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« HUMANISTIC MANAGEMENT AND SELF-DETERMINATION

THEORY : THE IMPACT OF THE ‘PERCEPTION OF WORK

SUPERVISION’ ON EMPLOYEES’ ‘SELF-REGULATED MOTIVATION’: AN EMPIRICAL FRENCH STUDY »

Stéphanie ARNAUD

Professeur Associée

ICN Business School - Chercheur Associée CERGAM - IAE d'Aix-en-Provence

Université Nancy 2 CEREFIGE

Cahier de Recherche n°2011-07 CEREFIGE

Université Nancy 2 13 rue Maréchal Ney

54000 Nancy France

Téléphone : 03 54 50 35 80 Fax : 03 54 50 35 81 Cerefige@univ-nancy2.fr

www.univ-nancy2.fr/CEREFIGE

n° ISSN 1960-2782

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« HUMANISTIC MANAGEMENT AND SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY : THE IMPACT OF THE ‘PERCEPTION OF WORK

SUPERVISION’ ON EMPLOYEES’ ‘SELF-REGULATED MOTIVATION’: AN EMPIRICAL FRENCH STUDY »1

Abstract: We study the main principles of “humanist philosophy”, in order to interpret them in terms of human resources management (HRM) practices. We show the similarities between a “humanist HRM” and the recommendations of the self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Then, we describe a French empirical study (568 questionnaires). Our ‘perception of the work supervision scale’ is very satisfactory. Our ‘self-regulated motivation scale’ is bi-dimensional. The structural equations model is satisfactory (X²/dl: 2.91; RMSEA: 0.08; GFI: 0.907). Results show the crowding-out / crowding-in effect of self-regulated motivation by a type of management perceived as controlling / informative and autonomy supportive. So there is a crowding-in effect of employees’ self-regulated motivation by a humanist HRM. Key words: Humanist philosophy / Human Resource Management / self-regulated motivation, self-determination, structural equations model. Titre : « Management Humaniste et Théorie de l’Autodétermination : L’impact de la ‘perception du management’ sur la ‘motivation autorégulée’ des employés : une étude empirique française » Résumé : Nous étudions les principes de la philosophie humaniste, afin de les traduire en pratiques de gestion des ressources humaines (GRH). Nous mettons en évidence les similarités entre une GRH humaniste et les recommandations de la théorie de l’autodétermination (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Puis, nous décrivons une étude empirique réalisée en France (568 questionnaires). L’échelle « perception du management » est très satisfaisante. L’échelle « motivation autorégulée » est bidimensionnelle. Le modèle d’équations structurelles est satisfaisant (X²/dl: 2.91; RMSEA: 0.08; GFI: 0.907). Les résultats témoignent d’un effet d’éviction / renforcement de la motivation autorégulée par un mode de management perçu comme source de contrôle / informatif et support de l’autonomie. Il existe donc un effet de renforcement de la motivation autorégulée par une GRH humaniste. Mots clés : Philosophie humaniste / Gestion des Ressources Humaines / Motivation Autorégulée / Autodétermination / Modèle d’équations structurelles.

1 Ce papier a fait l’objet d’une présentation lors de la “4th International Conference on Self-Determination Theory, in Ghent, Belgium, May 13 – 16, 2010”. Nous remercions à cette occasion les organisateurs et les participants, pour leurs remarques enrichissantes.

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Introduction The aim of this article is to demonstrate that humanist management can enhance self-regulated motivation at work. First, we briefly study the main principles of “humanist philosophy” (section 1), which we then interpret in terms of HRM practices in order to explain what it means to follow a “humanist HRM” (section 2). Then, we show its similarities with the recommendations of the self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000) in terms of an autonomy supportive work environment (section 3). Numerous experiments and field investigations show the links between this type of work environment and a crowding-in effect of self-regulated motivation at work, by the mediation of the feeling of self-determination. However, our aim is not to write a state of the art review on this theme, which is why we only quote the main theoretical and empirical studies about the self-determination theory. Last but not least, we describe an empirical study conducted in France, with 568 questionnaires distributed to French workers (section 4). We draw up two scales in French: the ‘perception of the work supervision scale’ and the ‘self-regulated motivation scale’ in order to construct a structural equations model and test for our hypotheses. We describe and comment on the results and the limits of our empirical study. 1. From the Humanist Philosophy to the HRM. 1. 1. The main principles of humanistic thinking.

During the Renaissance, humanistic thinking began to develop with Petrarque, Erasmus, Rabelais, Pic de la Mirandole, etc. According to these authors, “we are not born Human, we become Human” (Erasmus), thanks to education, the acquisition of knowledge, the development of our capacity to use rightly our liberty and to distinguish Good from Evil. This notion of liberty, which characterizes human beings, is highlighted by Pic de la Mirandole in his “Discourse on the dignity of man” (1993). In this text, the author imagines what God would say about the Human Being: “All other creatures have a defined nature contained by laws laid down by us. You alone, free of all hindrance, following your own free decision that I have given you, you will decide on your own nature. I have placed you at the centre of the universe, in order that you may look that much more easily all around you at all that is the world. I made you neither heavenly nor earthly, neither mortal nor immortal; following your own will and for your own merit, as modeller and sculptor of your own self, create yourself in your own chosen form.”2 The creation of oneself by oneself is central in the humanistic conception of human being. We can decide to use our liberty and capacity of reflexion in order to develop some aspects of our personality and to become the author of our life. In other words, according to the humanists, human beings can develop their own self-determination.

After the Renaissance, the Enlightenment goes into detail on the humanist thinking.

Kant focuses on the concept of “moral autonomy” and his “categorical requirement”: “Always treat others as an end and never just as a means”. In a French dictionary, (the “ Treasure of the French Language”, 1840), we find that humanism is “a philosophical

2 « Toutes les autres créatures ont une nature définie contenue entre les lois par nous prescrites ; toi seul, sauf de toute entrave, suivant ton libre arbitre auquel je t’ai remis, tu te fixeras ta nature. Je t’ai placé au centre de l’univers, afin que tu regardes avec d’autant plus d’aisance à l’entour de toi tout ce qui est au monde. Je ne t’ai fait ni céleste ni terrestre, ni mortel, ni immortel ; d’après ton vouloir et pour ton propre honneur, modeleur et sculpteur de toi-même, imprime-toi la forme que tu préfères. »in « Discours sur la dignité de l’homme », Pic de la Mirandole, (1993).

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attitude which holds the human being in the highest esteem and which claims for each human being the possibility to develop his own humanity and his human faculties, to make them flourish”3. Following the humanists, by “human faculties” we are given to understand moral autonomy, exercising one’s liberty and the capacity to create oneself by oneself. With the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, humanist principles are: autonomy, liberty, dignity, equality between men and the right to develop our human potentialities (our talents).

During the twentieth century, Mounier (1949) and Leroux (1999) develop the

philosophy of “personalism”. According to Mounier (1949, p.4), “personalism is a philosophy (…). Its central statement being the existence of free and creative persons, it introduces into the very heart of these structures a principle of unpredictability which disperses any desire for definitive systematization”4. Personalist philosophy states that, unlike other animals, the human being has a sphere of liberty, an ability to be self-determined, and the will to give a meaning to his life (Leroux, 1999, p.18). “It was expected that personalism would begin by defining the person. But only the objects (…) that can be placed within sight are defined. But the person is not an object. [The person] is an activity born of self creation, communication and adhesion, who takes hold of himself and recognizes himself in his act, as a personalization movement”5 (Mounier, 1949, p.5 - 6). In this quotation, we can recognize the principle of self-determination, of “creation of oneself by oneself”, highlighted five centuries before, by Pic de la Mirandole (“as modeller and sculptor of your own self, create yourself in your own chosen form.”).

In fact, personalism adds an important principle to the humanist ontology of the

human being: “the need to be recognized by others”; in other words, the need to be socially integrated. We could use the self-determination theory terminology and speak about “the fundamental need of relatedness”. Leroux (1999) makes a distinction between the “personality” and the “person”. The “personality” contains all our potential and latent talents. If we decide to develop and to materialize our talents and express our personality, we will need to meet other people in order to obtain their recognition about who we are. We can really become a “person” and have a complete feeling of existence when we receive the recognition from other persons about who we are and what we create and achieve. “The person also appears to us as a presence directed towards the world (…) Other persons do not limit this presence, they bring it into being and make it grow. It only exists towards others, it only recognizes itself through others, it only finds itself in others. The primitive experience of the person is the experience of the second person. The you, and in him, the us, precedes the I, or at least accompanies it”6 (Mounier, 1949, p33). “When called on, our judgment calls for the participation of a third person, called on to give his own evaluation of our act and what it

3 « attitude philosophique qui tient l’homme pour la valeur suprême et revendique pour chaque homme la possibilité d’épanouir librement son humanité, ses facultés proprement humaines » in « Trésor de la langue française » (1840). 4 « Le personnalisme est une philosophie (…) Son affirmation centrale étant l’existence de personnes libres et créatrices, il introduit au cœur de ces structures un principe d’imprévisibilité qui disloque toute volonté de systématisation définitive » Mounier (1949, p.4). 5 « On s’attendait à ce que le personnalisme commençât par définir la personne. Mais on ne définit que des objets (…) que l’on peut placer sous le regard. Or la personne n’est pas un objet. [La personne] est une activité vécue d’autocréation, de communication et d’adhésion, qui se saisit et se connaît dans son acte, comme mouvement de personnalisation » (Mounier, 1949, p.5 - 6). 6 « La personne nous apparaît aussi comme une présence dirigée vers le monde (…) Les autres personnes ne la limitent pas, elles la font être et croître. Elle n’existe que vers autrui, elle ne se connaît que par autrui, elle ne se trouve qu’en autrui. L’expérience primitive de la personne est l’expérience de la seconde personne. Le tu, et en lui le nous, précède le je, ou au moins l’accompagne » (Mounier, 1949, p33).

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reveals”7 (Leroux, 1999, p.73.). At any meeting, the person will try to obtain recognition from others, in order to have the feeling of existing in the eyes of others: “I am being seen, therefore I exist”8 (Todorov, 1995, p.38). We don’t exist without others. “We believe that it is the essence of Man to create materially and morally, to make things and to make himself”9 (Bergson, 1993). We don’t come into being as a human, we become human in developing our talents and potentials, the best of our personality, our moral autonomy, our self-determination. We become a “person” by inviting the benevolent regard of another in order to hold the attention required to obtain recognition of who we are and what we are creating. We become a “person” through the regard of others, which allows us to “exist” and to be “recognized”.

To summarize, to become a person and develop our humanity, we must be involved in a process of “creation of oneself by oneself”. But, in order to develop this self-determination, the environment must satisfy some conditions and be supportive. Given what we have written before, we can conclude that each human being should: - have a large sphere of autonomy to use his liberty, - encounter stimulating challenges to develop his talents and potentials, - surround himself with other people he can trust, in order to have a feeling of recognition and acceptance, to have a feeling of being considered as an end and not only as a means. 1. 2. Tools and practices for a humanist management.

To be qualified as “humanist”, the work organization and mode of management will have to: - be supportive of the person’s liberty and the development of his moral autonomy, - facilitate the development of his talents and potential, with stimulating challenges, - make social relations based on trust, mutual respect and mutual recognition and encounters with trustworthy people possible and easy, - consider each person as an end and not just as a means, as an individual. a/ Participative and delegative management could satisfy the need for autonomy: the employee should have the possibility to take decisions and initiatives in his job, to participate in developing the objectives and choose his means and ways of working. b/ A variety of tools and practices could allow the employees’ need to develop their talents and abilities at work and to be satisfied: job enlargement, job enrichment and empowerment, continuing education and vocational training, a grant of responsibility, the quality and the regularity of a feedback from supervisors. Tasks should represent a level of challenge corresponding to the level of the employee’s abilities: “the right people at the right place”. Challenges that are too easy don’t stimulate and develop abilities. Inversely, challenges that are too difficult don’t permit the employee to be successful in his task. c/ When supervisors give recognition and are constantly attentive, their subordinates can trust them and develop feelings of being understood and supported. Work relationships must be based on trust and mutual respect. A regular dialog between supervisors and their subordinates, an appraisal performance system and a compensation system perceived as fair, encouragements and congratulations, etc., can allow the need for recognition and mutual respect to be satisfied (Peretti, 2004, 2005).

7 « Mis en appel, notre jugement réclame le concours d’un tiers, appelé à porter sa propre évaluation sur notre acte et ce qu’il révèle » (Leroux, 1999, p.73.) 8 « On me regarde, donc je existe » (Todorov, 1995, p.38). 9 « Nous croyons qu’il est de l’essence de l’homme de créer matériellement et moralement, de fabriquer des choses et de se fabriquer lui-même » (Bergson, 1993).

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d/ A humanist management should respect the result of the self-determination logic. Discrimination at the recruitment stage and during the work contract must be forbidden. Employees’ right to privacy must be preserved (Arnaud, 2006, 2007). Each employee must be respected in his singularity and subjectivity. A personalized HRM could realize this objective. Each practice and tool of management must be designed using as its starting point the singularity and the subjectivity of the employee. For example, the level of autonomy granted to an employee must be adapted to his capacity and desire to be self governing and autonomous. The “General Causality Orientation Scale” (GCOS)10 can be employed to estimate the autonomy orientation. This is a 12 item-scale. “This is an individual difference measure of people's relatively enduring motivational orientations and was developed for use with individuals who are at least 17 years of age. It assesses autonomous, controlled, and impersonal causality (motivational) orientations”.11 “Autonomously regulated people feel agentic in their own behaviour, whereas controllingly regulated people feel like pawns to external forces. The General Causality Orientations Scale assesses three different causality orientations to action: (1) an autonomous orientation representing a tendency towards volitional engagement in action (internal locus of causality); (2) a controlled orientation representing a tendency to orient toward and to be regulated by controls and contingencies (external locus of causality); and (3) an impersonal orientation representing a tendency not to engage in action, akin to helplessness (impersonal locus of causality)” (M. Gagné, 2003). Managers could use this scale to adjust their type of management according to their subordinate’s orientation type. A “situational management or leadership”12 (Hersey & Blanchard, 1972; Tissier, 1988) and the concept of “GRH à la carte”13 (Colle, 2006) are also solutions to personalize HRM.

We find strong similarities between the humanist principles and the fundamental needs of human beings studied by the self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000). So, obviously, when we develop what could be a humanist mode of management, we find the same recommendations as those done by the “self-determination theory” about what is called an “autonomy supportive work environment”. We are going to develop these similarities in the next section. We will also reply to the question of the effectiveness of this type of management. 2. The self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci and Ryan, 2000). 2. 1. The SDT’s principles.

According to the SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2000), all human beings want to be self-determined and need to satisfy three innate fundamental psychological requirements for this: the need for competence, autonomy and relatedness. “Autonomy refers to volition – the desire to self-organize experience and behaviour and to have activity be concordant with one’s

10 This scale can be found on: http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/measures/index.html 11 Quotation extracted from http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/measures/index.html 12 “Le management situationnel désigne un ensemble d’outils efficaces et actuels pour adapter le mode de management aux situations en utilisant l’autonomie des individus et des groupes comme indicateurs de base. La diversité des individus exige que les managers disposent d’une gamme très variée de comportements. (…) aucun style ou tempérament n’est a priori recommandable (…) l’efficacité consiste à adopter, à un instant donné, le ou les styles que commande la situation” (Tissier, 1988, p.23). 13 This concept can be defined as “un mode de gestion personnalisé selon lequel l’organisation se rapproche du projet et des besoins personnels de chaque salarié en lui offrant divers espaces de choix dans son emploi” (Colle, 2006, p. 11).

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integrated sense of self (…) Relatedness refers to the desire to feel connected to others – to love and care, and to be loved and cared for” (Deci & Ryan, 2000, p.231). Self-determination deals with the degree to which a person “feels a sense of choice in her life” and the degree to which she “feels like herself”14. Consequently, we can see that this theory shares with the humanist philosophy the same ontology.

The satisfaction of the three fundamental needs enhances the feeling of self-determination which in turn permits self-regulated motivation: The self-motivated person acts volitionally and not through external forces. She has an internal locus of causality (De Charm, 1968). “Intrinsically motivated activities were defined as those that individuals find interesting and would do in the absence of operationally separable consequences” (Deci & Ryan, 2000, p.233). Inversely, extrinsic motivated activities are defined as those that individuals would do only for their consequences. They feel obligated or controlled by external contingencies (Gagné, 2003). Between these two extremes, there is a continuum in terms of different levels of regulation: introjection, identification, integration. “When the process of internalization is differentially successful, such that external regulations are internalized through the processes of introjection, identification, or integration, the result will be different types of extrinsic motivation that vary in the extent to which they are controlled versus autonomous. External regulation, which is evident when no internalization has occurred, represents the most controlled form of extrinsic motivation, for people’s behaviour is regulated by others’ administration of contingencies. Introjected regulation, which involves internal prods and pressures and is characterized by inner conflict between the demand of the introject and the person’s lack of desire to carry it out, is still relatively controlled even though the regulation is within the person. In contrast, by identifying with the value of the activity, internalization will be fuller, people will experience greater ownership of the behaviour and feel less conflict about behaving in accord with the regulation, and the behaviour will be more autonomous. Finally, with integration, the most complete and effective internalization, the person’s extrinsically motivated actions will be fully volitional” (Deci & Ryan, 2000, p.236). Identified, integrated and intrinsic motivations are self-regulated and generate volitional engagement in action, with an internal locus of causality (Gagné, 2003, p.203; De Charm, 1968).

If the three fundamental basic needs are unfulfilled, self-regulated motivation can be undermined. “Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behaviour and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being” (Deci & Ryan, 2000, p.227). Social context or persons such as managers who facilitate and support satisfaction of the three basic needs are called “autonomy supportive”: “Contexts that are described as autonomy supportive are characterized as giving people choice and encouragement for personal initiative and also support people’s competence in a climate of relatedness (Deci et al., 2001), are predicted to promote autonomous motivation (e.g., intrinsic motivation) as opposed to controlled motivation (e.g., extrinsic motivation) (…). An autonomy supportive person (or a work environment) would typically provide a good rationale for asking someone to engage in an activity, give some choice to the person, acknowledge the person’s feelings toward the activity, and encourage the person to take initiative and convey confidence in the person’s abilities” (Gagné, 2003, p.203-204).

14 Words inspired by http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/measures/index.html

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2. 2. Empirical studies.

Numerous experiments and field investigations conducted in USA, Bulgaria, Canada, Japan, Russia and Australia show that self-regulated motivation enhances creativity, learning, flexibility, well-being, task involvement and performance at work (Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992; Hayamizu, 1997; Yamauchi & Tanaka, 1998; Miserandino, 1996; Benware & Deci, 1984; Deci, Schwartz, Sheinman & Ryan, 1981; Grolnick & Ryan, 1987; Valas & Sovik, 1993). The many works of Amabile and her team (Amabile, 1988, 1993 ; Amabile & Gryskiewicz, 1989 ; Amabile, Conti, Coon, Lazenby & Herron, 1996) reveal the fundamental importance of the employees’ intrinsic motivation to guarantee creativity and innovation at work (qualities essential for R&D, for example).

Moreover, several experiments and field investigations demonstrate that an autonomy supportive work environment which facilitates the satisfaction of the three fundamental needs permits the feeling of being self-determined, higher levels of self-regulated motivation, performance, involvement, trust in one’s supervisor, loyalty towards the firm, etc. (Baard & al., 2004 ; Deci & al., 2001 ; Pajak & Glickman, 1989 ; Blais & Brière, 1992). “Autonomy support has been shown to lead to greater engagement in an initially uninteresting activity and increased positive feelings toward the activity (Deci & al. 1994)” (Gagné, 2003, p.204). In comparison with a situation without any feedback, a positive and constructive feedback between supervisors and employees raises their intrinsic motivation by the mediation of the satisfaction of their need for competence (Deci, 1971; Deci & Cascio, 1972; Boggiano & Ruble, 1979). These experiences show that this feeling of self-determination is effectively associated with greater levels of self-regulated motivation.

Inversely, some empirical studies show that monitoring, threats of punishment and strict and rigid procedures decrease the feeling of being self-determined and consequently self-regulated motivation (Deci & Cascio, 1972 ; Lepper & Greene, 1975 ; Harackiewicz, Manderlink & Sansone, 1984 ; Reeve & Deci, 1996 ; Amabile, DeJong & Lepper, 1976 ; Fisher, 1978 ; Zuckerman & al., 1978; Sherman et Smith, 1984).

We find strong similarities between what SDT calls “an autonomy supportive work environment” and what we call a “humanist mode of management”. Needs of autonomy, competence, relatedness, recognition, dignity, are essential to the development of the human faculties of each human being. SDT talks about a postulate of self-determination; humanists define human faculties by the creation of oneself by oneself. We share the same ontology and we recommend the same type of work environment. Based on the several empirical studies briefly exposed, we can suppose that a humanist management would permit to stimulate the feeling of self-determination and, as a consequence, self-regulated motivation. Therefore, a humanist management should allow the stimulation of creativity, innovation, learning capacity, flexibility, work involvement, loyalty, performance, etc. We will now put these hypotheses to the test in France.

3. A French empirical study.

We carried out an empirical study in 2006, with a self-administered questionnaire completed by employees having one or several supervisors. We built scales and a structural equations model to test our principal hypothesis which postulates a link between a humanistic management and the improvement of self regulated motivation at work.

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3. 1. Methodology & psychometric analysis of scales.

Employees were recruited mainly by mail to participate in a questionnaire study about their work experience. We obtained a convenience sample constituted by 582 employees, using the “snowball” distribution method. This method doesn’t guarantee a strictly representative sample of the whole French active population but it is quite diversified on numerous demographic variables. (See the detailed sample composition on demographic characteristics – age, gender, education level, income level, etc. – in annex n°1). 14 questionnaires were not used because they were not properly completed. We also decided to delete questionnaires with more than 14% of missing values. We finally obtained 554 respondents. We verified the random characteristics of missing values and replaced it by the “hot deck” method (Goldberg & Velicer, 2006). Exploratory factor analysis was conducted with 254 respondents; we kept 300 questionnaires for the confirmatory factor analysis (Roussel & al., 2002).

It is very difficult to express items from scales built in others countries with other languages and cultures (Bartikowski, Chandon & Gierl, 2006). So we decided to create new items in French to draw up the ‘perception of the work supervision’ scale and the ‘self-regulated motivation’ scale, using statements on a 6-points Likert scale. However, we used the “Intrinsic Motivation Inventory” (IMI) and the Work Climate Questionnaires (WCQ) to elaborate our items15. “The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) is a multidimensional measurement device intended to assess participants’ subjective experience related to a target activity in laboratory experiments. It has been used in several experiments related to intrinsic motivation and self-regulation (Deci & al., 1994). The interest/enjoyment subscale is considered the self-report measure of intrinsic motivation; thus, although the overall questionnaire is called the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, it is only the one subscale that assesses intrinsic motivation, per se. The value/usefulness subscale is used in internalization studies (Deci et al, 1994), the idea being that people internalize and become self-regulating with respect to activities that they experience as useful or valuable for themselves (…) The Work Climate Questionnaire belongs to “a family of questionnaires that assesses the perceptions of individuals about the degree to which a particular social context is autonomy supportive versus controlling. (…) One of the central tenets of SDT is that the quality of social contexts influences the motivation, performance, and well-being of individuals who operate within them. The theory uses the concept of autonomy support versus control to characterize the quality of social environments, hypothesizing that autonomy-supportive social contexts tend to facilitate self-determined motivation, healthy development, and optimal functioning.”16

We followed the Gerbing & Anderson paradigm (1988) to calculate the stability,

validity and reliability of the scales. The exploratory factor analysis made it possible to purify scales deleting bad items. Then, we realized a confirmatory factor analysis for each scale, and evaluated their convergent validity and their internal consistency.

The feeling of being monitored.

We created a variable named “the feeling of being monitored”, noted from 0 to 5. To evaluate the importance and the extent of the “traditional and informatics monitoring system” of their job, we proposed to the respondents a list of twelve monitoring methods. Then, we created a new variable named “monitoring system importance” with the sum of all monitoring methods

15 See http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/measures/index.html 16 Quotation extracted from http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/measures/index.html

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present at work, moderated by their extent and gravity, based on two levels of gravity and extent we evaluated. The twelve monitoring methods proposed were: 1. Physical presence or passage of a supervisor near your work station. 2. Monitoring your work station by video camera. 3. Time clock for your work hours. 4. Fingerprint, facial or eye biometrics time clock (for your work hours and your movements around the company premises). 5. Account of the Internet connections globally throughout the company. 6. Account of the Internet connections at your work station. 7. Monitoring your computer work (keyboard keys, files and records) 8. Reading and/or recording the contents of your emails. 9. Account of the amount of time that your phone is used. 10. Account of the telephone numbers that you dial (detailed invoice). 11. Listening to and/or recording the content of your phone calls 12. Locating your professional trips using GPS in your work vehicle or a smart card in your mobile phone. The French version is : 1. Présence physique ou passage d’un supérieur hiérarchique à proximité de votre poste de travail. 2. Surveillance par vidéo caméra, à votre poste de travail. 3. Pointeuse pour vos horaires de travail. 4. Pointeuse par relevé des empreintes digitales ou par reconnaissance faciale ou oculaire (pour vos horaires de travail ou pour vos déplacements dans l’entreprise). 5. Relevé des connexions Internet au niveau global dans l’entreprise. 6. Relevé des connexions Internet à votre poste de travail. 7. Surveillance de votre activité informatique (touches du clavier, fichiers, dossiers). 8. Lecture et/ou enregistrement du contenu de vos mails. 9. Relevé des temps d’utilisation de votre téléphone. 10. Enregistrement des numéros de téléphone que vous composez (facture détaillée). 11. Ecoute et/ou enregistrement du contenu de vos communications téléphoniques. 12. Localisation de vos déplacements professionnels avec GPS sur votre véhicule de fonction ou carte à puce sur votre téléphone portable. The ‘perception of the work supervision’ scale. We elaborated 6 items to capture and evaluate each aspect of a humanist management or an autonomy supportive work environment. The employee answers according to his perception about his supervisors and about their mode of supervision. Items proposed in French are strongly derived from the WCQ17.

1. My supervisors recognize the true quality of my work. 2. In general, I can really trust my supervisors. 3. My direct supervisor gives me autonomy. 4. Overall, I feel that my supervisor understands me. 5. My supervisor regularly helps me to evaluate my skills. 6. My relations are not good with my supervisors.

17 “My manager conveyed confidence in my ability to do well at my job”; “I feel a lot of trust in my manager”; “I feel that my manager provides me choices and options”; “I feel understood by my manager”; “My manager made sure I really understood the goals of my job and what I need to do” (http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/measures/auton_work.html).

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The French version of this scale is:

1. Mes supérieurs reconnaissent à sa juste valeur la qualité de mon travail. 2. De façon générale, j’ai vraiment confiance dans mes supérieurs hiérarchiques. 3. Mon supérieur hiérarchique direct m’accorde de l’autonomie. 4. Globalement, je me sens vraiment compris(e) par mon supérieur. 5. Mon supérieur m’aide régulièrement à évaluer mes compétences. 6. Mes relations avec mes supérieurs hiérarchiques sont difficiles.

Respondents reported their answers on a scale from 1 (totally disagree) to 6 (totally agree). Item n°6 was reversed. The exploratory (principal component) factor analysis gives one dimension, with a Cronbach alpha equal to 0.841. The confirmatory factor analysis gives a Jöreskog rhô equal to 0.873. So we can conclude there is a high level of internal consistency. Standardized regression coefficients are all significant (p<0.000) and ranged from 0.52 to 0.89. Following Fornell & Larcker, (1981), we calculated the convergent validity which is correct (rhô vc = 0.54). This scale is really satisfactory (X²/dl = 2.223, RMSEA = 0.064, GFI = 0.978, AGFI = 0.949). So, items were averaged to form a single index of the “perception of supervision”.

Figure 1. The ‘perception of the work supervision’ scale.

The ‘self-regulated motivation’ scale Employees have to indicate on a scale from 1 to 6 the extent to which they feel satisfaction, pleasure, interest, enjoyment, importance of their work, attachment to their enterprise. As it has been said before, we used items adapted from the Work Preference Inventory (WPI) and the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) (Amabile & al., 1994, p.956), including items such as: “I enjoy doing this activity very much”, “I would describe this activity as very interesting”, “I think this is an important activity”. Our initial version of the “self-regulated motivation scale” contained 11 items:

PerceptionEncadrement

,80

Compris e1

,89

,31

Relation difficile e2,56

,50

Autonomie e3,70 ,66

Confiance envers supérieur e4

,81

,38

Information compétence e5

,62

,59

Reconnaissance e6

,77

X² = 20,008 dl = 9 X²/dl = 2,223RMSEA = ,064 GFI = ,978 AGFI = ,949

- 12 -

1. How important is it for you to have the feeling of a job well done? 2. How important is it for you to grow and flourish at your work? 3. How important is it for you to keep your promises and commitments towards your supervisors?

4. How important is it for you to keep your promises and commitments towards your work colleagues?

5. Overall, my work is really interesting. 6. I have a lot of pleasure from doing my work. 7. I do much more than I am asked to in my work. 8. The work that I do is very important and useful. 9. I’m really pleased for my company when its performance improves. 10. I’m very attached to my company. 11. Having to take initiatives challenges me.

The French version of this scale is: 1. Quelle est l’importance pour vous d’avoir le sentiment du travail bien fait ? 2. Quelle est l’importance pour vous de vous épanouir dans votre travail ? 3. Quelle est l’importance pour vous de tenir vos engagements envers vos supérieurs

hiérarchiques ? 4. Quelle est l’importance pour vous de tenir vos engagements envers vos collègues de

travail ? 5. Mon travail est très intéressant. 6. J’ai beaucoup de plaisir à réaliser mon travail. 7. Je fais beaucoup plus que ce que l’on me demande dans mon travail. 8. Le travail que je réalise est très utile et très important. 9. Je suis très content pour mon entreprise lorsqu’elle améliore ses performances. 10. Je suis très attaché à mon entreprise. 11. Devoir prendre des initiatives me stimule.

Items n°1 to n°4 are rated on a scale from 1 (not at all important) to 6 (highly important). Others items are rated on a scale from 1 (totally disagree) to 6 (totally agree). Exploratory factor analysis eliminated several items that were relatively bad (low factor loadings and/or high cross loadings). We finally kept only six items. As it was expected according to the theory, we obtain a bi-dimensional solution. The confirmatory factor analysis shows a strong correlation between the two axes (0.73). The first axis, composed of three items, deals mainly with the intrinsic motivation:

- I really enjoy doing my work. - Overall, my work is really interesting. - My work is very important and very useful.

The French version of this scale is: - J’ai beaucoup de plaisir à réaliser mon travail. - Globalement mon travail est très intéressant. - Le travail que je réalise est très utile et très important.

The internal consistency and convergent validity of this first dimension are satisfactory (Jöreskog rhô = 0.833, rhô vc = 0.631). Standardized regression coefficients are all significant (p<0.000) and range from 0.60 to 0.88. The second axis is more concerned with aspects of integrated and identified extrinsic motivation:

- I do much more than I am asked to in my work. - I’m really pleased for my company when its performance improves. - I’m very attached to my company.

The French version of this scale is:

- 13 -

- Je fais beaucoup plus que ce que l’on me demande dans mon travail. - Je suis très content pour mon entreprise lorsqu’elle améliore ses performances. - Je suis très attaché à mon entreprise.

For this second axis, convergent validity and internal consistency are less satisfactory than for the first one (Jöreskog rhô = 0.697, rhô vc = 0.45) and ought to be improved in next empirical studies. However, all items are significant (p<0.000) and standardized coefficients regression ranged from 0.36 to 0.81. Adjustment indexes of this bi dimensional scale are not satisfactory (X²/dl = 4.912, GFI = 0.96, AGFI = 0.894, RMSEA = 0.11). 3. 2. The conceptual model. In accordance with SDT, it was hypothesized that employees who perceive the work environment to be autonomy supportive – in other words more philosophical, a humanist work environment – would report higher levels of self-regulated motivation and smaller feeling of being monitored, whatever the monitoring systems and tools used to collect information. We propose the following hypotheses:

H1: The “positive” perception of work supervision has a positive impact on the two self-regulated motivation dimensions (H1a and H1b).

H2: The feeling of being monitored has a negative impact on the two self-regulated motivation dimensions (H2a and H2b).

H3: The importance of the monitoring systems has a positive impact on the intensity of the feeling of being monitored.

H4: The importance of the monitoring systems has a negative impact on the perception of the work supervision.

H5: The positive perception of the work supervision has a negative impact on the intensity of the feeling of being monitored. The “feeling of being monitored” was predicted to partially mediate the relations of the “perception of the work supervision” and “self-regulated motivation”. It was also predicted to mediate the relation of the importance of monitoring systems and self-regulated motivation. Obviously, the more extensive the monitoring systems are, the more the feeling of being monitored should increase. But in fact, it could depend on the perception employees have about their supervisors who use those monitoring tools and information collected to evaluate their subordinates (George, 1996): Do managers use data collected to control and punish or to give constructive feedback to their subordinates? That is why we hypothesize that the perception of work supervision can affect the feeling of being monitored and partially mediates the relations of the importance of monitoring systems and the feeling of being monitored. Our conceptual model is summarized in figure 2:

- 14 -

Figure 2. Conceptual Model

3. 3. Results.

The structural equation model is quite satisfactory. Its fit to the data is acceptable (X²/dl: 2.91; RMSEA: 0.08; GFI: 0.907). To examine the discriminant validity of our model, we use the most rigorous method (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The smallest extracted variance (0.45 for the second dimension of self-regulated motivation) is higher than the highest shared variance (0.42), shared between the work supervision perception and the first dimension of self-regulated motivation. So, the discriminant validity of our model is satisfactory. Thus we can examine our hypotheses. All estimated paths are significant.

Table 1. Standardized Regression Weights

Standardized

Regression weights

S.E. C.R

. Proba

Perception of work supervision

<---

Importance of monitoring systems

-,223 ,010 -

3,701 ***

Feeling of being monitored <---

Importance of monitoring systems

,430 ,006 8,525 ***

Feeling of being monitored <---

Perception of work supervision

-,237 ,041 -

4,348 ***

Intrinsic Motivation (first dimension)

<---

Feeling of being monitored

-,139 ,077 -

2,694 ,007

Internalized extrinsic motivation

<---

Feeling of being monitored

-,151 ,100 -

2,525 ,012

Intrinsic Motivation (first dimension)

<---

Perception of work supervision

,651 ,072 10,06

3 ***

Internalized Extrinsic Motivation (second dimension)

<---

Perception of work supervision

,575 ,095 7,594 ***

Feeling of being

monitored

Internalized Extrinsic

Motivations (second

dimension)

Perception of work

supervision

H3 +

H5 -

H1b +

H2a -

H4 -

H1a +

H2b -

Intrinsic Motivations

(first dimension)

Importance of monitoring

systems

- 15 -

The standardized path coefficient from “the perception of work supervision” to “intrinsic motivation” (the first dimension of self-regulated motivation) is strong and significant (γ = 0.65, p < 0.001), like the one to “internalized extrinsic motivation” (the second dimension of self-regulated motivation) (γ = 0.58, p < 0.001). As a result, we can keep our central hypothesis H1 which postulates that a positive perception of work supervision has a crowding in effect on employees’ self-regulated motivation. We defined our latent variable named “perception of the work supervision” as a set of humanist principles applied to the mode of supervision (autonomy, constructive feedback, challenges, listening, mutual trust and respect, acknowledgement, etc., to promote each human being’s self-determination). So, we can conclude that our model confirms the crowding in effect of employees’ self-regulated motivation by a humanist management.

Figure 3. The structural equations model

,41

Motivationextrinsèqueinternalisée

,75

Mon travail est très intéressant

e2

,56

content_pour_entreprise_31

e4

,65

attachement_entreprise_32

e5

,81

,50

Motivationintrinsèque

,77

plaisir_dans_travail_26

e6

,36

travail_utile_important_29

e7

,13

plus_que_demandé_27

e8

X² = 209,837 dl = 72 X²/dl = 2,914RMSEA = ,080 GFI = ,907 AGFI = ,865

,05

perceptionencadrement

,60

reconnaissance_7e14

,77

compris_15

e15

,88

,66

confiance_supérieur_13

e16

,81

,52

autonomie_14

e17

,72

,37

information_compétence_16

e18

,60 ,31

relation_difficile_17

e19

,56

,75

,00

indicateursynthétiquedu niveau

de surveillance

e20

,29

Sentimentd'être

surveillé

e21

-,14

-,15

,43

e22

e23

e24

,36

-,22

,87,88

,60

,65

,58

-,24

,78

- 16 -

The standardized regression weight from the feeling of being monitored to the intrinsic motivation is negative and significant as expected, but low (γ = - 0.14; p = 0.007); the one towards the internalized extrinsic motivation is also negative, significant and low (γ = - 0.15; p = 0.012). Consequently, we can keep our hypothesis H2 which postulates a crowding out effect of self-regulated motivation by the feeling of being monitored, even if this effect is low.

The standardized path coefficient from the importance of monitoring systems to the feeling of being monitored (H3) is unsurprisingly positive and significant (γ = 0.43; p < 0.001). The standardized regression weight from the importance of monitoring systems to the perception of work supervision (H4) is negative and significant but quite low (γ = -0.22; p < 0.001). As hypothesized by H5, the perception of work supervision has a negative impact on the intensity of the feeling of being monitored (γ = -0.24; p < 0.001); this result means that when the positive perception of work supervision increases, the feeling of being monitored decreases.

In conclusion, hypotheses are validated and results show the crowding-out / crowding-in effect of self-regulated motivation by a type of management perceived as controlling / informative and autonomy supportive. So we can conclude on a crowding-in effect of employees’ self-regulated motivation at work by a humanist management. 3. 4. Indirect effects study. We developed an exploratory step to search the best model with all the possible mediations. Then, we compared different models obtained and we selected the best, which presented the best fit to the data, but also made sense and was coherent with our theoretical framework. For example, we assessed a model which postulated causality from the feeling of being monitored towards the perception of work supervision. Consequently, the perception of work supervision became the mediator of the feeling of being monitored to the self-regulated motivation. This could be theoretically consistent. But the goodness of fit of this n°2 model to the data was much lower than what was obtained with the n°1 model set out in this paper.

Figure 4. Another model with inversed causality and other mediation.

We also tried to create an additional model, which postulates a direct path from the ‘importance of monitoring systems’ to ‘self-regulated motivation’, but this path was not significant. Importance of monitoring systems doesn’t retain any direct path to self-regulated motivation and is completely mediated by the perception of work supervision and the feeling of being monitored.

Feeling of being

monitored

Internalized Extrinsic

Motivations (second

dimension)

Perception of work

supervision

H3 +

H5 -

H1b +

H2a -

H4 -

H1a +

H2b -

Intrinsic Motivations

(first dimension)

Importance of monitoring

systems

- 17 -

At last, we tried to elaborate a model which postulates only a direct path from ‘perception of the work supervision’ to self-regulated motivation and no mediation though ‘feeling of being monitored’. But it was poorer, with a low fit to the data. ‘Perception of the work supervision’ retains a direct path to self-regulated motivation but is also mediated though feeling of being monitored as indicated in a significant indirect effect. 3. 5. Discussion and limits.

We can now compare our results with those of the Anglo-Saxon literature. With

hypothesis H5, we corroborate the results of an empirical study developed by George (1996) in the United States who found that the feeling of being monitored depends partially on employees’ work supervision perception : “ Management has a key role to play in designing systems that are effective yet are not viewed as too onerous or invasive “ (George, 1996, p. 478).

With hypothesis H1 (“A positive perception of work supervision has a positive impact on both dimensions of employee’s self-regulated motivation”), we confirm results found in the empirical study of Koestner, Ryan, Bernieri & Holt (1984) which showed that when supervisors acknowledge their employees’ emotions and subjectivity, intrinsic motivation of these latter increases. Deci & al., (1989) realized an organizational redesign study in a company with about 1000 employees, in order to enhance its performance. “They trained managers to be autonomy supportive with their subordinates and found that autonomy support predicted later trust in the organization, positive affect at work, and work satisfaction. (…) Baard & al. (1999) and Deci & al. (2001) found support for a model where management autonomy support was related to the satisfaction of employees’ needs, which was related in turn to higher performance evaluations, engagement in one’s work, and well-being, in both Bulgarian and American samples.” (Gagné, 2003, p.204).

With hypothesis H2 (“The feeling of being monitored has a negative impact on both dimensions of self-regulated motivation”), we obtain results similar to those in empirical studies which show a crowding out effect of self-regulated motivation by incentives systems perceived by employees as controlling (strong monitoring and threats of punishment) (Deci & Cascio, 1972 ; Lepper & Greene, 1975 ; Harackiewicz, Manderlink & Sansone, 1984 ; Reeve & Deci, 1996 ; Amabile, DeJong & Lepper, 1976 ; Zuckerman & al., 1978; Sherman et Smith, 1984).

In conclusion, the problematic is more about the form (“controlling or informative”) that the incentive systems should take, than its presence or absence. Thus, when activity control and performance monitoring are perceived as fair, stimulating, and provide a positive and constructive feedback, the incentive system is named “informative” and increases both self-regulated and extrinsic motivations.

However, our results ought to be interpreted taking into account the limits of our empirical study. The data collection was made in one shot, so we cannot really test for the causalities hypothesized theoretically (Kline, 2004). The next study should consist of a longitudinal study. We cannot generalize our results because our sample isn’t representative of the whole French population (60 % were women, 27 % executives and 3.4% workers). In addition, we should also duplicate this study on several samples in order to verify the external validity. Moreover, data collected consisted in self-perception and intention statements, which could be affected by a social desirability bias (Amabile & al., 1994). It would be more rigorous to realize an empirical investigation with observed behaviours. Furthermore, items and scales must be improved, especially for the internalized extrinsic motivation. At last, the model could be improved if we introduced the individual differences in terms of causality

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orientations. The work environment alone doesn’t explain the entire level of fundamental needs satisfaction. “SDT proposes that both individual differences in autonomy orientations and contextual supportiveness will influence need satisfaction” and so in turn, self-regulated motivation (Gagné, 2003, p.202). “Independent of how supportive the context is, differences in causality orientations can lead people to have their basic needs differentially met, because people with different causality orientations may perceive the same context differently, and/or because people with different orientations may elicit different reactions during interpersonal interactions” (Gagné, 2003, p.203). Our next study could use the General Causality Orientation Scale (GCOS) in order to take into account individual differences. Conclusion

We have shown that humanistic philosophy postulates that each human being wants to be self-determinated (creation of oneself by oneself), wants to be a “person” recognized by others. A humanistic management consists of giving to employees a supportive work environment, with autonomy, stimulating challenges, constructive feedback, acknowledgement, mutual respect and trust, enabling employees to achieve fulfilment. We converge towards SDT which “proposes that human beings have basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Contexts that support the satisfaction of these needs will promote a person’s enjoyment of activities and the autonomous self-regulation of behaviours. People are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, that is, to do an activity simply for the enjoyment they derive from it, when they can freely choose to pursue the activity (autonomy), when they master the activity (competence), and when they feel connected and supported by important people, such as a manager, a parent, a teacher, or team-mates (relatedness). Early research using this framework focused mostly on examining how decreases in experienced autonomy influenced intrinsic motivation. For example, research has shown that controlling rewards (Deci, 1971; Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999), deadlines (Amabile et al., 1976), and evaluation (Amabile, 1979) can decrease the enjoyment of an activity, whereas choice (Zuckerman et al., 1978) and acknowledging people’s feelings toward activities or rules regarding an activity (Koestner, Ryan, Bernieri,&Holt, 1984) can enhance it.” (Gagné, 2003, p.202). Our empirical study, developed in France, shows that an autonomy supportive mode of supervision has substantial positive influences on employees’ self-regulated motivation at work, partly through decreasing their feeling of being monitored by NTIC and other monitoring systems. In this way, we confirm SDT in a French context and the efficiency of a humanist type of management to enhance self-regulated motivation at work.

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Annexe 1 : Description of the sample

Variables Employees

%

Age Under 25 years old 115 20.8 between 25 and 39 years

252 45.5

40 years and over 187 33.8 Marital status

Living as a couple 195 35.2 Not living as a couple 359 64.8

Salary

Less than 1500 euros 271 48.9 Between 1500 and 2000 euros

150 27.1

Between 2000 and 3000 euros

100 18.1

Over 3000 euros 33 5.9 Hours worked

Full-time 448 80.9 Part-time 106 19.1

Your highest qualification

None 3 .5 Cap, bep, (trade proficiency cert.)

45 8.1

Bepc (school cert.) 19 3.4 Vocational training cert.

19 3.4

Baccalaureate 74 13.4 Bac+2 107 19.3 More than bac + 2 287 51.8

Current type of position

Unqualified worker 2 .4 Qualified worker 17 3.1 Staff 123 22.2 Agent C or D (public) 71 12.8 Agent B or VRP (sales) 89 16.1 Technician 48 8.7 Engineer 55 9.9 Management 149 26.9

Variables Staff %

Gender Male 217 39.2

Female 337 60.8 Type of work contract Fixed term contract 80 14.4 Permanent contract 310 56.0 Training 5 .9 Temporary 10 1.8 Apprenticeship contract 75 13.5 Assisted employment 5 .9 Other 69 12.5

Number of hours overtime per week

None 173 31.2 between 1 and 5 232 41.9 over 5 149 26.8 Number of employees

in the company

Less than 10 76 13.7 between 10 and 49 127 22.9 between 50 and 200 81 14.6 over 200 270 48.7

How many people do you have under your

management?

None 405 73.1 1 to 5 people 83 15 Over 5 people 66 11.9 How many years have

you been with this company or branch?

Less than 1 year 109 19.7 between 1 and 5 years 197 35.6 over 5 years 248 44.8

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