How to Carry Out Research & Write it Up:

An Introduction(a)

Dr Dimitris Evripidou

Session Overview

• Session Overview• The Research Paper• Your Research Topic• The Content.• The Abstract.• The Introduction.• The Literature Review.• Aims of Study.• Methodology.• Results and Analysis.• Discussion.• Conclusion.

• What is Research?• Features of Good

Research?• The Research Process.• Research Structure –

Methodology.• Research Family and

Approach.• Case Studies.• Action Research.• Research Technique.

To produce a substantial piece of original work, which will be of (some) significance to other professionals working in the field.

This involves skills of: Identifying a topic area; Choosing a methodology; Analysing data; Drawing conclusions; Staying relevant.

The Research Paper

Identify your area at an early stage in the semester (like hmm now!).

Define the topic more clearly. It should be related in a broad sense to the field of module. It should focus on detail on a specific and fairly narrow

topic. It should be original (offer something new).

It might be the topic itself. It might be the informants. It might be the methodology. etc

Discussions with tutors, peers, colleagues will help! Form a group and share ideas, opinions, etc.

Your Research Topic

The Content

Title Page. (Acknowledgements.) Content List. Abstract. Introduction. Literature Review Aims of the Study

Methodology Results/Analysis Discussion. Conclusions &

Recommendations. References. Appendices.

Abstract (a) 1. Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?

2. Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is

the scope of the project? What is the main argument, thesis or claim?

3. Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work should include specific

models or approaches used in the larger study.

Abstract (b) 4. Results: The findings should be presented in a general way.

5. Implications: How does this work add to the body of knowledge on

the topic? Are there any practical or theoretical applications from your findings or implications for future research?

Set the scene for the reader – put your project into context.

Explain why the project area is important.

State the purpose, method, & rationale of your study.

State the problem or question you intend to address.

Why is this an appropriate project for you to carry out (the reason you find it interesting).

Introduction

Critically discuss what has previously been written and researched in the area.

You look at literature that may agree or not with your point of view.

It sets out the boundaries you are operating within. It makes a case for more work to be done.

You must identify gaps, misconceptions or other inadequacies in the literature.

Conclude with a statement of your research aims or hypothesis – Research Questions.

Literature Review

This is where you present the aims of the study.

This is where the research questions are presented clearly.

They set out what you hope to achieve at the end of the paper/research.

Aims of the Study

It varies according to the topics addressed and the data you need to collect.

It describes how the research project is designed and carried out.

What data was required.

How the data was collected.

How subjects were selected.

Justification for the choice of methods.

Methodology (a)

Triangulation of methods reinforces the validity of your research.

Issues of ethical nature (anonymity, confidentiality, etc).

Limitations of the study, what you would do differently if you did it again.

Methodology (b)

Present a summary and analysis of results. Raw data (e.g. transcriptions should be presented

in an appendix. Think of an effective method to present your

results (especially if they are numerical): Tables, Bar charts, Pie charts.

Make sure you also provide explanations for these.

Results/Analysis

Sometimes Results and Discussion are presented in one chapter.

Discuss the implications of your results with reference to your research questions.

There should be a full discussion and interpretation – analyse what your results mean.

You might need to consider alternative explanations, discuss possible reasons for any surprising or unpredicted results.

Draw out the significance of the results and how they may affect your teaching, learners, teaching methodology, people involved etc in relation to your research questions.

Discussion

Your conclusions must be clearly drawn from your findings and address the aims.

Recommendations should arise from the projects (and if possible directed to an appropriate stakeholder, group or organisation).

Never include new material in the conclusion.

Suggest further research via your own findings.

Conclusion & Recommendations

Research is a planned and systematic activity which provides reliable ways of finding out and deepening our understanding. The outcome is knowledge nobody had before.

Secondary Research: It is derived from secondary sources (books about students who are learning a language).

Primary Research: It is derived from primary sources (e.g. the students themselves who are learning a language; the teachers, parents etc).

What do we mean by research?

Initiation and Understanding of Research: Interest. Originality. Specificity.

Design and Methodology of the Research: Objectivity. Validity. Reliability.

Features of Good Research (a)

Application to other situations: Replicability. Generalizability. Utility.

Ethics: Access. Protection of subjects (students, teachers, etc) Agreement about disclosure and publication. Ownership of the data.

Features of Good Research (b)

“Criteria such as validity, reliability, generalizability, are necessary if teacher-researchers are to escape the sentimental anecdote that often replaces statistical research designs in education, and gives teacher-research such a bad name…teacher-research needs to establish standards and criteria that are applicable to their area of activity, rather than assume criteria designed for different problems” (Hopkins, 1993: 171).

Features of Good Research (c)

1. Clarifying the problem and outlining the research purpose.

2. Thinking about theories and literature.3. Selecting the appropriate methodology.4. Choosing the appropriate data collection tools.5. Using analysis to make sense of everything.6. Presentation of the findings.7. Making recommendations.

The Research Process

QuantitativeQualitativeDeskwork

Fieldwork

Case Studies, Action Research,Ethnography, Experiments.

Questionnaires,

Interviews

Observation Research Diaries

Research Structure: Methodology

Research Family

Data Analysis

Research Approach

Research Techniques

Quantitative: Collection and analysis of data in numeric form. Emphasises a large scale of data. Emphasises representative sets of data. Data collection tool: Questionnaires.

Qualitative: Collection and analysis of information in as many

non-numeric forms as possible. Explores as much detail as possible. Focuses on smaller number of instances/examples. Data collection tools: Interviews, research diaries

etc.

Research Family

It focuses on the researcher’s place of work, or another institution or organisation (a school, a company, etc.).

It may involve an element of an organisation (a department, a work team, etc.).

It involves the detailed in depth study of a small number of cases and are therefore often comparative in nature.

It employs highly qualitative data collection techniques which enable a deep understanding of the case in question.

The findings may not have reliability (how far can the understanding of a specific case be transferred to other situations?

Research Approach: Case Studies

Action Research It involves the collection and analysis of data related to some aspect of our professional practice. We reflect on what we have discovered and apply it to our professional action.

It starts with a problem and aims to take action to improve the situation.

Key components of action research: Planning, Acting, Observing, Reflecting.

Research Approach: Action Research & Work based Research

Action Research Cycle

Detailed Action Research Cycle

Reflexivity: taking account of the researcher’s subjectivity.

It is work which includes self-criticism and alerts the individual to the human subjective processes involved in undertaking research, warning the researcher that knowledge is relative to their own perspective

Doubt and possible biases are discussed as part of the data analysis, not separate, taboo subjects.

Action Research: Issues around researching at work

Worker/teacher and researcher roles may or may not be synonymous.

The duality of your role as a worker researcher may be conflicting: You as a teacher:

Responsibility towards your Sts learning. Responsibility towards the organisation you work for. Responsibility towards your colleagues.

You as a researcher: Responsibility towards your subjects. Responsibility towards your data. Responsibility towards the organisation you’re

conducting the research for.

Action Research: The issue of Roles

Constraints and opportunities exist for the research where the impact/feedback is immediate.

You need be aware of the environment’s culture.

Being an insider can impact on the type of approach / methodology you use.

Identify what you see as being the major influences (positive and negative) on you as a worker-teacher / researcher.

Action Research: Research Environment

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Workers-Teachers as Researchers Potential Advantages

Can improve understanding/working practice.

Access. Insider Knowledge:

Of the problem/question to be researched.

Of sources of information.

Of the organisation. Of the key people. Of the subjects.

Potential Disadvantages

Too close to the problem. Influenced by your own

expectations/values. Influenced by others

(colleagues, students, etc).

Duality of roles. Time consuming and

continuing.

Do you consider that certain criteria are best suited to certain kinds of research? For example, are some of them more applicable than others to an action-research approach?

Action research may be…

Very strong on…

Interest. Originality. Context-specificity. Validity. Utility.

Weaker on…

Publication (?) Reliability. Replicability.

Interviews: Structured Interviews. Semi-structured Interviews.

Questionnaires: Open Questions (offer opinions, expand, etc.). Closed Questions (range of alternatives, yes/no

answers)

Research Techniques – Data Collection Tools

After this session you should…

Know aims of the module/dissertation. Know about the content of the dissertation. Start thinking about your proposal. Know (a bit more) about research and action

research.

Revisiting the Session’s Objectives

Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2000) Research Methods in Education. (5th Ed) London: Routledge.

Wallace, M. (1993) Action Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (CUP).

References

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