mood, or voice (e.g. call the shotscall the shots, , kith and kith and kinkin, , shoot the breezeshoot the breeze).).

Problems: by no means all FEIs are fully frozen Problems: by no means all FEIs are fully frozen stringsstrings. Institutionalization and fixedness are not . Institutionalization and fixedness are not sufficient criteria by themselves.sufficient criteria by themselves.

Main factors in defining FEIsMain factors in defining FEIs

3. NON-COMPOSITIONALITY*: is a semantic criterion. The meaning 3. NON-COMPOSITIONALITY*: is a semantic criterion. The meaning arising from word-by-word interpretation of the string does not yield arising from word-by-word interpretation of the string does not yield the institutionalized, accepted, unitary meaning of the string (typicalthe institutionalized, accepted, unitary meaning of the string (typical cases arecases are metaphorical FEIs). To sum up, institutionalized strings metaphorical FEIs). To sum up, institutionalized strings which are grammatically ill-formed or which contain words unique to which are grammatically ill-formed or which contain words unique to the combination may also be considered non-compositional.the combination may also be considered non-compositional.

There are also cases where the string is decodable compositionally, There are also cases where the string is decodable compositionally, but the unit has a special function in discourse, f.e. proverbs, but the unit has a special function in discourse, f.e. proverbs, similes, sayings. This is called pragmatic non-compositionality.similes, sayings. This is called pragmatic non-compositionality.

Problems: apparently holistic FEIs (Problems: apparently holistic FEIs (spill the beansspill the beans, , rock the boatrock the boat) ) may be partly compositional in relation to syntactic structure and may be partly compositional in relation to syntactic structure and metaphoricity, i.e. we understand the pertinence metaphoricity, i.e. we understand the pertinence of of the image. Thus, the image. Thus, non-compositionality should be intepreted as indicating that the non-compositionality should be intepreted as indicating that the component lexical items may have special meanings within the component lexical items may have special meanings within the context of the FEIs, context of the FEIs, notnot that the meanings can never be that the meanings can never be rationalized, rationalized, nornor that they are never found in other FEIs. that they are never found in other FEIs.

Main factors in defining FEIsMain factors in defining FEIs

* COMPOSITIONALITY of meaning (term from semantics) = the meaning of any expression is a function of the meanings of the parts of which it is composed.

Other criteria in defining FEIsOther criteria in defining FEIs

1.1. OrtographyOrtography: FEIs should consist of, or be written as, 2 : FEIs should consist of, or be written as, 2 or more wordsor more words

2.2. Syntactic integritySyntactic integrity: FEIs form syntactic or : FEIs form syntactic or grammatical units in their own right: adjuncts (e.g. grammatical units in their own right: adjuncts (e.g. through thick and thinthrough thick and thin), complements (e.g. ), complements (e.g. long in the long in the toothtooth), nominal groups (e.g. ), nominal groups (e.g. a flash in the pana flash in the pan), ), sentence adverbial (e.g. sentence adverbial (e.g. by and largeby and large), clauses (e.g. ), clauses (e.g. don’t count your chickendon’t count your chickenss before they’re hatched before they’re hatched).).

3.3. Phonological criterionPhonological criterion: where strings are ambiguous : where strings are ambiguous between compositional and non-compositonal between compositional and non-compositonal interpretation, intonation may distinguish: interword interpretation, intonation may distinguish: interword pauses and word durations are longer in literal pauses and word durations are longer in literal readings, shorter in idiomatic readings.readings, shorter in idiomatic readings.

Criteria are variablesCriteria are variables

InstitutionalizationInstitutionalization, , fixednessfixedness and and non-non-compositionalitycompositionality distinguish FEIs from other strings, distinguish FEIs from other strings, but they are but they are notnot present to an equal extent in all items. present to an equal extent in all items.Degrees of institutionalization (e.g. from very frequent Degrees of institutionalization (e.g. from very frequent of of coursecourse to fairly rare to fairly rare cannot cut the mustardcannot cut the mustard), of ), of fixedness (e.g. from the completely frozen fixedness (e.g. from the completely frozen kith and kinkith and kin to the relatively flexible and variable to the relatively flexible and variable take stick from take stick from someonesomeone, , get a lot of stick from someoneget a lot of stick from someone, , give give someone sticksomeone stick), and of non-compositionality (from the ), and of non-compositionality (from the opaque opaque bite the bulletbite the bullet to the transparent to the transparent enough is enough is enoughenough).).

HOMEWORKHOMEWORKkith and kinkith and kina foregone conclusiona foregone conclusionbeg the questionbeg the questionby and largeby and largestay putstay putevery cloud has a silver liningevery cloud has a silver liningpick and choosepick and choosespill the beansspill the beansburn one’s/the candle at both endsburn one’s/the candle at both endscall the shotscall the shotsshoot the breezeshoot the breezethrough thick and thinthrough thick and thinlong in the toothlong in the tootha flash in the pana flash in the pandon’t count your chicken before they’re hatcheddon’t count your chicken before they’re hatchedcannot cut the mustardcannot cut the mustardtake stick from someone/take stick from someone/ get a lot of stick from someone/get a lot of stick from someone/ give someone stickgive someone stickbite the bulletbite the bullet