Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy &...

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Chapter 58

Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

David Shier Jackie Butler Ricki Lewis

Created by Dr. Melissa Eisenhauer Compiled and Amended by John Crocker

Chapter 5 Chapter 5

Tissues Tissues

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Introduction: Introduction: A. A. Cells are arranged in Cells are arranged in tissues tissues that provide specific that provide specific

functions for the body. functions for the body. B. B. Cells of different tissues are structured differently Cells of different tissues are structured differently

leading to differences in function. leading to differences in function. C. C. Major types of human tissue are: Major types of human tissue are: epithelial, connective, epithelial, connective,

muscle, muscle, and and nervous. nervous.

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Epithelial Tissues: Epithelial Tissues: A. A. General Characteristics General Characteristics

1. 1. Epithelial tissue Epithelial tissue 1. 1. widespread throughout the body widespread throughout the body 2. 2. covers organs covers organs 3. 3. lines body surfaces. lines body surfaces.

2. 2. Anchored to a non Anchored to a non- -living living basement basement membrane membrane

3. 3. Made up of tightly packed cells Made up of tightly packed cells 4. 4. Contain little intercellular material Contain little intercellular material 5. 5. Generally lack blood vessels Generally lack blood vessels

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6. 6. Replaced frequently. Replaced frequently. 7. 7. Epithelial tissues function in: Epithelial tissues function in:

a) a) Protection Protection b) b) Secretion Secretion c) c) Absorption Absorption d) d) Excretion Excretion e) e) Sensory reception Sensory reception

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B. B. Simple Squamous Epithelium Simple Squamous Epithelium

1. 1. Made up of a single layer of thin, flattened cells. Made up of a single layer of thin, flattened cells. 2. 2. Well suited for diffusion so functions in: Well suited for diffusion so functions in:

a) a) Gas exchange in the lungs Gas exchange in the lungs b) b) Lines blood vessels, lymph vessels, body cavities, Lines blood vessels, lymph vessels, body cavities,

and hollow organs. and hollow organs.

C. C. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Simple Cuboidal Epithelium 1. 1. Consists of a single layer of cube Consists of a single layer of cube- -shaped cells shaped cells

with centrally located nuclei. with centrally located nuclei. 2. 2. Functions in secretion and absorption in the Functions in secretion and absorption in the

kidneys, and in secretion in glands. kidneys, and in secretion in glands.

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D. D. Simple Columnar Epithelium Simple Columnar Epithelium 1. 1. One row of elongated cells One row of elongated cells 2. 2. Nuclei are all located near the basement Nuclei are all located near the basement

membrane membrane 3. 3. May be ciliated May be ciliated 4. 4. Lines the uterus, stomach, and intestines Lines the uterus, stomach, and intestines

where it: where it: a) a) protects underlying tissues protects underlying tissues b) b) secretes digestive fluids secretes digestive fluids c) c) absorbs nutrients absorbs nutrients d) d) possess possess microvilli microvilli that increase the surface area that increase the surface area

available for absorption available for absorption e) e) Mucus Mucus- -secreting secreting goblet cells goblet cells can be found among can be found among

columnar cells columnar cells

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E. E. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium 1. 1. These cells appear layered due to the varying These cells appear layered due to the varying

positions of their nuclei within the row of cells, positions of their nuclei within the row of cells, but are not truly layered. but are not truly layered.

2. 2. Cilia may be present, along with mucus Cilia may be present, along with mucus- - secreting globlet cells, that line and sweep debris secreting globlet cells, that line and sweep debris from respiratory tubes. from respiratory tubes.

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F. F. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Stratified Squamous Epithelium 1. 1. Made up of layers of flattened cells that are Made up of layers of flattened cells that are

designed to protect underlying layers. designed to protect underlying layers. 2. 2. It makes up the outer layer of skin, and lines It makes up the outer layer of skin, and lines

the mouth, throat, vagina, and anal canal. the mouth, throat, vagina, and anal canal. 3. 3. In the skin, outer layers of cells undergo In the skin, outer layers of cells undergo

keratinization keratinization; ; however, this process does not however, this process does not occur where tissues remain moist as in the occur where tissues remain moist as in the throat, vagina, or anal canal. throat, vagina, or anal canal.


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G. G. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium 1. 1. This tissue consists of two to three layers of This tissue consists of two to three layers of

cuboidal cells lining a cuboidal cells lining a lumen lumen of the mammary of the mammary glands, sweat glands, salivary glands, and glands, sweat glands, salivary glands, and pancreas. pancreas.

2. 2. Several layers of cells provide greater protection Several layers of cells provide greater protection than one single layer. than one single layer.

H. H. Stratified Columnar Epithelium Stratified Columnar Epithelium This tissue consists of several layers of cells and is This tissue consists of several layers of cells and is

found in the vas deferens, part of the male found in the vas deferens, part of the male urethra, and parts of the pharynx. urethra, and parts of the pharynx.

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I. I. Transitional Epithelium Transitional Epithelium 1. 1. Designed to distend and return to its normal size, Designed to distend and return to its normal size,

as it does in the lining of the urinary bladder. as it does in the lining of the urinary bladder. 2. 2. This design provides This design provides distensibility distensibility and keeps urine and keeps urine

from diffusing back into the internal cavity. from diffusing back into the internal cavity.

J. J. Glandular Epithelium Glandular Epithelium 1. 1. Made up of cells designed to produce and Made up of cells designed to produce and

secrete substances into ducts or body fluids. secrete substances into ducts or body fluids. 2. 2. Glands that secrete products into ducts are Glands that secrete products into ducts are

exocrine exocrine 3. 3. Those that secrete into body fluids and blood Those that secrete into body fluids and blood

are called are called endocrine endocrine. .

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3. 3. Glands are classified by the ways the glands Glands are classified by the ways the glands secrete their products. secrete their products.

a) a) Merocrine Merocrine glands release fluid products by glands release fluid products by exocytosis (pancreas) and are grouped as: exocytosis (pancreas) and are grouped as: 1) 1) serous which produce a watery fluid or serous which produce a watery fluid or 2) 2) mucus which produce a thicker, mucus which produce a thicker,

protective substance. protective substance. b) b) Apocrine Apocrine glands lose portions of their cell glands lose portions of their cell

bodies during secretion (mammary bodies during secretion (mammary glands). glands).

c) c) Holocrine Holocrine glands release entire cells glands release entire cells (sebaceous glands). (sebaceous glands).


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Connective Tissues: Connective Tissues: A. General Characteristics A. General Characteristics

1. 1. Connective tissues Connective tissues: : 1. 1. Bind Bind 2. 2. Support Support 3. 3. Protect Protect 4. 4. serve as frameworks serve as frameworks 5. 5. fill spaces fill spaces 6. 6. store fat store fat 7. 7. produce blood cells produce blood cells 8. 8. protect against infection protect against infection 9. 9. repair tissue damage repair tissue damage

2. 2. Have abundant Have abundant extracellular extracellular matrix matrix (intercellular material) throughout (intercellular material) throughout

3. 3. Have good blood supplies (except cartilage). Have good blood supplies (except cartilage).


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B. Major Cell Types B. Major Cell Types 1. 1. Fibroblasts Fibroblasts are the most common fixed cell are the most common fixed cell

type type a) a) star star- -shaped shaped b) b) large in size large in size

c) c) secretes protein fibers into matrix secretes protein fibers into matrix

2. 2. Wandering Wandering macrophages macrophages function as scavenger function as scavenger cells and defend against infection by cells and defend against infection by phagocytosis phagocytosis. .

3. 3. Mast cells Mast cells are large and are located near blood are large and are located near blood vessels where they release: vessels where they release: a) a) Heparin Heparin, , an anticoagulant, and an anticoagulant, and b) b) Histamine Histamine which promotes inflammation which promotes inflammation


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C. C. Connective Tissue Fibers Connective Tissue Fibers 1. 1. Strong Strong collagenous collagenous fibers (white fibers), fibers (white fibers),

a) a) made of the protein made of the protein collagen collagen b) b) add strength for holding body parts together. add strength for holding body parts together.

2. 2. Elastic Elastic fibers (yellow fibers) fibers (yellow fibers) a) a) made of the protein made of the protein elastin elastin b) b) stretchy and add flexibility to certain types of stretchy and add flexibility to certain types of

connective tissues connective tissues

3. 3. Reticular Reticular fibers are thin fibers are thin collagenous collagenous fibers that fibers that form supportive networks in a variety of tissues. form supportive networks in a variety of tissues.


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D. D. Loose Connective (areolar) Tissue Loose Connective (areolar) Tissue 1. 1. Forms delicate, thin membranes throughout the Forms delicate, thin membranes throughout the

body body 2. 2. Binds body parts together such as skin and Binds body parts together such as skin and

underlying organs. underlying organs. 3. 3. The majority of the cells are fibroblasts The majority of the cells are fibroblasts 4. 4. Fibroblasts are separated by a gel Fibroblasts are separated by a gel- -like ground like ground

substance containing collagenous and elastic substance containing collagenous and elastic fibers. fibers.


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E. E. Adipose Tissue Adipose Tissue 1. 1. Loose connective tissue designed to store fat. Loose connective tissue designed to store fat. 2. 2. Present: Present:

1. 1. beneath the skin beneath the skin 2. 2. around joints around joints 3. 3. padding internal organs (kidneys etc) padding internal organs (kidneys etc) 4. 4. in certain abdominal membranes. in certain abdominal membranes.

F. F. Dense Connective Tissue Dense Connective Tissue 1. 1. This tissue consists of densely packed This tissue consists of densely packed

collagenous fibers and is very strong but lacks a collagenous fibers and is very strong but lacks a good blood supply. good blood supply.

2. 2. It is found as part of It is found as part of tendons tendons and and ligaments ligaments. .

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G. G. Cartilage Cartilage 1. 1. Cartilage is a rigid connective tissue that Cartilage is a rigid connective tissue that

provides a supportive framework for various provides a supportive framework for various structures. structures.

2. 2. It lacks a vascular system and so heals It lacks a vascular system and so heals slowly. slowly.

3. 3. Cartilage cells Cartilage cells ( (chondrocytes chondrocytes) lie within ) lie within lacunae lacunae in a gel in a gel- -like fluid matrix. like fluid matrix.

4. 4. Cartilaginous structures are enclosed within a Cartilaginous structures are enclosed within a connective tissue called the connective tissue called the perichondrium perichondrium. .


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5. 5. Hyaline cartilage Hyaline cartilage, the most common , the most common 1. 1. white white 2. 2. Has abundant fine collagen fibers Has abundant fine collagen fibers 3. 3. found at the ends of bones found at the ends of bones 4. 4. supports respiratory passages supports respiratory passages

6. 6. Elastic cartilage, Elastic cartilage, with elastic fibers with elastic fibers 1. 1. provides a framework for the external ears and provides a framework for the external ears and

parts of the larynx. parts of the larynx.

7. 7. Fibrocartilage Fibrocartilage, with many , with many collagenous collagenous fibers fibers 1. 1. tough tissue tough tissue 2. 2. provides a shock provides a shock- -absorbing function in absorbing function in

intervertebral intervertebral disks and in the knees and pelvic disks and in the knees and pelvic girdle. girdle.


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H. H. Bone Bone 1. 1. The most rigid connective tissue The most rigid connective tissue 2. 2. Deposits of mineral salts and collagen within the Deposits of mineral salts and collagen within the

matrix. matrix. 3. 3. Hardness due to mineral salts Hardness due to mineral salts 4. 4. Internally supports the body Internally supports the body 5. 5. Protects Protects 6. 6. Forms muscle attachments Forms muscle attachments 7. 7. Site for blood cell formation Site for blood cell formation 8. 8. Osteocytes Osteocytes, bone cells , bone cells

1. 1. lie within lacunae lie within lacunae 2. 2. are arranged in concentric circles ( are arranged in concentric circles (osteons osteons) )

around around osteonic osteonic canals interconnected by canals interconnected by canaliculi canaliculi

9. 9. Bone has a good blood supply, enabling rapid Bone has a good blood supply, enabling rapid recovery after an injury recovery after an injury


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I. I. Blood Blood 1. 1. Blood Blood is composed of cells suspended in a is composed of cells suspended in a

liquid matrix called liquid matrix called plasma plasma. . 2. 2. Cells include: Cells include:

1. 1. Red blood cells Red blood cells 2. 2. White blood cells White blood cells 3. 3. Platelets Platelets

3. 3. Functions to transport substances throughout Functions to transport substances throughout the body. the body.

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Membrane Types: Membrane Types: A. A. Epithelial membranes Epithelial membranes

1. 1. Thin and Thin and sheetlike sheetlike 2. 2. Composed of epithelium and underlying Composed of epithelium and underlying

connective tissues connective tissues 3. 3. Cover body surfaces and line body cavities Cover body surfaces and line body cavities 4. 4. Three types: Three types:

a) a) Serous membranes line cavities with no exterior Serous membranes line cavities with no exterior openings including various pleura openings including various pleura

b) b) Mucous membranes line cavities with exterior Mucous membranes line cavities with exterior openings including oral and nasal cavities openings including oral and nasal cavities

c) c) Cutaneous Cutaneous membrane lines the exterior of the body membrane lines the exterior of the body AKA skin AKA skin

B. B. Synovial Synovial membranes lines joints and is only membranes lines joints and is only composed of connective tissues composed of connective tissues

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Muscle Tissues: Muscle Tissues: A. General Characteristics A. General Characteristics

1. 1. Muscle cells, also called muscle fibers, contract Muscle cells, also called muscle fibers, contract and relax and relax

2. 2. Consist of Consist of three three major types major types

B. B. Skeletal Muscle Tissue Skeletal Muscle Tissue 1. 1. Skeletal muscle is attached to bone and can be Skeletal muscle is attached to bone and can be

controlled by conscious effort ( controlled by conscious effort (voluntary voluntary). ). 2. 2. The cells (muscle fibers) are The cells (muscle fibers) are

a) a) long and cylindrical, long and cylindrical, b) b) striated, striated, c) c) have many nuclei, and have many nuclei, and d) d) contract from nervous impulse. contract from nervous impulse.

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C. C. Smooth Muscle Tissue Smooth Muscle Tissue 1. 1. Smooth muscle tissue Smooth muscle tissue

a) a) lacks striations, lacks striations, b) b) is uninucleate, and is uninucleate, and c) c) consists of spindle consists of spindle- -shaped cells. shaped cells.

2. 2. This This involuntary involuntary muscle muscle is found in is found in a) a) the walls of internal organs, the walls of internal organs, b) b) the digestive tract, the digestive tract, c) c) blood vessels, and blood vessels, and d) d) urinary bladder. urinary bladder.


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D. D. Cardiac Muscle Tissue Cardiac Muscle Tissue 1. 1. Found only in the heart Found only in the heart 2. 2. Involuntary Involuntary muscle muscle 3. 3. Consists of branching fibers that are Consists of branching fibers that are

connected to each other with connected to each other with intercalated disks intercalated disks. . 4. 4. Has a single nucleus in each cell but appears Has a single nucleus in each cell but appears

striated. striated.


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Nervous Tissues: Nervous Tissues: A. A. Nervous tissues Nervous tissues are found in the brain, spinal cord, are found in the brain, spinal cord,

and nerves. and nerves. B. B. Neurons Neurons, or nerve cells, conduct nervous impulses , or nerve cells, conduct nervous impulses

while helper cells, or while helper cells, or neuroglia neuroglia, support and , support and nourish the neurons. nourish the neurons.

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Chapter 6 Chapter 6 The Skin and The Skin and Integumentary Integumentary System System

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Introduction: Introduction:

A. A. Organs Organs are body structures composed of two or are body structures composed of two or more different tissues. more different tissues.

B. B. The skin and its accessory organs make up the The skin and its accessory organs make up the integumentary system integumentary system. .

CopyrightThe McGrawHill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

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Types of Membranes Types of Membranes A. A. Serous membranes Serous membranes

1. 1. Line body cavities that lack openings to the Line body cavities that lack openings to the outside. outside.

2. 2. They line the thorax and abdomen and cover They line the thorax and abdomen and cover the organs within these cavities. the organs within these cavities.

3. 3. Serous membranes are made up of epithelium Serous membranes are made up of epithelium and loose connective tissue and secrete serous and loose connective tissue and secrete serous fluid that acts as a lubricant. fluid that acts as a lubricant.


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B. B. Mucous membranes Mucous membranes 1. 1. Line the cavities and openings that lead outside Line the cavities and openings that lead outside

of the body of the body 2. 2. Consist of epithelium and connective tissue Consist of epithelium and connective tissue

with specialized mucus secreting cells with specialized mucus secreting cells 3. 3. Include the oral and nasal cavities, and Include the oral and nasal cavities, and

openings of the digestive, reproductive, openings of the digestive, reproductive, respiratory, and urinary systems. respiratory, and urinary systems.


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C. C. Synovial Synovial membranes membranes 1. 1. Line the joint cavities. Line the joint cavities. 2. 2. Consist of only connective tissues Consist of only connective tissues 3. 3. Secrete Secrete synovial synovial fluid, a lubricant fluid, a lubricant

D. D. Cutaneous Cutaneous membrane membrane 1. 1. Consists of the skin Consists of the skin 2. 2. The subject of the remainder of this chapter. The subject of the remainder of this chapter.


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The Skin and Its Tissues The Skin and Its Tissues A. A. Description of Skin Description of Skin

1. 1. large organ large organ 2. 2. responsible for maintaining homeostasis through: responsible for maintaining homeostasis through:

a) a) temperature regulation temperature regulation b) b) protection of underlying tissues protection of underlying tissues c) c) retardation of water loss retardation of water loss d) d) housing sensory receptors housing sensory receptors e) e) synthesizing certain chemicals, and synthesizing certain chemicals, and f) f) excreting wastes excreting wastes


B. B. Layers Layers 1. 1. Peripheral Peripheral epidermis epidermis 2. 2. Thick and complex Thick and complex dermis dermis, , 3. 3. connected to underlying tissue by the connected to underlying tissue by the

subcutaneous layer subcutaneous layer ( (hypodermis hypodermis). ).

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C. C. Epidermis Epidermis 1. 1. Protects against: Protects against:

a) a) Water loss Water loss b) b) Mechanical injury Mechanical injury c) c) Chemicals, and Chemicals, and d) d) Microorganisms Microorganisms

2. 2. Lacks blood vessels. Lacks blood vessels. 3. 3. Made up of stratified Made up of stratified squamous squamous epithelium epithelium 4. 4. Cells are pushed outward as new cells are Cells are pushed outward as new cells are

formed, become formed, become keratinized keratinized, and die. , and die.

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5. 5. Four or five layers may be seen: Four or five layers may be seen: a) a) stratum stratum basale basale

1) 1) layer of reproducing cells at the base of the layer of reproducing cells at the base of the epidermis epidermis

2) 2) well well- -nourished by dermal blood vessels nourished by dermal blood vessels b) b) stratum stratum spinosum spinosum c) c) stratum stratum granulosum granulosum d) d) stratum stratum corneum corneum e) e) stratum stratum lucidum lucidum

1) 1) found on the thicker palms and soles. found on the thicker palms and soles.


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6. 6. Melanocytes Melanocytes a) a) lie deep in the epidermis and underlying lie deep in the epidermis and underlying

dermis dermis b) b) produce a pigment called produce a pigment called melanin melanin that that

protects deeper cells from UV rays. protects deeper cells from UV rays. c) c) pass melanin to nearby cells through pass melanin to nearby cells through cytocrine cytocrine

secretion secretion

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D. D. Skin Color Skin Color 1. 1. Results from a combination of genetic, Results from a combination of genetic,

environmental, and physiological factors. environmental, and physiological factors. 2. 2. Genetic differences Genetic differences result from differing result from differing

amounts of melanin and in the size of melanin amounts of melanin and in the size of melanin granules. granules.

3. 3. Exposure to sunlight causes darkening of skin Exposure to sunlight causes darkening of skin as melanin production increases. as melanin production increases.

4. 4. Circulation within dermal blood vessels affects Circulation within dermal blood vessels affects skin color. skin color.


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E. E. Dermis Dermis 1. 1. Binds the epidermis to underlying tissues. Binds the epidermis to underlying tissues. 2. 2. Epidermal ridges and dermal papillae cause the Epidermal ridges and dermal papillae cause the

border to be uneven. border to be uneven. 3. 3. Consists of connective tissue with collagen and Consists of connective tissue with collagen and

elastic fibers within a gel elastic fibers within a gel- -like ground substance. like ground substance. 4. 4. Contains blood vessels that: Contains blood vessels that:

a) a) carry nutrients to upper layers of skin carry nutrients to upper layers of skin b) b) help to regulate temperature. help to regulate temperature.

5. 5. Also contains: Also contains: a) a) nerve fibers, nerve fibers, b) b) sensory fibers, sensory fibers, c) c) hair follicles, hair follicles, d) d) sebaceous glands, and sebaceous glands, and e) e) sweat glands. sweat glands.

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F. F. Subcutaneous Layer Subcutaneous Layer (hypodermis) (hypodermis) 1. 1. Composed of: Composed of:

1. 1. Loose connective tissue Loose connective tissue 2. 2. Insulating adipose tissue. Insulating adipose tissue.

2. 2. Binds the skin to underlying organs Binds the skin to underlying organs 3. 3. Contains the blood vessels that supply the Contains the blood vessels that supply the

skin skin 4. 4. No sharp boundary exists between the No sharp boundary exists between the

dermis and subcutaneous layer. dermis and subcutaneous layer.


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Accessory Organs of the Skin Accessory Organs of the Skin A. A. Nails Nails

1. 1. Protective coverings over the ends of fingers Protective coverings over the ends of fingers and toes. and toes.

2. 2. Consist of stratified squamous epithelial cells Consist of stratified squamous epithelial cells overlying the overlying the nail bed nail bed

3. 3. Lunula Lunula is the most actively growing region of is the most actively growing region of the nail root. the nail root.

4. 4. As new cells are produced, older ones are As new cells are produced, older ones are pushed outward and become keratinized. pushed outward and become keratinized.


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B. B. Hair Follicles Hair Follicles 1. 1. Tube Tube- -like depressions extending from epidermal like depressions extending from epidermal

surface to dermis surface to dermis 2. 2. Individual hairs develop from the hair root at the Individual hairs develop from the hair root at the

base of the base of the hair follicle hair follicle 3. 3. As new cells are formed, old cells are pushed As new cells are formed, old cells are pushed

outward, become keratinized, then die forming outward, become keratinized, then die forming the hair the hair shaft. shaft.

4. 4. Found on almost all skin surfaces Found on almost all skin surfaces

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5. 5. Arrector Arrector pili muscles pili muscles a) a) Bundles of smooth muscle fibers attached to each Bundles of smooth muscle fibers attached to each

hair follicle. hair follicle. b) b) Contract when cold or upset Contract when cold or upset c) c) Contraction causes hair to stand on end, Contraction causes hair to stand on end, “ “goose goose

bumps bumps” ”

6. 6. Hair color is genetically programmed Hair color is genetically programmed a) a) Color determined by type and amount of pigment Color determined by type and amount of pigment

produced by produced by melanocytes melanocytes b) b) Dark hair has Dark hair has eumelanin eumelanin c) c) Blonde and red hair have Blonde and red hair have pheomelanin pheomelanin


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C. Sebaceous Glands C. Sebaceous Glands 1. 1. Holocrine Holocrine glands glands 2. 2. Associated with hair follicles Associated with hair follicles 3. 3. Secrete Secrete sebum sebum

a) a) Mix of fatty material and cellular debris Mix of fatty material and cellular debris b) b) waterproofs waterproofs c) c) moisturizes skin and hair shafts moisturizes skin and hair shafts

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D. D. Sweat Glands Sweat Glands ( (sudoriferous sudoriferous glands) glands) 1. 1. Exocrine glands Exocrine glands 2. 2. Two types: Two types:

a) a) Eccrine Eccrine a) a) Most abundant Most abundant b) b) Respond to body temperature Respond to body temperature

b) b) Apocrine Apocrine a) a) Activate at puberty Activate at puberty b) b) respond to body temperature, stress, and sexual respond to body temperature, stress, and sexual

arousal. arousal. 3. 3. Ceruminous Ceruminous glands are modified sweat glands glands are modified sweat glands

that secrete wax in the ear canal. that secrete wax in the ear canal. 4. 4. Mammary Mammary glands, another modified type of glands, another modified type of

sweat glands, secrete milk. sweat glands, secrete milk.


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Regulation of Body Temperature Regulation of Body Temperature A. A. Proper temperature regulation is vital to Proper temperature regulation is vital to

maintaining metabolic reactions. maintaining metabolic reactions. B. B. Hypothalamus regulates body temperature and the Hypothalamus regulates body temperature and the

skin plays a major role in this regulation skin plays a major role in this regulation C. C. Active cells, such as heart and skeletal muscle, Active cells, such as heart and skeletal muscle,

produce heat. produce heat. D. D. Heat is lost from the skin through radiation. Heat is lost from the skin through radiation.


E. E. The body responds to excessive heat by: The body responds to excessive heat by: 1) 1) dilation of dermal blood vessels dilation of dermal blood vessels 2) 2) sweating sweating

F. F. The body responds to excessive cooling by: The body responds to excessive cooling by: 1) 1) constricting dermal blood vessels constricting dermal blood vessels 2) 2) inactivating sweat glands inactivating sweat glands 3) 3) shivering shivering

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Healing of Wounds and Burns Healing of Wounds and Burns A. A. Inflammation Inflammation

1. 1. Body's normal response to injury Body's normal response to injury 2. 2. Blood vessels dilate (redness) Blood vessels dilate (redness) 3. 3. Heat from increased blood flow Heat from increased blood flow 4. 4. Become more permeable (swelling) Become more permeable (swelling) 5. 5. Pain caused by increased pressure and injury Pain caused by increased pressure and injury

to neurons to neurons B. B. Superficial cuts (epidermis) are filled in by Superficial cuts (epidermis) are filled in by

reproducing epithelial cells. reproducing epithelial cells.


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C. C. Deeper cuts (into dermis) Deeper cuts (into dermis) 1) 1) Closed off by clots Closed off by clots 2) 2) Covered by scabs Covered by scabs 3) 3) Filled in by fibroblasts making connective tissue Filled in by fibroblasts making connective tissue 4) 4) Blood vessels extend into the area Blood vessels extend into the area 5) 5) Phagocytic Phagocytic cells digest dead cells and debris cells digest dead cells and debris 6) 6) Injured tissues are replaced Injured tissues are replaced 7) 7) Then the scab falls off. Then the scab falls off.


E. E. Large wounds Large wounds 1. 1. granulations granulations may form may form

a) a) New branch of blood vessels New branch of blood vessels b) b) Cluster of collagen secreting fibroblasts Cluster of collagen secreting fibroblasts

2. 2. Scars composed primarily of Scars composed primarily of collagenous collagenous fibers fibers may remain. may remain.

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Chapter 7 Chapter 7 Skeletal System Skeletal System

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Introduction: Introduction: A. A. Bones are the organs of the skeletal system Bones are the organs of the skeletal system B. B. They are very active tissues They are very active tissues C. C. Functions include: Functions include:

1. 1. muscle attachment muscle attachment 2. 2. protection protection 3. 3. support, support, 4. 4. blood cell production blood cell production 5. 5. storage of minerals storage of minerals


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Bone Structure Bone Structure A. A. Bones are classified by size and shape Bones are classified by size and shape

1. 1. Long Long 1. 1. Long longitudinal axes Long longitudinal axes 2. 2. Expanded ends ( Expanded ends (epiphesis epiphesis) ) 3. 3. Femur, Femur, humerus humerus

2. 2. Short Short 1. 1. Length and width near equal Length and width near equal 2. 2. Carpals, Carpals, tarsals tarsals

3. 3. Flat Flat 1. 1. platelike platelike with broad surfaces with broad surfaces 2. 2. Ribs, scapulae Ribs, scapulae


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4. 4. Irregular Irregular 1. 1. Various shapes Various shapes 2. 2. Vertebrae, nasal Vertebrae, nasal concha concha

5. 5. Sesamoid Sesamoid 1. 1. Round Round 2. 2. Usually small Usually small 3. 3. Embedded within tendons adjacent to joints Embedded within tendons adjacent to joints 4. 4. Patella Patella

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B. B. Structure of long bones Structure of long bones 1. 1. The The diaphysis diaphysis

a) a) Bone shaft Bone shaft b) b) Long relative to its diameter Long relative to its diameter c) c) Wall composed of Wall composed of compact bone compact bone d) d) Contains a hollow Contains a hollow medullary medullary cavity cavity

a) a) lined with lined with endosteum endosteum b) b) filled with filled with marrow marrow

2. 2. The The periosteum periosteum a) a) Tough layer of vascular connective tissue Tough layer of vascular connective tissue b) b) Covers the bone Covers the bone c) c) Continuous with ligaments and tendons Continuous with ligaments and tendons

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3. 3. Epiphysis Epiphysis a) a) Expanded ends of long bones Expanded ends of long bones b) b) Form joints with adjacent bones Form joints with adjacent bones c) c) Filled with Filled with spongy bone spongy bone to reduce weight to reduce weight d) d) Covered by Covered by articular articular cartilages cartilages (hyaline cartilage) (hyaline cartilage)

4. 4. Shape makes function possible Shape makes function possible a) a) Bony processes Bony processes or grooves provide places of or grooves provide places of

attachment for muscles attachment for muscles b) b) Epiphyses allow for ease of movement in joints Epiphyses allow for ease of movement in joints


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C. C. Microscopic Structure Microscopic Structure 1. 1. Osteocytes Osteocytes (bone cells) (bone cells)

a) a) Located within Located within lacunae lacunae b) b) Pass nutrients and gasses in the matrix through Pass nutrients and gasses in the matrix through canaliculi canaliculi

2. 2. Intercellular material consists of: Intercellular material consists of: a) a) Collagen Collagen – – provides strength and durability provides strength and durability b) b) inorganic salts (CaPO inorganic salts (CaPO 4 4 ) ) – – hardness hardness


3. 3. Osteocytes Osteocytes and intercellular material and intercellular material a) a) Compact bone is organized into Compact bone is organized into osteons osteons that: that:

1) 1) Extend longitudinally through bone Extend longitudinally through bone 2) 2) Lie in concentric circles around central Lie in concentric circles around central Haversian Haversian

canals canals ( (osteonic osteonic canals canals ) ) 3) 3) Are interconnected by transverse Are interconnected by transverse perforating canals perforating canals 4) 4) Contain blood vessels and nerve fibers Contain blood vessels and nerve fibers 5) 5) Osteons Osteons are cemented together are cemented together

b) b) Spongy bone is not arranged into Spongy bone is not arranged into osteons osteons

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Bone Development and Growth Bone Development and Growth A. A. Bones form by replacing connective Bones form by replacing connective tissues in the tissues in the

fetus. fetus. B. B. Intramembranous Intramembranous bones bones

1. 1. form within sheetlike layers of connective tissue form within sheetlike layers of connective tissue 2. 2. Osteoblasts Osteoblasts

a) a) Deposit bony tissue around themselves Deposit bony tissue around themselves b) b) Once Once osteoblasts osteoblasts are surrounded by are surrounded by

extracellular extracellular matrix (lacunae) they are called matrix (lacunae) they are called osteocytes osteocytes. .

3. 3. Cells of membranous connective tissue outside Cells of membranous connective tissue outside the bone develop the the bone develop the periosteum periosteum. .

4. 4. Include the flat bones of the skull Include the flat bones of the skull


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C. C. Endochondral Endochondral bones bones replace masses of cartilage replace masses of cartilage 1. 1. Most skeletal bones Most skeletal bones 2. 2. First develop as hyaline cartilage models First develop as hyaline cartilage models 3. 3. Cartilage is broken down in the Cartilage is broken down in the diaphysis diaphysis 4. 4. Periosteum Periosteum develops on the outside develops on the outside 5. 5. Disintegrating tissue is invaded by blood vessels and Disintegrating tissue is invaded by blood vessels and

osteoblasts osteoblasts 6. 6. Spongy bone is formed at the Spongy bone is formed at the primary primary ossification ossification center center 7. 7. Bone tissue develops outward towards the ends Bone tissue develops outward towards the ends


8. 8. Osteoblasts Osteoblasts from the periosteum lay down compact bone from the periosteum lay down compact bone outside the spongy bone. outside the spongy bone.

9. 9. Secondary ossification centers Secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses appear in the epiphyses

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10. 10. Epiphyseal Epiphyseal plates plates ( (metaphysis metaphysis) ) a) a) Bands of hyaline cartilage Bands of hyaline cartilage b) b) Form between the two ossification centers Form between the two ossification centers c) c) Made up of layers of cartilage cells undergoing mitosis Made up of layers of cartilage cells undergoing mitosis d) d) Responsible for lengthening bones Responsible for lengthening bones


11. 11. Increases in thickness are due to Increases in thickness are due to intramembranous intramembranous ossification underneath the ossification underneath the periosteum periosteum. .

12. 12. Osteoclasts Osteoclasts break down the calcified matrix break down the calcified matrix 13. 13. Then replaced with bone Then replaced with bone- -building building osteoblasts osteoblasts that that

deposit bone in place of calcified cartilage. deposit bone in place of calcified cartilage. 14. 14. A A medullary cavity medullary cavity forms in the region of forms in the region of the the

diaphysis due to the activity of diaphysis due to the activity of osteoclasts osteoclasts. .

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E. Homeostasis of Bone Tissue E. Homeostasis of Bone Tissue 1. 1. Osteoclasts Osteoclasts tear down ( tear down (resorption resorption) ) 2. 2. Osteoblasts Osteoblasts build bone ( build bone (deposition) deposition) 3. 3. Average of 3% to 5% of bone calcium Average of 3% to 5% of bone calcium

exchanged annually exchanged annually


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Bone Function Bone Function A. A. Support and Protection Support and Protection

1. 1. Bones give shape to: Bones give shape to: a) a) Head Head b) b) Thorax Thorax c) c) limbs. limbs.

2. 2. Bones such as the pelvis and lower limbs Bones such as the pelvis and lower limbs provide support for the body. provide support for the body.

3. 3. Bones of the skull protect: Bones of the skull protect: a) a) Brain Brain b) b) Ears Ears c) c) Eyes Eyes


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B. B. Body Movement Body Movement 1. 1. Bones can act as Bones can act as levers levers 2. 2. A lever has four components: A lever has four components:

a) a) a rigid bar (bone) a rigid bar (bone) b) b) a pivot or fulcrum (joint) a pivot or fulcrum (joint) c) c) an object that is moved against resistance (bone) an object that is moved against resistance (bone) d) d) a force that supplies energy (muscle) a force that supplies energy (muscle)


C. C. Blood Cell Formation Blood Cell Formation 1. 1. Blood cells begin to form through Blood cells begin to form through hematopoieses hematopoieses

in the yolk sac in the yolk sac 2. 2. Later manufactured in bone marrow Later manufactured in bone marrow

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3. 3. Two kinds of marrow occupy the Two kinds of marrow occupy the medullary medullary cavities of bone : cavities of bone : a) a) Yellow marrow Yellow marrow

1) 1) occupies the cavities of most bones occupies the cavities of most bones 2) 2) stores fat stores fat

b) b) Red marrow Red marrow a) a) Functions in the formation of: Functions in the formation of:

a) a) red blood cells red blood cells b) b) white blood cells white blood cells c) c) Platelets Platelets

b) b) Found in the spongy bone Found in the spongy bone c) c) Red marrow can replace yellow when needed Red marrow can replace yellow when needed

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D. D. Storage of Inorganic Salts Storage of Inorganic Salts 1. 1. The inorganic matrix of bone stores inorganic The inorganic matrix of bone stores inorganic

mineral salts mineral salts a) a) Calcium phosphate (CaPO Calcium phosphate (CaPO 4 4 ) ) b) b) Important in many metabolic processes Important in many metabolic processes c) c) Bone calcium is a reservoir for body calcium Bone calcium is a reservoir for body calcium d) d) Calcium is stored in bone under the influence of Calcium is stored in bone under the influence of

calcitonin calcitonin when blood levels of calcium are high when blood levels of calcium are high e) e) When blood levels are low, When blood levels are low, osteoclasts osteoclasts release calcium release calcium

from bone from bone


2. 2. Bone also stores Bone also stores magnesium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium, sodium, potassium, and carbonate ions carbonate ions. .

3. 3. Bones can also accumulate harmful Bones can also accumulate harmful elements, such as lead, radium, and elements, such as lead, radium, and strontium strontium

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Skeletal Organization Skeletal Organization A. A. The The axial skeleton axial skeleton consists of the: consists of the:

1. 1. Skull Skull 2. 2. Hyoid bone Hyoid bone 3. 3. Vertebral column Vertebral column 4. 4. Thorax Thorax

B. B. The The appendicular appendicular skeleton skeleton consists of the: consists of the: 1. 1. Pectoral girdle Pectoral girdle 2. 2. Upper limbs Upper limbs 3. 3. Pelvic girdle Pelvic girdle 4. 4. Lower limbs Lower limbs

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The Skull The Skull A. A. The skull is made up of 22 bones The skull is made up of 22 bones

1. 1. 8 cranial bones 8 cranial bones 2. 2. 13 facial bones, and 13 facial bones, and 3. 3. the the mandible mandible

B. B. Cranium Cranium 1. 1. encloses and protects the brain encloses and protects the brain 2. 2. provides attachments for muscles provides attachments for muscles 3. 3. contains air contains air- -filled filled sinuses sinuses that reduce its weight. that reduce its weight.

C. Facial Skeleton C. Facial Skeleton 1. 1. The 13 immovable facial bones and mandible The 13 immovable facial bones and mandible

a) a) form the basic face form the basic face b) b) provide attachments for muscles of mastication and provide attachments for muscles of mastication and

expression expression

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Vertebral Column Vertebral Column A. A. Cervical Vertebrae Cervical Vertebrae

1. 1. Seven bones Seven bones 2. 2. Smallest of the vertebrae Smallest of the vertebrae 3. 3. comprise the neck and support the head comprise the neck and support the head 4. 4. The bifid The bifid spinous spinous processes and transverse processes and transverse

foramina distinguish cervical vertebrae foramina distinguish cervical vertebrae B. B. Thoracic Vertebrae Thoracic Vertebrae

A. A. Twelve Twelve thoracic vertebrae thoracic vertebrae B. B. articulate with the ribs. articulate with the ribs. C. C. larger and stronger than the cervical vertebrae. larger and stronger than the cervical vertebrae.

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C. C. Lumbar Vertebrae Lumbar Vertebrae 1. 1. Five Five lumbar vertebrae lumbar vertebrae 2. 2. Massive Massive 3. 3. Support the weight of the body. Support the weight of the body.

D. D. Sacrum Sacrum 1. 1. Triangular structure Triangular structure 2. 2. Base of the vertebral column Base of the vertebral column 3. 3. Made up of five vertebrae fused into one bone Made up of five vertebrae fused into one bone

D. D. Coccyx Coccyx 1. 1. The lowermost portion of the vertebral column The lowermost portion of the vertebral column 2. 2. Composed of four fused vertebrae Composed of four fused vertebrae

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Thoracic Cage Thoracic Cage A. A. The thoracic cage includes: The thoracic cage includes:

1. 1. Ribs Ribs 2. 2. Thoracic vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae 3. 3. Sternum Sternum 4. 4. Costal cartilages Costal cartilages

B. B. It supports the pectoral girdle and upper limbs It supports the pectoral girdle and upper limbs C. C. Functions in breathing Functions in breathing D. D. Protects thoracic and upper abdominal organs Protects thoracic and upper abdominal organs E. E. Ribs Ribs

1. 1. 12 pairs of ribs 12 pairs of ribs 2. 2. Attach to the thoracic vertebrae Attach to the thoracic vertebrae

F. F. Sternum (breastbone) Sternum (breastbone) 1. 1. located along the anterior midline of the thoracic located along the anterior midline of the thoracic

cage cage

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Pectoral Girdle Pectoral Girdle A. A. The The pectoral girdle pectoral girdle makes an incomplete ring that makes an incomplete ring that

supports the upper limbs supports the upper limbs B. B. It is made up of two It is made up of two scapulae scapulae and two and two clavicles clavicles

Upper Limb Upper Limb A. A. Bones of the upper limb form framework for: Bones of the upper limb form framework for:

1. 1. Arm Arm - - Humerus Humerus 2. 2. Forearm Forearm – – Radius Radius, , Ulna Ulna 3. 3. Hand Hand – – Carpals Carpals, , Metacarpals Metacarpals, , Phalanges Phalanges

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Pelvic Girdle Pelvic Girdle A. A. Supports the trunk of the body on the lower limbs Supports the trunk of the body on the lower limbs B. B. Supports and protects lower abdominal and pelvic Supports and protects lower abdominal and pelvic

organs organs C. C. consists of: consists of:

1. 1. two hip ( two hip (innominate innominate) bones ) bones 2. 2. Sacrum Sacrum 3. 3. Each hip bone is made up of the Each hip bone is made up of the Ilium Ilium, , Ischium Ischium, , and and

Pubis Pubis Lower Limbs Lower Limbs A. A. The bones of the lower limbs provide the The bones of the lower limbs provide the

framework for framework for 1. 1. Thigh ( Thigh (femur femur) ) 2. 2. Lower leg ( Lower leg (tibia tibia, , fibula fibula) ) 3. 3. Foot ( Foot (tarsals tarsals, , metatarsals metatarsals, , phalanges phalanges) )

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Joints Joints ( (articulations articulations) ) A. A. Functional junctions between bones Functional junctions between bones B. B. Enable a wide variety of body movements Enable a wide variety of body movements C. C. Can be classified according to degree of movement Can be classified according to degree of movement

possible: possible: 1. 1. Immovable Immovable 2. 2. Slightly movable Slightly movable 3. 3. Freely movable Freely movable

D. D. Can also classified according to the type of tissue that Can also classified according to the type of tissue that binds them together binds them together 1. 1. Fibrous Joints Fibrous Joints

a) a) Held close together by dense connective tissue Held close together by dense connective tissue b) b) Either immovable (sutures of skull) Either immovable (sutures of skull) c) c) Or only slightly movable Or only slightly movable

(joint between the distal tibia and fibula) (joint between the distal tibia and fibula)

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2. 2. Cartilaginous Joints Cartilaginous Joints a) a) Hyaline cartilage or disks of Hyaline cartilage or disks of fibrocartilage fibrocartilage unite the unite the

bones bones b) b) help absorb shock and are slightly movable help absorb shock and are slightly movable c) c) Ex/ Ex/ Intervertebral Intervertebral disks, the first rib with the sternum disks, the first rib with the sternum

3. 3. Synovial Synovial Joints Joints a) a) Most joints of the skeleton Most joints of the skeleton b) b) More complex than fibrous or cartilaginous joints More complex than fibrous or cartilaginous joints c) c) Articular Articular ends of bone are covered with hyaline cartilage ends of bone are covered with hyaline cartilage d) d) A A joint capsule joint capsule consists of: consists of:

a) a) outer layer of dense connective tissue that joins the outer layer of dense connective tissue that joins the periosteum periosteum, , b) b) an inner layer made up of an inner layer made up of synovial synovial membrane membrane c) c) Synovial Synovial fluid fluid has the consistency of egg whites and lubricates has the consistency of egg whites and lubricates

articulating surfaces within the joint articulating surfaces within the joint e) e) Some contain shock Some contain shock- -absorbing pads of absorbing pads of fibrocartilage fibrocartilage

called called menisci menisci f) f) Some contain fluid Some contain fluid- -filled sacs called filled sacs called bursae bursae

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g) g) Can be classified based on the shapes of their parts and Can be classified based on the shapes of their parts and the movements they permit: the movements they permit: 1) 1) Ball Ball- -and and- -socket joint socket joint

a. a. bone with a globular or egg bone with a globular or egg- -shaped head shaped head b. b. articulates with the cup articulates with the cup- -shaped cavity of another bone shaped cavity of another bone c. c. a very wide range of motion is possible a very wide range of motion is possible d. d. examples include the hip and shoulder joint examples include the hip and shoulder joint

2) 2) Condyloid Condyloid joint joint a. a. consists of an ovoid consists of an ovoid condyle condyle fitting into an elliptical cavity fitting into an elliptical cavity b. b. permits a variety of motions permits a variety of motions c. c. the joint between a metacarpal and a phalange the joint between a metacarpal and a phalange

3) 3) Gliding joints Gliding joints a. a. occur where articulating surfaces are nearly flat or slightly occur where articulating surfaces are nearly flat or slightly

curved curved b. b. allowing a back allowing a back- -and and- -forth motion forth motion c. c. the joints of the wrist and ankle and between vertebrae are the joints of the wrist and ankle and between vertebrae are

gliding joints gliding joints

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4) 4) Hinge joint Hinge joint a. a. A convex surface fits into a concave surface A convex surface fits into a concave surface b. b. Movement is in one plane only Movement is in one plane only c. c. Found in the elbow and phalange joints Found in the elbow and phalange joints

5) 5) Pivot joint Pivot joint a. a. A cylindrical surface rotates within a ring of bone and A cylindrical surface rotates within a ring of bone and

fibrous tissue fibrous tissue b. b. Examples include the joint between the proximal ends of Examples include the joint between the proximal ends of

the radius and ulna the radius and ulna

6) 6) Saddle joint Saddle joint a. a. Forms where articulating surfaces have both concave and Forms where articulating surfaces have both concave and

convex areas convex areas b. b. Permits a wide range of movements Permits a wide range of movements c. c. Found in the joint between the trapezium and the Found in the joint between the trapezium and the

metacarpal of the thumb metacarpal of the thumb

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E. E. Types of Joint Movements Types of Joint Movements 1. 1. When a muscle contracts When a muscle contracts 2. 2. its fibers pull its movable end its fibers pull its movable end (insertion (insertion) ) 3. 3. toward its stationary end ( toward its stationary end (origin origin) ) 4. 4. causing movement at a joint causing movement at a joint

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Chapter 8 Chapter 8 Muscular System Muscular System

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Introduction: Introduction: A. A. Muscles are the organs of the muscular system. Muscles are the organs of the muscular system. B. B. All movements require muscle using chemical All movements require muscle using chemical

energy to contract. energy to contract. C. C. The three types of muscle in the body are The three types of muscle in the body are

1. 1. Skeletal muscle Skeletal muscle 2. 2. Smooth muscle Smooth muscle 3. 3. Cardiac muscle Cardiac muscle


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Structure of a Skeletal Muscle Structure of a Skeletal Muscle A. A. Each muscle is an organ, comprised of Each muscle is an organ, comprised of

1. 1. Skeletal muscle tissue Skeletal muscle tissue 2. 2. Connective tissues Connective tissues 3. 3. Nervous tissue Nervous tissue 4. 4. Blood Blood

B. B. Connective Tissue Coverings Connective Tissue Coverings 1. 1. Fascia Fascia, layers of dense connective tissue, , layers of dense connective tissue,

surround and separate each muscle. surround and separate each muscle. 2. 2. Extends beyond the ends of the muscle Extends beyond the ends of the muscle 3. 3. Gives rise to tendons that are fused to the Gives rise to tendons that are fused to the

periosteum of bones. periosteum of bones.


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4. 4. Aponeuroses Aponeuroses are broad sheets of connective are broad sheets of connective tissue that sometimes connect muscles tissue that sometimes connect muscles

5. 5. An An epimysium epimysium is a layer of connective tissue is a layer of connective tissue surrounding each whole muscle surrounding each whole muscle

6. 6. A A perimysium perimysium surround each surround each fascicle fascicle (individual bundle) within each muscle (individual bundle) within each muscle

4. 4. Each muscle cell (fiber) is covered by a Each muscle cell (fiber) is covered by a connective tissue layer called connective tissue layer called endomysium endomysium


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C. C. Skeletal Muscle Fibers Skeletal Muscle Fibers 1. 1. Each muscle fiber is a single, long, cylindrical Each muscle fiber is a single, long, cylindrical

muscle cell. muscle cell. 2. 2. Beneath the Beneath the sarcolemma sarcolemma (cell membrane) lies (cell membrane) lies

sarcoplasm sarcoplasm (cytoplasm) with many (cytoplasm) with many mitochondria and nuclei mitochondria and nuclei

3. 3. Myofibrils Myofibrils lie within the lie within the sarcoplasm sarcoplasm a) a) Thick filaments of myofibrils are made up Thick filaments of myofibrils are made up

of the protein of the protein myosin myosin. . b) b) Thin filaments of myofibrils are made up of Thin filaments of myofibrils are made up of

the protein the protein actin actin. . c) c) The organization of these filaments The organization of these filaments

produces produces striations striations. .


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4. 4. A A sarcomere sarcomere extends from one Z line to the next. extends from one Z line to the next. a) a) I bands I bands

1) 1) light bands light bands 2) 2) made up of actin filaments made up of actin filaments 3) 3) anchored to Z lines anchored to Z lines

b) b) A bands A bands 1) 1) dark bands dark bands 2) 2) made up of overlapping thick and thin filaments made up of overlapping thick and thin filaments

c) c) H zone H zone 1) 1) In the center of A bands In the center of A bands 2) 2) Consists of myosin filaments only Consists of myosin filaments only


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5. 5. Transverse (T) tubules Transverse (T) tubules a) a) Invaginations of the Invaginations of the sarcolemma sarcolemma b) b) Open to the outside of the muscle fiber Open to the outside of the muscle fiber c) c) Associated with the Associated with the sarcoplasmic sarcoplasmic reticulum reticulum

(endoplasmic reticulum) (endoplasmic reticulum) d) d) Each T tubule lies between two cisternae of Each T tubule lies between two cisternae of

the sarcoplasmic reticulum the sarcoplasmic reticulum e) e) The sarcoplasmic reticulum and transverse The sarcoplasmic reticulum and transverse

tubules activate the muscle contraction tubules activate the muscle contraction mechanism when the fiber is stimulated. mechanism when the fiber is stimulated.


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D. D. Neuromuscular Junction Neuromuscular Junction 1. 1. The site where the motor neuron and muscle fiber The site where the motor neuron and muscle fiber

meet is the meet is the neuromuscular junction neuromuscular junction. . 2. 2. The muscle fiber membrane forms a The muscle fiber membrane forms a motor end motor end

plate plate in which the in which the sarcolemma sarcolemma is tightly folded and is tightly folded and where nuclei and mitochondria are abundant. where nuclei and mitochondria are abundant.

3. 3. The cytoplasm of the motor neuron contains The cytoplasm of the motor neuron contains numerous mitochondria and numerous mitochondria and synaptic vesicles synaptic vesicles storing storing neurotransmitters neurotransmitters. .

E. E. Motor Units Motor Units 1. 1. A motor neuron and the muscle fibers it controls A motor neuron and the muscle fibers it controls

make up a make up a motor unit motor unit 2. 2. when stimulated to do so, the muscle fibers of the when stimulated to do so, the muscle fibers of the

motor unit contract all at once motor unit contract all at once


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Skeletal Muscle Contraction Skeletal Muscle Contraction A. A. Muscle contraction results in: Muscle contraction results in:

1. 1. Shortening of Shortening of sarcomeres sarcomeres 2. 2. Pulling of the muscle against its attachments Pulling of the muscle against its attachments

B. B. Role of Myosin and Role of Myosin and Actin Actin 1. 1. Myosin Myosin consists of two twisted strands with consists of two twisted strands with

globular cross globular cross- -bridges projected outward along bridges projected outward along the strands. the strands.

2. 2. Actin Actin is a globular protein with myosin binding is a globular protein with myosin binding sites; sites; tropomysosin tropomysosin and and troponin troponin are two proteins are two proteins associated with the surface of the associated with the surface of the actin actin filaments filaments


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3. 3. According to the According to the sliding filament theory sliding filament theory of muscle of muscle contraction contraction a) a) The myosin The myosin crossbridge crossbridge attaches to the binding attaches to the binding

site on the site on the actin actin filament filament b) b) Bends, pulling on the Bends, pulling on the actin actin filament filament c) c) Then releases and attaches to the next binding Then releases and attaches to the next binding

site on the site on the actin actin, pulling again. , pulling again. 4. 4. Energy from the conversion of ATP to ADP is Energy from the conversion of ATP to ADP is

provided to the cross provided to the cross- -bridges from the enzyme bridges from the enzyme ATPase ATPase, causing them to be in a , causing them to be in a “ “cocked cocked” ” position. position.


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C. C. Stimulus for Contraction Stimulus for Contraction 1. 1. The motor neuron releases the neurotransmitter The motor neuron releases the neurotransmitter

acetylcholine acetylcholine from its synaptic vesicles into the from its synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft synaptic cleft

2. 2. Protein receptors in the motor end plate detect the Protein receptors in the motor end plate detect the neurotransmitters neurotransmitters

3. 3. A muscle impulse spreads over the surface of the A muscle impulse spreads over the surface of the sarcolemma and into the T tubules, where it sarcolemma and into the T tubules, where it reaches the reaches the sarcoplasmic sarcoplasmic reticulum. reticulum.

4. 4. The The sarcoplasmic sarcoplasmic reticulum releases its stored reticulum releases its stored calcium calcium to the to the sarcoplasm sarcoplasm of the muscle fiber of the muscle fiber


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5. 5. High concentration of calcium in the sarcoplasm High concentration of calcium in the sarcoplasm cause the cause the troponin troponin and and tropomyosin tropomyosin molecules to molecules to move aside exposing the myosin binding sites on move aside exposing the myosin binding sites on the actin filaments. the actin filaments.

6. 6. Myosin cross Myosin cross- -bridges bind and pull on the bridges bind and pull on the actin actin filaments, causing the filaments, causing the sarcomeres sarcomeres to shorten. to shorten.

7. 7. After the nervous impulse has been received After the nervous impulse has been received acetylcholinesterase acetylcholinesterase rapidly decomposes the rapidly decomposes the acetylcholine. acetylcholine.

8. 8. Calcium is returned to the Calcium is returned to the sarcoplasmic sarcoplasmic reticulum reticulum and the linkages between myosin and and the linkages between myosin and actin actin are are broken broken


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D. D. Energy Sources for Contraction Energy Sources for Contraction 1. 1. Energy for contraction comes from Energy for contraction comes from ATP ATP. . 2. 2. Creatine Creatine phosphate phosphate stores excess energy released by the stores excess energy released by the

mitochondria mitochondria 3. 3. Creatine Creatine phosphokinase phosphokinase promotes synthesis of promotes synthesis of creatine creatine

phosphate when the supply of ATP is sufficient phosphate when the supply of ATP is sufficient 4. 4. As ATP decomposes the energy from As ATP decomposes the energy from creatine creatine phosphate phosphate

can be transferred to ADP molecules regenerating ATP can be transferred to ADP molecules regenerating ATP


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E. E. Oxygen Supply and Cellular Respiration Oxygen Supply and Cellular Respiration 1. 1. Muscle has a high requirement for oxygen to Muscle has a high requirement for oxygen to

enable the complete breakdown of glucose to enable the complete breakdown of glucose to create ATP in the mitochondria create ATP in the mitochondria

2. 2. Hemoglobin Hemoglobin in red blood cells carries oxygen to in red blood cells carries oxygen to muscle. muscle.

3. 3. The pigment The pigment myoglobin myoglobin stores oxygen in muscle stores oxygen in muscle tissues tissues


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F. F. Oxygen Debt Oxygen Debt 1. 1. During rest or moderate activity there is enough During rest or moderate activity there is enough

oxygen to support aerobic respiration. oxygen to support aerobic respiration. 2. 2. During strenuous exercise oxygen deficiency may During strenuous exercise oxygen deficiency may

develop and lactic acid accumulates as an end develop and lactic acid accumulates as an end product of anaerobic respiration. product of anaerobic respiration.

3. 3. Lactic acid Lactic acid diffuses out of muscle cells and is diffuses out of muscle cells and is carried in the blood to the liver. carried in the blood to the liver.

4. 4. Oxygen debt refers to the amount of oxygen Oxygen debt refers to the amount of oxygen required by: required by: a) a) Liver cells to convert accumulated lactic acid into Liver cells to convert accumulated lactic acid into

glucose glucose b) b) Muscle cells need to Muscle cells need to resynthesize resynthesize ATP and creatine ATP and creatine

phosphate to their original concentrations phosphate to their original concentrations

5. 5. Repaying an oxygen debt may take several Repaying an oxygen debt may take several hours. hours.

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G. G. Muscle Fatigue Muscle Fatigue 1. 1. Muscle fatigue usually arises from the accumulation of lactic Muscle fatigue usually arises from the accumulation of lactic

acid in the muscle. acid in the muscle. 2. 2. Lowering of pH by accumulated lactic acid prevents the Lowering of pH by accumulated lactic acid prevents the

muscle from contracting. muscle from contracting. 3. 3. When a muscle loses its ability to contract during strenuous When a muscle loses its ability to contract during strenuous

exercise, it is referred to as exercise, it is referred to as fatigue fatigue. . 4. 4. A A muscle cramp muscle cramp occurs due to a lack of ATP required to return occurs due to a lack of ATP required to return

calcium ions back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum so muscle calcium ions back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum so muscle fibers can relax. fibers can relax.


H. H. Heat Production Heat Production 1. 1. Contraction of skeletal muscle represents an important Contraction of skeletal muscle represents an important

source of heat for the body. source of heat for the body. 2. 2. Much of the energy produced through the reactions of Much of the energy produced through the reactions of

cellular respiration is lost as heat (another source of heat cellular respiration is lost as heat (another source of heat

for the body). for the body).

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Muscular Responses Muscular Responses A. A. Muscle function is studied by Muscle function is studied by

1. 1. Removing a single muscle fiber Removing a single muscle fiber 2. 2. Connecting it to a device that records its responses to Connecting it to a device that records its responses to

electrical stimulation electrical stimulation 3. 3. Providing electrical stimuli Providing electrical stimuli 4. 4. A A myogram myogram is the recording of an electrically is the recording of an electrically- -stimulated stimulated

muscle contraction muscle contraction


B. B. When a muscle fiber contracts, it always contracts When a muscle fiber contracts, it always contracts to its full extent ( to its full extent (all all- -or or- -none response none response); it cannot ); it cannot contract partially contract partially

C. C. A A twitch twitch is a single, short contraction involving only is a single, short contraction involving only a few motor units a few motor units

D. D. A muscle fiber remains unresponsive to stimulation A muscle fiber remains unresponsive to stimulation unless the stimulus surpasses its unless the stimulus surpasses its threshold stimulus threshold stimulus. .

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E. The latent period is the time delay between when the stimulus is applied and when the muscle contracts (less than two milliseconds)

F. The latent period is followed by a period of contraction and a period of relaxation.

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G. G. Summation Summation 1. 1. A muscle fiber receiving a series of stimuli of A muscle fiber receiving a series of stimuli of

increasing frequency reaches a point when it is increasing frequency reaches a point when it is unable to relax completely and the force of unable to relax completely and the force of individual twitches combine by the process of individual twitches combine by the process of summation summation. .

2. 2. If the sustained contraction lacks any relaxation, it If the sustained contraction lacks any relaxation, it is called a is called a tetanic tetanic contraction contraction. .


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Series of twitches

Summation

Tetanic contraction

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H. H. Recruitment of Motor Units Recruitment of Motor Units 1. 1. An increase in the number of activated motor units An increase in the number of activated motor units

within a muscle at higher intensities of stimulation is within a muscle at higher intensities of stimulation is called called recruitment. recruitment.

2. 2. Summation and recruitment together can produce a Summation and recruitment together can produce a sustained contraction sustained contraction of increasing strength. of increasing strength.

3. 3. Muscle tone Muscle tone is achieved by a continuous state of is achieved by a continuous state of sustained contraction of motor units within a muscle. sustained contraction of motor units within a muscle.


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Smooth Muscles Smooth Muscles A. A. Smooth Muscle Fibers Smooth Muscle Fibers

1. 1. Elongated with tapered ends Elongated with tapered ends 2. 2. Lack striations Lack striations 3. 3. Relatively undeveloped Relatively undeveloped sarcoplasmic sarcoplasmic reticulum reticulum

4. 4. Two types of smooth muscles: Two types of smooth muscles: a) a) Multiunit smooth muscle Multiunit smooth muscle

1) 1) fibers occur separately rather than as sheets fibers occur separately rather than as sheets 2) 2) blood vessels and iris of the eye blood vessels and iris of the eye

b) b) Visceral muscle Visceral muscle 1) 1) found in the walls of hollow organs found in the walls of hollow organs 2) 2) occurs in sheets occurs in sheets 3) 3) fibers can stimulate one another and display fibers can stimulate one another and display

rhythmicity rhythmicity 4) 4) responsible for responsible for peristalsis peristalsis in hollow organs in hollow organs

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B. B. Smooth Muscle Contraction Smooth Muscle Contraction 1. 1. The myosin The myosin- -binding binding- -to to- -actin mechanism is mostly actin mechanism is mostly

the same for smooth muscles and skeletal muscles. the same for smooth muscles and skeletal muscles. 2. 2. Both acetylcholine and Both acetylcholine and norepinephrine norepinephrine stimulate stimulate

and inhibit smooth muscle contraction, depending and inhibit smooth muscle contraction, depending on the target muscle. on the target muscle.

3. 3. Hormones can also stimulate or inhibit Hormones can also stimulate or inhibit contraction. contraction.

4. 4. Smooth muscle is slower to contract and relax Smooth muscle is slower to contract and relax than is skeletal muscle, but can contract longer than is skeletal muscle, but can contract longer using the same amount of ATP using the same amount of ATP


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Cardiac Muscle Cardiac Muscle A. A. The mechanism of contraction in cardiac muscle is The mechanism of contraction in cardiac muscle is

essentially the same as that for skeletal and smooth essentially the same as that for skeletal and smooth muscle, but with some differences. muscle, but with some differences.

B. B. Cardiac muscle has transverse tubules that supply Cardiac muscle has transverse tubules that supply extra calcium and so can contract for longer periods. extra calcium and so can contract for longer periods.

C. C. Intercalated disks Intercalated disks (complex membrane junctions) (complex membrane junctions) 1. 1. Join cells and transmit the force of contraction from one Join cells and transmit the force of contraction from one

cell to the next cell to the next 2. 2. Aid in the rapid transmission of impulses throughout the Aid in the rapid transmission of impulses throughout the

heart. heart. D. D. Cardiac muscle is self Cardiac muscle is self- -exciting and rhythmic exciting and rhythmic E. E. The whole structure contracts as a unit The whole structure contracts as a unit


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Skeletal Muscle Actions Skeletal Muscle Actions A. A. Origin and Insertion Origin and Insertion

1. 1. The immovable end of a muscle is the The immovable end of a muscle is the origin origin 2. 2. The movable end is the insertion The movable end is the insertion 3. 3. Contraction pulls the Contraction pulls the insertion insertion toward the origin toward the origin 4. 4. Some muscles have more than one insertion or Some muscles have more than one insertion or

origin. origin.


B. B. Interaction of Skeletal Muscles Interaction of Skeletal Muscles 1. 1. In a group of muscles, the one doing the majority In a group of muscles, the one doing the majority

of the work is the of the work is the prime mover prime mover. . 2. 2. Helper muscles are called Helper muscles are called synergists synergists 3. 3. Opposing muscles are called Opposing muscles are called antagonists antagonists

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Major Skeletal Muscles Major Skeletal Muscles A. A. Muscles are named according to any of the following Muscles are named according to any of the following

criteria: criteria: 1. 1. Size Size 2. 2. Shape Shape 3. 3. Location Location 4. 4. Action Action 5. 5. Number of attachments Number of attachments 6. 6. Direction of its fibers Direction of its fibers


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B. B. Muscles of Facial Expression Muscles of Facial Expression 1. 1. Are responsible for the variety of facial Are responsible for the variety of facial

expressions possible in the human face expressions possible in the human face 2. 2. Muscles of facial expression attach to underlying Muscles of facial expression attach to underlying

bones and overlying connective tissue of skin bones and overlying connective tissue of skin


C. C. Muscles of Mastication Muscles of Mastication 1. 1. Chewing movements include up and down as Chewing movements include up and down as

well as side well as side- -to to- -side grinding motions of muscles side grinding motions of muscles attached to the skull and lower jaw. attached to the skull and lower jaw.

D. D. Muscles that Move the Head Muscles that Move the Head 1. 1. Paired muscles in the neck and back flex, extend, Paired muscles in the neck and back flex, extend,

and turn the head. and turn the head.

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E. E. Muscles that Move the Pectoral Girdle Muscles that Move the Pectoral Girdle 1. 1. The chest and shoulder muscles move the The chest and shoulder muscles move the

scapula. scapula.


F. F. Muscles that Move the Arm Muscles that Move the Arm 1. 1. Muscles allow the arm to move freely Muscles allow the arm to move freely 2. 2. They connect the arm to: They connect the arm to:

a) a) pectoral girdle pectoral girdle b) b) ribs ribs c) c) vertebral column vertebral column

4. 4. Extensors Extensors 5. 5. Abductors Abductors 6. 6. Rotators Rotators

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G. G. Muscles that Move the Forearm Muscles that Move the Forearm 1. 1. Arise from the Arise from the humerus humerus or pectoral girdle or pectoral girdle 2. 2. Connect to the ulna and radius. Connect to the ulna and radius.


H. H. Muscles that Move the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers Muscles that Move the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers 1. 1. Movements of the hand are caused by muscles Movements of the hand are caused by muscles

originating from: originating from: a) a) the distal the distal humerus humerus b) b) radius radius c) c) ulna ulna

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I. I. Muscles of the Abdominal Wall Muscles of the Abdominal Wall 1. 1. This group of muscles connects the rib cage and This group of muscles connects the rib cage and

vertebral column to the pelvic girdle. vertebral column to the pelvic girdle. 2. 2. A band of tough connective tissue, the A band of tough connective tissue, the linea alba linea alba, ,

extending from the xiphoid process to the extending from the xiphoid process to the symphysis symphysis pubis, serves as an attachment for certain pubis, serves as an attachment for certain abdominal wall muscles. abdominal wall muscles.


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J. J. Muscles of the Pelvic Outlet Muscles of the Pelvic Outlet 1. 1. The superficial The superficial urogenital diaphragm urogenital diaphragm fills the space fills the space

within the pubic arch within the pubic arch 2. 2. The deeper The deeper pelvic diaphragm pelvic diaphragm forms the floor of the forms the floor of the

pelvic cavity pelvic cavity


L. L. Muscles that Move the Leg Muscles that Move the Leg 1. 1. This group connects the tibia or fibula to the This group connects the tibia or fibula to the

femur or pelvic girdle femur or pelvic girdle

K. K. Muscles that Move the Thigh Muscles that Move the Thigh 1. 1. The muscles that move the thigh are attached to: The muscles that move the thigh are attached to:

a) a) femur femur b) b) pelvic girdle. pelvic girdle.

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Some more Latin (and Greek) Some more Latin (and Greek) • • adip adip- - = fat = fat • • ax ax- - = axis = axis • • - -blast blast = bud = bud • • calat calat- - = something inserted = something inserted • • carp carp- - = wrist = wrist • • chondr chondr- - = cartilage = cartilage • • - -clast clast = break = break • • condyl condyl- - = knob = knob • • corac corac- - = crow = crow’ ’s beak s beak • • cribr cribr- - = sieve = sieve • • crist crist- - = crest = crest • • cut cut- - = skin = skin • • - -cyt cyt = cell = cell • • epi epi- - = upon = upon • • erg erg- - = work = work • • derm derm- - = skin = skin • • follic follic- - = small bag = small bag • • fov fov- - = pit = pit • • glen glen- - = joint socket = joint socket

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and more Latin (and Greek) and more Latin (and Greek) • • - -glia glia = glue = glue • • inter inter- - = between = between • • intra intra- - = inside = inside • • kerat kerat- - = horn = horn • • macr macr- - = large = large • • meat meat- - = passage = passage • • melan melan- - = black = black • • myo myo- - = muscle = muscle • • odont odont- - = tooth = tooth • • os os- - = bone = bone • • poie poie- - = make, produce = make, produce • • pseud pseud- - = false = false • • sarco sarco- - = flesh = flesh • • seb seb- - = grease = grease • • squam squam- - = scale = scale • • strat strat- - =layer =layer • • syn syn- - = together = together • • tetan tetan- - = stiff = stiff • • - -troph troph = well fed = well fed

Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy &...

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