HISTORY of India for Wbcs

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HISTORY: Indus Valley Civilization

Posted by WBCSguru -

Indus Valley Civilization: By the middle of the 3rd millennium, a uniform culturehad developed at settlements spread across nearly 500,000 square miles, including parts of

Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Baluchistan, Sindh and the Makran coast. It was a highly

developed civilization and derived its name from the main river of that region Indus.

1. Important Discoveries:o 1921- Harappa Dayaram Sahni

o 1922: Mohenjodaro- R. D. Banerjee

o 1927: Sutkagendor- R. L. Staine

o 1931: Chanhudaro- N. G. Majumdar

o 1953: Rangpur- M. Vatso 1953: Kalibangan A. Ghosh

o 1955-56: Ropar Y. D. Sharma

o 1957: Lothal S. R. Rao

o 1972-75: Surkotada -.I. Joshi

o 1973-74: Banwali- R. S. Bisht

o Dholavira Rann of Kachh (Gujarat): R. S. Bisht

o Ganverivala , Pakistan- Rafeeq Mugal

o RakhiGarhi Jeend (Haryana): Rafeeq Mugal

2. The first mention of the possibility of the Harappan civilization was made as early as1826, by Charles Masen.

3. The Civilization was named Indus Valley Civilization by Sir John Marshal (1924),

after its discovery by Daya Ram Sahni and Vatsa in 1921-22.The maximum number of

sites were explored by S.R. Rao, in Gujarat (190 sites). Around 2600 sites have been

found and at present there are over 350 sites which have been excavated. Maximum

sites found in Haryana.4. Extent of Indus Valley Civilization: As per latest estimates, Indus Valley Civilization

encompassed a staggering 1.5 million sq km area in the North west of Indian

subcontinrent.

o Eastern-most limit-Alamgirpur of Western UP.

o Southern-most limit-Daimabad of Maharastra.

o Northern-most limit-Shortugai of Afganistan.

o Western-most limit-Sutkangendor of Makaran coast.

5. The largest Indus Valley Civilization site is Mohenjodaro. The smallest site is Allahdino.

The largest sites in India are Dholavira, Rakhigarhi.
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6. Society:o The best information on social life comes from the terracota figures. The Indus

Valley Civilization was probably ruled by the merchant class. The weapons

used were: axes, bows, arrows and Gada. No defensive weapons have been

found here. No swords were discovered. They are considered to be overall apeaceloving race.

o There was a clear cut rich-poor division as indicated by town planning and

burial practises.

Three forms of burials are found at Mohenjodaro, viz. complete burials.

fractional burials (burial of some bones after the exposure of the body to wild

beasts birds) and post-cremation burials. But the general practice was

extended inhumation, the body lying on us back, with the head generally to

the north. Four pot burials containing bone ashes were discovered at

Surkatoda. Bodies were found buried in oval pits at Ropar.

o The cemetery R37, containing 57 burials, is located at Harappa.

7. Religion:o The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented in

seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne, and having three faces and

two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and

buffalo), each lacing a different direction, and two deer appear at his feel.

o The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in

various forms.

o There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous

stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of the

phallus, have been discovered.

o The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal.

Kalibangan and Harappa.

o Indus people also worshipped Gods in the form of trees (piapal, etc.) and

animals (unicorn etc)

o Further they believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection

against them.

o The Harappans didn't have an organized religioussystem. They didn't construct

any temple.8. Trade:

o Inter regional trade was carried on with Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra,

South India, parts of Western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

o Foreign trade was conducted mainly with Mesopotamia and Bahrain.

o Trade was carried on by overland as well as overseas transport. Bullock carts

and pack-oxen were employed for land transport. There is evidence of sea and


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river transport by ships and boats in several seals and terracotta models, apart

from

the dockyard at Lothal.

o The excavation of Lothal, an Indus port town located off the Gujarat coast,

shattered notions that the Civilization was landlocked and isolated. A 700 ftlong dock's-even bigger than the one's in many present day ports has been

discovered. It took an estimated million bricks to build. Hundreds of seals were

found, some showing Persian Gulf origin, indicating that Lothal was a major

port of exit and entry.

o Outside the Indus system a few sites occur on the Makran Coast (Pakistan-

Iran border), the westernmost of which is at Sutkagen Dor, near the modern

frontier with Iran. These sites were probably ports or trading posts, supporting

the sea trade with the Persian Gulf, and were established in what otherwise

remained a argely separate cultural region. The uplands of Baluchistan, while

showing clear evidence of trade and contact with the Indus Civilization, appear

to have remained outside the direct Harappan rule.

o The Sumerian texts refer lo trade relations with Meluha which was the ancient

name given to Indus region and they also speak of two intermediate stations

called Dilmun (identified with Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast).

o Recent archaeological finds suggest that copper was also probably brought

from Oman, on the southeastern tip of the Arabian peninsula.

o The Mesopotamian king, whose date is known with certainty (2,350 B.C.), who

claimed that ships from Indus Valley Civilization traded with him was King

Sargon of Akkad.9. Measurement:

o The articles used for weights show that in weighing 16 or its multiples were

used. Weights were made up of chert, lime stone and steatite.

10. Town Planning:o The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher and the

other much larger but lower. Archaeologists designate these as the Citadel or

Acropolis and the Lower Town respectively. The same type of layout, with a

separate acropolis and lower city is found at Mohenjodaro, Harappa and

Kalibangan. At major three sites excavated, the citadel mound is on a north-south axis and about twice as long as it is broad. The lower city is laid out in a

grid pattern of streets; at Kalibangan these were of regularly controlled

widths, with the major streets running through, while the minor lanes were

sometimes offset, creating different sizes of blocks. At all three sites the

citadel was protected by a massive, defensive wall of brick, which at

Kalibangan was strengthened at intervals by square or rectangular bastions. In


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all three cases the city was situated near a river, although in modern times the

rivers have deserted their former courses.

o The citadel and the lower city are joined at Surkatoda and Banawali.

Chanhudaro had no citadel. The shape of citadel at Lothal is trapezium.

o

Three divisions of town were discovered at Dholavira and both upper andmiddle towns are fortified. The town which resembles European castles (due to

stone masonry) is Dholavira.The only site where guard rooms were provided at

gates is Dholavira.

o The town which shows marked differences in its town planning and drainage

system from other Indus Valley Civilization sites is Banawali.

o The Indus ValleyCivilization site where houses are built just next to the wall is

Desalpur. The towns which resemble castles of merchants are Desalpur,

Rojdi,Balukot.

o Lothal is famous for warehouse, granary, merchant's house, besides its

warehouse.

o One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully

planned drainage system. It seems that streets with drains were laid out first

and then houses built along them. If domestic waste water had to flow into the

street drains, every house needed to have at least one wall along a street.

o Houses never opened towards the main roads. They opened towards the galis.

Exception is houses found in Lothal.11. Domestic architecture:

o The most common building material at every site was brick, but the

proportions of burned brick to unburned mud brick vary. Mohenjo-daro

employs burned brick, perhaps because timber was more readily available,

while mud brick was reserved for fillings and mass work. Kalibangan, on the

other hand, reserved burned brick for bathrooms, wells, and drains. Most of

the domestic architecture at Kalibangan was in mud brick.

o The bathrooms of houses made during the time were usually indicated by the

fine quality of the brickwork in the floor and by waste drains.

o A house floor containing the design of intersecting circles was found at

Kalibangan.

The houses were constructed on the pattern of gridiron (chess). A hugepalace-like building has been found at Banawali.

o Important measurements:

Great Bath: 12 m x 7 m x 2.4 m.

Hammam/Granary: 46 m x 23 m.

Collegiate building: 10 m square court.

Cubical bricks:10 x 20 x 40 cm3.


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Average brick size: 5.5 x 12.5 x 26 cm.

Ratio of length, breadth and height of bricks: 4 : 2 : 1.

Larger bricks to cover drains: 51 cm (+).

Stone weights used for trade were in the denominations of: 1, 2, 4, 8,

16, 32, ..... 160 and decimal multiples of 16. Eg. 16, 320, 6400, 8000,12800, etc.

Length was generally measured in: Foot (37.6 cm) and cubit (52 cm

approx).

Granary at Lothal: 214 x 36 x 4.5 m.

Harappan storehouse: 50 m x 40 m, with a 7 m central passage.

12. Economic Life:o Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was

known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for

ploughing. Moreover, terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites

in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana).

o Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan

(Rajasthan), associated with Early Harappan levels. The field had two sets of

furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were

grown together.

o Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in

Afghanistan. Water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been

used to store water for agriculture.

o Wheat and barly were main crops in Punjab, Sind and Rajasthan. While jowar,

bajra and ragi were cultivated in Gujrat.

o Rice husk was discovered in Lothal, Rakhigarhi and Rangpur .

o Important fruits were coconut, banana.

o Evidence of cotton come from Mohenjodaro, Lothal and Alamgirpur.

o There is a evidence of fish-hooks also.

13. Political Organisation:o Perhaps the Harappan rulers were more concerned with commerce than the

conquests, and Harappans was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.14. Art & Crafts:

o The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones likecarnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite;

metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt

clay. Some beads were made of two or more stones, cemented together, some

of stone with gold caps. The shapes were numerous discshaped, cylindrical,

spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented. Some were decorated by incising or

painting, and some had designs etched onto them.


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o A crucible for making bronze articles was discovered at Harappa. Maximum

bronze figures have been found in Mohenjodaro. The Bronze dancing girl was

found in Mohenjodaro. Mostly limestone was used for sculptures. Limestone

sculpture of a seated male priest was found at Mohenjodaro. The only place

where pottery depicting humans has been found is in Harappa. Pottery inkpotsand writing tablets (leafs) were found at Chanhudaro. War-tools made of

copper and bronze were discovered at Mohenjodaro.

A terracota model of a ship was found at Lothal. A seat latrine has been found

at Mohenjodaro. This is also true of the two small male torsos discovered in

Harappa.

o In Dholavira (Rann of Kutch, Gujarat) Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has

found elaborate stone gateways with rounded columns, apart from giant

reservoirs for water. A board inlaid with large Harappan script characters'

probably the world's first hoardings was also found here.

o Metals: The most extensively used metal in Indus Valley Civilization was pure

copper (unalloyed copper).The metal which made earliest appearance during

the Indus Valley Civilization was Silver. The Harappans obtained raw material

from outside The various minerals (metals) used by Indus Valley Civilization

people and their sources are: Silver from Afghanistan and Iran and Iraq; Lead

from Kashmir, Rajasthan, etc.; Gold from Karnataka; Copper from Rajasthan;

Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan. Iron was not known to Indus Valley Civilization

people.

15. Tools and Implements:o They used tools made up of copper, bronze and stone. Stone tools were also in

common use. They were produced on a large scale in factory sites like Sukkur

in Sind . Agricultural implements were found in Mohenjodaro. Cotton spindles,

(and sewing needles) have been found in Mohenjodaro.

16. Pottery:o Harappan Pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well baked.

o It is chiefly wheel made, and consists of both plain and painted ware, the plain

variety being more common.

o Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome,

incised, perforated and knobbed. The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliestexample of its kind in the ancient world.

o On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character, though the

painted designs on some pieces show a remarkable artistic touch. Pots were

generally decorated with the designs of trees and circles.The only place where

pottery depicting humans has been found is in Harappa.17. Seals:


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o Seals are the greatest artistic creations of the Indus people.

o Most commonly made of steatite (soft stone) with figurines and letters in

Harappan scripts. The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with white

luster was a unique invention of the Harappans. The majority of the seals have

an animal engraved on them with a short inscription.Unicorn is the animalmost frequently represented on the seals. Other animals are ox, brahmi bull,

elephant, buffalo, antilope. Horse, cow and lion are not depicted.

o Maximum number of seals have been found in Mohenjodaro (57%). Second

maximum at Harappa (36%). The Garuda is depicted on a seal from Harappa.

The Sumerian Gilgamesh seal also shows two tigers. Persian-gulf seal was

found at Lothal and it is a button seal.

o A Tiger seal was found at Banawali. 34. Iraqi cylindrical seal was found at

Mohenjodaro.

The seals depicting the lord Pasupati Siva, Sumerian Gilgamesh and his two

lions were found at Mohenjodaro.The major seal producing units were at

Chanhudaro.18. Script and Language:

o Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish

and a variety of human forms. The script was boustrophedon. written from

right to left in one line and then from left to .right in the next line. The number

of signs of the Harappan script is known to be between 400 and 600. the

inscription of maximum letters(26) recovered from Mohenjodaro.

o The language of the Harappans is still unknown and must remain so until the

Harappan script is deciphered.19. Animals:

o Known animals were bull, dog, rabbit and bird. The Garuda is depicted on a

seal from Harappa.Evidence of the rhinoceros comes from Amri and

Kalibangan. The Sumerian Gilgamesh seal also shows two tigers. The

interesting evidences about the horse during Indus Valley Civilization are:

Horse bones have been found in Surkatoda.

Horse tooth has been found in Ranaghudai.

Terracota figure of a horse has been found inLothal.

Ashes of a horse have been found in Suktagendor.20. The End of the Civilisation:

o After 2000 BC, the Indus culture slowly declined and gradually faded out.

Some ascribe this to the decreasing fertility of the soil.

o Still others point out that the Aryans destroyed it. According to some scholars,

decline of trade, particularly oceanic trade with the Sumerians, must have

contributed partly in the decline.


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o Even though there are various theories for the downfall of this civilization, the

most accepted version is that of ecological destruction.

SOME IMPORTANT HARAPPAN SITES:

1. Mohenjodaro:

o Mohenjodaro is located on the banks of Indus river.It is the largest of all Indus

citie.

o In Sindhi language, the word Mohenjodaro means mound of the dead.

o The site of Mohenjodaro was constructed at least seven times.o Stupa, great bath, college, Hammam, granary and assembly hall belong to

Mohenjodaro.

o The Great Bath is the most important public place, measuring 39 feet (length)

X 23 feet (breadth) X 8 feet (depth). Located at the center of the citadel, it is

remarkable for beautiful brickwork Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in

gypsum and mortar. It must have served as a ritual-bathing site.

o Maximum number of seals have been found in Mohendojaro (57%).

o Maximum bronze figures have been found in Mohenjodaro.

o The Bronze dancing girl, limestone sculpture of a seated male priest, war-toolsmade of copper and bronze, a seat latrine , the seals depicting the lord

Pasupati Siva, Sumerian Gilgamesh and his two lions , agricultural

implements, Cotton spindles, (and sewing needles) were found in

Mohenjodaro.

o There is surprisingly little evidence of public places of worship, although at

Mohenjo-daro a number of possible temples were unearthed in the lower city,

and other buildings of a ritual character were reported in the citadel.2. Harappa:

o Harappa is located on the banks of river Ravi, was the first site to be

excaveted.

o The Great Granary measuring 1 69 ft x 3 5 feet is the largest and the most

remarkable structure found at Harappa.

o So far 891 seals have been recovered from Harappa, and that is 40% of the

total number of seals belonging to Indus Valley Civilization that have been

found.


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o A red sandstone naked male torso has been found, which shows traces of

Jainism

o Between the granary and the citadel, have also been found a series of circular

platforms, probably for the pounding of grain

o

At a lower level below the granary, platforms and the citadel were crowdedone-room dwellings, which suggest slave habitats.

o The cemetery R37, containing 57 burials, is located at Harappa.

o The site where oxendriven carts were found was Harappa.

3. Kalibangan:o Kalibangan is located on the banks of river Ghaggar/Saraswati.

o Has pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phases.

o Less developed compared to Mohenjodaro

o There is evidence of mud-brick fortification of Pre-Harappan phase here shows

that the f ields were ploughed unlike the Harappan period.

o Archaeologists have discovered two platforms (within the citadel) with fire

altars suggesting the practice of cult sacrifice

o The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel having a single

hub

o Stone rubble has been used at Kalibangan. Evidence of the rhinoceros comes

from Amri and Kalibangan. It also tells us that there was plenty of rainfall

there.4. Chanhudaro:

o Chanhudaro is located on Indus/Sutlej;

o Only Indus city without a citadel.

o Pottery inkpots and writing tablets (leafs) were found here.

o Excavations reveal that people of Chanhudaro were expert craftsmen.

archaeologists have discovered here metalworkers,shell-ornament makers

and bead-makers shops

o The city was twice destroyed by inundations.Here more extensive but indirect

evidenceof super-imposition of a barbarian lifestyle is seen

o The major seal producing units were at Chanhudaro. Bead-maker's shop and

equipments were found at Chanhudaro.

5. Dholavira:o It is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the

other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana

o The other Harappan towns were divided into two parts Citadel and the

Lower Town, but Dholavira was divided into three principal divisions, two of

which were strongly protected by rectangular fortifications.


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o There are two inner enclosures the first one hemmed in the citadel (which

probably housed the highest authority)and the second one protected the

middle town (meant for the close relatives of the rulers and other officials).

The existence of this middle town, apart from the lower town, is the real

exclusive feature of this city.o The town which resembles European castles (due to stone masonry) is

Dholavira.

o The only site where guard rooms were provided at gates is Dholavira. In

Dholavira (Rann of Kutch, Gujarat) Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has

found elaborate stone gateways with rounded columns, apart from giant

reservoirs for water. A board inlaid with large Harappan script characters

probably the world's first hoardings was also found here.

6. Lothal:o Lothal is located on Bhogavo

o Only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have served as the

main seaport of the Indus people It was surrounded by a massive brick wall,

probably as flood protection.

o Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC) The only other

Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad.

o Fire altars, indicating the probable existence of a fire cult, have been found

o A doubtful terracotta figurine of horse is found hereo The shape of citadel at Lothal is trapezium. An atta chakki (grinding stone)

was discovered at Lothal.A terracota model of a ship was found at Lothal.Rice

husk was discovered in Lothal.7. Ropar:

o Ropar is located on Sutlej.

o The excavations have yielded five-fold sequence of cultures Harappan,

PGW, NBP, Kushana-Gupta and Medieval.

o The evidence of burying a dog below the human burial is veryinteresting

o One example of rectangular mudbrick chamber was noticed.

8. Banwali:o Like Kalibangan, Amri, Kot Diji and Harappa, Banwali also saw two cultural

phases - pre-Harappan and Harappan.

o The town which shows marked differences in its town planning and drainage

system from other Indus Valley Civilization sites is Banawali.

o A huge palace-like building has been found at Banawali.


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o Human and animal figures, clay bangles and statue of mother Goddess found

here.

o Here we find large quantity of barely, sesamum and mustard.

o A Tiger seal was found at Banawali.Deluxe pottery was discovered at Banawali.

9.Surkotada:

o Excavations leveal a citadel and a lower town, both of which were fortified.

o Horse bones have been found in Surkatoda.Ashes of a horse have been found

in Suktagendor.

INDIAN HISTORY: Vedic Civilisation


1. THE VEDIC CIVILISATION:

o The people who evolved this culture called themselves Aryas or Aryans.

o As per the theorypropagated by late Bal Gangadhar Tilak the original home of

Aryans was the Arctic region.However, the most widely accepted view is that

the Aryans originated from Central Asia. The view which is accepted in West

isthat original home of Aryans was in South-East Europe.

o The Aryans who entered India are known as the Indo-Aryans. Their advent in

India has been variously dated, from B.C. 5000 and even earlier to B.C. 1500.

Though any accurate date is impossible to assign, some date between B.C.

2500 to B.C. 2000 seems to fulfill all conditions.

2. The Vedic Literature:
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o The only source of information about the Aryans in India is the vast literature

known as the Vedas.The word Veda comes from the root vid, to know. It

means knowledge in general. It is specially applied to branch of literature

which has been handed down by verbal transmission and is declared to be

sacred knowledge or Sruti. Vedic texts are divided between Sruti (based onhearing), which is distinct fromSmriti (based on memory). The Vedas are

four in number, namely, Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and

Atharvaveda .

o Rig Veda :A collection of 1028 hymns of a number of priestly families.Written

between 1700-1500 B.C. when Aryans were still in Punjab.It is divided into 10

Books or Mandalas. Books II to VII are considered the oldest. Book I, VIII and

X seem to be later additions.

o Yajur Veda: Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of

sacrifices and contains rituals as well as hymns.

o Sama Veda: A collection of 1603 hymns. Except 99, all others were derived

from Rig Veda.A collection of melodies.

o Atharva Veda: A collection of 711 hymns, it is divided into 20

Kandas.Atharva Veda is a book of magical formula.

o The Veda consists of four different classes of literary compositions:

1. the Mantra constitutes the oldest division of Vedic literature and is

distributed in four Samhitas or collections known as the Rik, Sama,

Yajus and the Atharva;


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2. Brahmanas are the secondclass of Vedic works. They are mainly

prose texts containing observations on sacrifice;

3. Aranyakas or forest texts are books of instruction to be given in the

forest or writings meant for wooddwelling hermits;

4. Lastly there are the Upnishads which are either imbedded in the

Aranyakas or form their supplements. The above named literary works

are classed as Sruti, or revelation, and constitute the Vedic literatureproper.

o Samhita: Samhita is the period of compilation of texts of Veda. In the

Rigveda Samhita ther are 1017 to 1028 hymns or Sutras, which have been

divided into 10 mandalas or chapters. In the Samveda samhita ther are only

sacrificial hymns. The Yajurveda Samhita is the Book of Sacrificial Prayers,

which lays down the procedure for the performance of sacrifice. There are two

texts of Yajurveda: Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda.

o Brahamanas : The Brahamanas are the first specimens of praise in the world.

They mark the transition from the Vedic to later Brahmanical social order.

Each Brahaman is connected to one Samhita.

o Aranakyas: Aranakyas are merely the concluding portions of the Brahmanas

and only deal with mysticism and philosophy.

o Upanishadas: There are 108 Upanishads which were written by various sages

between 800 and 500 B.C. They are anti-ritualistic and define the doctrine of


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Karma (Action), Atman (Soul) and Gad (Brahma).The Aitareya and Kaushitaki

Upanishads belong to Rig Veda. Chhandogya and Kena Upanishad belong to

Sama Veda. Taittiriya. Katha and Svetasvatara Upanishad belong to the

Krishna Yajur Veda. Brihadaranyaka and Isa belong to the Shukla Yajur

Veda.Prasna. Mundaka and Mundukya belong to the Atharva Veda.

o Samhitas, Brahmanas and Upanishadds, Aranakyas ans Sutras are known as

the three stages of development of Vedic literature. The later commentaries on

the Vedas are known as Vedangas .

o The Rigveda is the oldest book in the World.

3. Ashramas:

o The ashrama system is found mentioned for the first time in the Aitareya

Brahmana. Meant mainly for regulating the life of the male members of the

higher castes, they consisted of four stages:

1. Brahmacharin or student life ;

2. Grihastha or life of the householder;

3. Vanaprastha or partial retirement and Sanyasin or complete retirement

(ascetic life).


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4. Kalpa Sutras:

o These are the treatises dealing with Vedic rituals on one hand, and with

customary law on the other They are written in a laboriously compressed style,

sometimes approaching the structure of algebraic formulas, unintelligible

without the help of authoritative commentaries.

o With a view to conveying to the future generations the ancient and

contemporary literature, the Aryan sages invented a special concise method

called the Sutra style. Thus the massive Vedic texts were condensed into

short, terse formulae, which could be easily remembered and transmittedorally - from father to son or from Guru to Shisya. Most of the Vedic literature

was handed down orally in this manner.

o The Sutra literature is divided into three classes:

1. Srauta Sutras -dealing with large public sacrifices.

2. Griha Sutras: dealing with rituals connected with birth, naming,

marriage etc.

3. Dharma Sutras: explain social and local customs. which later on

became the basis of Mann Smriti.

5. Vedangas:


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o The Vedangas are class of compositions that are regarded less authoritative

than Sruti and are styled Smriti. The Vedangas are six in

number : Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakaran (grammar), Nirukt (etym

ology), Chhand (metrics) and Jyotish (astronomy).

o Yaskas Nirukta (5th century BC) is the oldest Indian linguistic

text. Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi (4lhCentury BC) on Vyakaran.

6. Political Organisations:

o The basis of the political and social organisation of the Rig Vedic people was

patriarchal family. The successive higher units were styled gram, vis and jan.

The grama consisted of several families. The vis was a group in the form of

collection of gramas. The vis grew into a tribe or jana whose members were

bound together by real or supposed ties of kinship.

o The people were divided into many tribes(jana). Each was undera king (Gopa). The king was primarily military leader who fought for cows not

for teritory.

o The king ruled over his tribe and not over particular regions. Yet the idea of

teritorial monarchy emerged towards the close of Rigvedic Period.

o There was no regular tax, the king was entitled to booty from successful cattle

raids or battles. In the later vedic period the king received regular

contributions from the people in the shape bali and shulka. An official

called bhagadugha collected the royal share of produce.


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o Hereditary monarchy was the normal mode of government. The king was

helped by a number of functionaries of whom those frequently mentioned in

the Rigveda are the Senani (military commander appointed by

king), Gramani (village officer) and Purohita or the chaplain who was the most

important state official.

o In the early vedic period King's authority was substantially limited by by the

tribal assemblies especially the sabha and the samiti. Sabha was a council of

the elder members of the tribe and Samithi was a general tribal assembly and

less exclusive than Sabha.

o In the later vedic period, Kings ruled over teritories(janapada) and not over

nomadic groups moving from place to place. Popular assemblies lost

importance, and royal power increased at their cost.

o We hear of twelve ratninsappointed by the king. The list

includes samagrahitri ( royal treasurer), bhagadugha (collector of

taxes), kshattri (chamberlain), akshavapa (superintendent of

gambling), govikartana ( king's companion of chase), purohit (priest) etc. But

there were no standing army.

7. Social Life:

o The basic unit of Aryan tribal society was the patriarchal family . The master of

the house was called the grihapati or dampati and the father had the power

over the life and limb of the children.

o The Rigveda certainly permits polygamy though monogamy may have been

the rule. The birth of a son was the common desire of the people. But woman


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also had important position in it. Remarriage of widow were allowed and child

marraige was not prevented. The custom of upanayanam of girls prevailed and

the women studied the vedic literature like men.

o The cloths were made cotton,deer skin or wool. The vedic costume seems to

have consisted of three parts an undergarments( nivi ), a

garment( paridhana ) and a mantle( drapi or adhivasa ). Ornaments such as

necklaces, ear-rings, bracelets and anklets, were used by both the sexes.

o The staple diet was milk and milk products, vegetables, fruits etc. Meat was

taken , but the meat of cow was not taken because the slaying of cow wasgradually looked upon with disfavour as is apparent from the name aghnya

applied to it. They drank distilled liquor or sura on ordinary occasions. During

religious ceremonies the intoxicating juice of plant called soma was freely

drunk.

o The houses were built of wood and reed and in every house ther was fire-

place( agnishala ) besides a sitting room and apartments for the ladies.

o In the early Vedic period the division of society into three social classes was

merely to facilitate social and economic organisation. There was no

consciousness of caste. Professions were not hereditary. The three Aryan

social classes were known by Dwija or twice-born.

o The word Varna is used in the Rig Veda with reference to only the Aryan or

Dasa having respectively, fair or dark complexion, but never with reference to

the Brahmana or Kshatriya.


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o Society in the Later Vedic Period became increasingly complex and came to be

divided into four Varnas - Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras . The

upper three varnas were known as the Dvijas (twice born).

o The upper three varnas were entitledto upanayana or investiture with the

sacred thread. The status of the brahamanas increased because of the

increasing importance and complexity of the rituals.

o Kshatriyas constituted the warrior class. Majority of the rulers belonged to this

class.

o The Vaisyas was the only producing class in the society.

o The Sudras were supposed to serve the three high varnas and formed the bulk

of the labouring masses.

o During late Vedic period, Vratyas and the Nishads were two important bodies

of men outside the regular castes. The Vratyas were Aryans outside the pale of

Brahminism. The Nishads were non-Aryan people who lived in their own

villages and had their own rulers.

o Ashramas, these stages were presented by:

Brahmachari : studentship.


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Grihastha : householder

Vanaprastha : partial retirement from householding life in the forest.

Sanyasa : complete retirement, ascetics.

o In the Later Vedic Period, women lost rights of attending assemblies. Women

were generally given a lower position. Child marrige came into vogue.

Cohabitation of a childless widow with her husband's brother until the birth of

a son( niyoga ).

Economic Conditions:

o In early vedic period cattle-rearing remained Aryan's main occupation. Among

all cattle, pride of place was reserved for cow. The cow seems to be the mostimportant form of wealth.The term for war in Rig Veda is Gavishthi or search

for cows. Those who lived with their cows in the same cow-shed came to

belong to the same gotra. Duhitri is a word for daughter, which literally

means one who milks cows.The term Aghanya, or not to be killed has been

used for cow. This indicated cows economic importance. Guests were

called Goghana , which indicates that beef was offered to them. Cow was the

chief medium of exchange and even fine was awarded in terms of cows.among

other domesticated anomals were draught-ox, horse, dog, goat, ass and

sheep.

o In early vedic period evidence for agricultural are less strong. The hala or

plough is not found, but two other terms for plough, langal and sira, are

mentioned. The only one varity of grain called yava (barley). They did not

have knowledge of iron.


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o In the later vedic period agriculture was the chief means of livelihood. Canals

were excaveted to help agriculture and the use of manure was also known. In

addition to yava, the chief cultivation was wheat, rice, beans, cottons and

oilseeds were also known. Cultivated fields were known as Urvara a Kshetra.

o Copper was one of the first metals to be used by the Aryans . Leather

work. Pottery and caepentary made great progress. Weaving was confined to

women. Carpenter was an honoured profession. among the other profession

may mentioned those of dancer , barber and vinter.

o In the early vedic period, the trade and commerce was largely controlled by a

people called Pani . The standard of unit of value was the cow, but necklets of

gold( nishka ) also served as a means of exchange.

o In the later vedic period trade and industry flourished and a class of hereditary

merchants( vanija ) came into being. Commerce was facilitated by the use of

conveninent units of value like the nishka, shatamana and krishnala.

Merchants were probably organized into guild, as appears from refferences to

ganas or corporations and the shreshthins or alderman. The sea was known

intimately and the mention of the legend of the flood in the Satapatha

Brahmana is taken to point to intercourse with Babylon.

Religion:

o The early Vedic religion has been designated by the name of henotheism or

kathenotheism (a belief in single gods, each standing out as the highest). They

worshiped various powers and manifestations of nature.


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o Father Dyaus , the shinning god of heaven, and mother Prithvi , the earth

goddess, are among the oldest of the vedic deities. The worship of Varuna ,

the encompassing sky, in the early Vedic age is one of the first roots of the

later doctrine of Bhakti.

o Indra , the God of Thunder and Rain, the most popular of the Gods, was given

the largest number of hymns. Besides Varuna and Indra, there were

the Maruts (storm Gods), Vayu and Vata ( the Wind Gods), Rudra (the Howling

God of Storm and Lightening) and Parjanya (God of rain). Agni - he was

priests of god and god of priests. Next in importance to Agni came Soma - he

was the god of plants and an intoxicating drink is named after him.

o Yama -The first man to die, who became the guardian of the world of dead.

o Saraswati was the river deity who came to be regarded later as the Goddess

of learning. Pushan was the guardian of roads, herdsmen and straying cattle.

o There were neither temples nor altars, neither images nor herditary priests.

The mode of prayer was recitation of mantras.

o In the Later Vedic Period sacrifices occupied a prominent place in the rituals.

The sacrificial rites tended to increase the power of the priest, without whom

the sacrifice itself could not take place and it simultaneously led to a decrease

in the authority of the kings. Sacrifice was offered

for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth) and not for spiritual

upliftment or misery.


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o Indra and Agni lost their importance and the Prajapati, the creator, came to

occupy the supreme position. Rudra and Vishnu also became important.

Pushan became the God of Shudras.

o An elaborate system of Yajnas developed. Among the important ones were

Rajasuya, Ashvamedha and Vajapeya .

Rajasuya: The Kings influence was strengthened by rituals. He

performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power

on him.

Asvamedha: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant

unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran

uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for 3 days at the end of which

horse sacrifice was performed.

Vajapeya: A King performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in whichthe royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen (a case

of match-fixing!). The ritual lasted for 17 days and was believed not

only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate

him from the position of Raja to that of Samrat.

INDIAN HISTORY: Mahajanapadas


1. MAHAJANAPADAS:

o The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early

Indian history. It is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use
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of iron, the development of coinage, etc. It also witnessed the growth of

diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism. Early Buddhist

and Jaina texts mention, amongst other things, sixteen states known as

mahajanapadas.

o Janapada , meaning the land where a jana (a people, clan or tribe) sets its

foot or settles. It is a word used in both Prakrit and Sanskrit.

o These Mahajanapadas extended from the north-western Pakistan to east Bihar

and from submontane region of the Himalayas to the river Godavari in the

South.

o According to Anguttara Nikaya, they were

1. Anga (East Bihar).

2. Magadha (South Bihar)

3. Kasi (Benaras)

4. Kosala (Oudh)

5. Vriji (North Bihar)


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6. Malla (Gorakhpur district)

7. Chedi (between Yamuna and Narmada)

8. Vatsa (Allahabad region)

9. Kuru (Thanesar, Delhi and Meerut districts)

10. Panchal (Bareilly, Buduan and Farrukhabad districts)

11. Matsya (Jaipur)

12. Surasena (Mathura)

13. Asmak (on the Godavari)

14. Avanti (in Malwa)

15. Gandhara (Peshawar and Rawalpindi districts) and

16. Kamboj (South-west Kashmir and parts of Kafiristan)


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o These Mahajana padas were either monarchical or republican in character.

o The Mahajanapadas of Anga, Kashi, Kosala, Chedi, Vatsa, Matsya, Shursen,

Ashmak, Avanti, Gandhar and Magadha were ruled by kings or monarchs. The

kings in these states had the supreme authority.

2. The Mahajanapadas of Vrijji, Malla, Kuru. Panchal and Kamboj were republican states

and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga and Moriya.

These repub-lican states had a Ganaparishad or an Assembly of senior and responsiblecitizens. This Gana-parishad had the supreme authority in the state.

3. The four kingdoms of later Vedic age who grew most powerful were: Avanti, Vatsa,

Kosala and Magadha. The kingdom of Avanti had its capital at Ujjain in modern

Malwa.

4. One prominent ruler of Vatsa territory was Udayana, a scion of the Bharat race. Kosala

had its capital at Ayodhya and was ruled by a dynasty that claimed descent from

illustrious Ishvaku, famed in Vedic and epic traditions. The Kosalas extended their

boundaries in several directions, including Nepalese Tarai, but their ambitious designs

were frustrated by Magadha power.

5. Magadhan ascendancy began with Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty. He

married the princesses of Kosala, Vaishali and Madia, which helped him in his

expansionist policy. His one and only conquest was that of Anga. He also gained a part

of Kashi as (he dowry in his marriage with the sister of King Prasenajit of Kosala.

Bimbisara was murdered by his own son. Ajatasatru (492-460 BC). He defeated

Prasenajit, married his daughter, and annexed Kashi. The capital of Bimbisar's


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kingdom was Girivraja . It was girded with stone walls which are among the oldest

extant stone structuresin India.

6. Gautama Buddha and Vardhaman Mahavira preached their doctrines during the reign

of Bimbisara.

7. The modern town of Rajgir in the Patna district was built by Bimbisara . He had

named it Rajagriha or the king's house.

8. Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC), who founded the new capital

at Pataliputra.

9. The Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by the Sishunaga dynasty , which destroyed

the power of Avanti and incorporated it in the Magadhan empire. Thus, the 100-year-

old rivalry between Avanti and Magadha came to an end. They temporarily shifted the

capital to Vaishali. The last ruler was Kalasoka who was murdered by the founder of

Nandas.

10. The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas . Who annexed Kalinga to the empire.

Mahapadma Nanda was the most important king of his dynasty. The Nandas are said

to have checked Alexanders army from advancing towards Magadha. Their rule was

supplanted by that of the Mauryas.

11. Mahapadam Nanda was the most powerful ruler. According to the Hathigumpha

inscription of Kharvela , he conquered Kalinga and also annexed Koshala which had

rebelled against him.


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12. Dhana-Nanda was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya , the founder of a new

and more illustrious dynasty.

13. The armies of the period usually consisted of infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants.

14. The oldest source of revenues was the bali . Bhaga , the king's share of reaped corn,

became the most important source of State revenue in course of time. Among the

most important revenue officials was the Grama-bhojaka or village head-man.

15. The chief articles of trade during the Magadhan era were: silk, muslin, embroidery,

ivory, jewellery and gold. The standard unit of value was the copper Karshapana,

weighing a little more than 146 grains. Silver coins, called Purana or Dharana, were

also in circulation.

16. The early Magadhan period saw development of variant languages from Sanskrit. In

the towns and the villages a popular form of Sanskrit, Prakrit, was spoken. This had

local variations; the chief western variety was called Shauraseni and the easternvariety Magadhi. Pali was another local language.

17. Persian and Macedonian Invasions :

o Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenian empire of Persia, destroyed the

famous city of Kapisa near the junction of the Ghorband and Panjshir rivers

northeast of Kabul and occupied Ghandhara in 530 B.C


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o The successor of Cyrus, Darius sent a naval expedition to the Indus under the

command of Skylax. This expedition paved the way for the annexation of the

Indus valley as far as the deserts of Rajputana.

o Once the Persian hold over Indian possessions became weak, the old territory

of Gandhara was divided into two parts. To the west of Indus river lay the

kingdom of Pushkalavati in the modern district of Peshawar; to the east was

Takshasila in present district of Rawalpindi.

o Alexander finally crossed Indus river in 326 B.C. using a bridge of boats.

Ambhi, the king of Taxila gave him valuable help in this. Alexander;s marchfaced a major hurdle when it reached the banks of Hydaspes (modern Jhelum)

river, near the town of Jhelum. Here he faced stiff resistance from Paurava

king (Porus). Greek sources mention that Porus was defeated but was restored

to his dominion as a vassal of Alexander.

o Alexander wanted to continue his advance but his soldiers mutinied and

refused to go beyond river Hyphasis (Beas) and he had to retreat.He returned

to Babylon after a long and treacherous journey and died soon after in 323

B.C.

INDIAN HISTORY: Religious Movements


Religious Movements: The period between 7th and 5th century BC was a turningpoint in the intellectual and spiritual development of the ancient India. It was at this time that

Jainism and Buddhism arose in India,each based on a distinctive set of doctrines and each

laying down distinctive rules of conduct for attaining salvation.

Buddhism:Gautama Buddha was born as Siddhartha to Suddhodana , a Raja or noble of Kapilvastu (in

the Nepal Terai to the north of Basti district of Uttar Pradesh) and Maya , a princess of

Devadaha, a small town in the Sakya territory. Maya died while giving birth to Siddhartha and

he was brought up by his aunt and step-mother Prajapati Gautami.
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1. Born in 563 BC (widely accepted), on the vaisakha purnima day at Lumbini ,

near Kapilvastu , capital of the Sakya republic.

2. Married at 16 to Yoshodhara . Enjoyed the married life for 13years and had

a son named Rahula . Yashodara was also known as Bhadda Kachchana, Subhadraka,

Bimba or Gopa.

3. The Great Renunciation (also called Mahabhinishkramana' ) took place when

Sidhartha reached the age of 29 . For six years he lived as a homeless ascetic.At Uruvila he practiced the most rigid austerities only to find that they were of no

help to him to achieve his goal.

4. Sidhartha finally sat under a pipal or Banyan tree at modern Bodh Gaya , after taking

a bath in the stream of river Nairanjana, modern Lilajan. Here he attained the

supreme knowledge and insight and became known as Buddha or the Enlightened

One, Tathagata ( who attained the truth) and Sakya-muni or the sage of the Sakya

clan.

5. Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where his five disciples had settled. His first

sermon is called Dharmachakrapracartan or Turning of the Wheel of Law .

6. Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria

district of UP) in 483 BC at the age of 80 in the Malla republic.

7. Five Great Events of Buddhas Life and their Symbols:


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o Birth : Lotus and Bull

o Great Renunciation : Horse

o Nirvana : Bodhi tree

o First Sermon : Dharmachakra or wheel

o Parinirvana or Death : Stupa

8. Buddhist Councils :

o The first Council was held in 483 BC at Sattapanni cave near

Rajagriha during the tome of Ajatasatru of Magadha , to compile the Sutta

Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka. It was presided by Mahakassapa.

o The second council was held at Vaisali in 383 BC during the time of

Kalasoka of Magadha under the presidentship of Sabakami. The monks

of Vaisali wanted some change in the rites. It is led to the division of Sangha

into orthodox Theravadians and unorthodox Mahasan-ghikas.

o The third council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka.

236 years after the death of Buddha. It was held under the Presidentship

of Moggliputta Tissa to revise the scriptures.it led to the final compilation of

tripitakas.


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o The fourth council was held during the reign of Kanishka in Kashmir

under the President ship of Vasumitra and Asvaghosha and resulted in

the division of Buddhists into Mahayanists and Hinayanists.

9. Buddhist Scriptures:

o According to Sri Lankan tradition, the sacred texts and commentaries were

written down in books in first century B.C. during the reign of King

Vattagamani Abhaya. Later, the texts, as distinguished from thecommentaries, came to be known as Pali .

o The Vinaya Pitaka : (a) mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the

Buddha promulgated, (b) it describes in detail the gradual development of the

Sangha. An account of the life and leaching of the Buddha is also given.

o The Sutra Pitaka : (a) Consists chiefly of discourses delivered by Buddha

himself on different occasions, (b) Few discourses delivered by Sariputta,

Ananda. Moggalana and others are also included in it. It lays down the

principles of Buddhism.

o The Abhidhamma Pitaka : Contains the profound philosophy of the Buddhas

teachings, (b) It investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of

things as they truly are.

o The Khandhakas : contain regulations on the course or life in the monastic

order and have two sections - the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The thud

part - the Parivara is an insignificant composition by a Ceylonese monk.


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o Among the non-canonical literature Milindapanho, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa

are important. The later two are the great chronicles of Ceylon.

10. Four Noble Truths:

o Buddha taught his followers the four Noble Truths ( Arya Satya ) concerning

suffering, the cause of suffering, the destruction of suffering and the way that

leads to the destruction of sorrow.

1. The world is full of sorrows.

2. Desire is root cause of sorrow.

3. If Desire is conquered, all sorrows can be removed. Desire can

be removed by following the eight-fold path.

11. Eight Fold Path:

o As per Buddhist teachings, salvation is possible through the Eightfold Path,

which consisted of eight principles of action, leading to a balanced, moderate

life (right views, resolves, speech conduct, livelihood, effort, recollection and

meditation, the combination of which was described as Middle Way).


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1. Right understanding

2. Right speech

3. Right livelihood

4. Right mindfulness

5. Right thought

6. Right action

7. Right effort

8. Right concentration

12. Three Ratnas:

o Buddha

o Dhamma


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o Sangha

13. Sacred Shrines:

o Lumbini, Bodh-Gaya. Sarnath and Kusinagar , where the tour principal

events of the Buddhas life, namely, Birth, Enlightenment. First sermon and

Mahaparinirvana took place. To these are added tour places Sravasti, Rajgriha.

Vaishali and Sankasyathese eight places have all along been considered as

the eight holy places ( ashtamahasthanas ).

o Other centres of Buddhism in Ancient India

Amravati and Nagarjunikonda in Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda in

Bihar; Junagadh and Valabhi in Gujarat; Sanchi and Bharhut in

MP; Ajanta-Ellora in Maharashtra, D haulagiri in

Orissa; Kannau j, Kausambi and Mathura in U.P.

and Jagadala and Somapuri in West Bengal.

o Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three forms, viz.

(a) Stupa (relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monk are

preserved) (b) Chaitya (prayer hall) Vihara (residence)

14. Buddhist Philosophy:

o Idealism: Two source of valid knowledge: (a) Perception and (b) Inference.


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o Doctrineof dependent origination (Pratisamutpada): Central theory of

Buddhist Philosophy. It tells us that in the empirical worid dominated by the

intellect, everything is relative, conditional. dependent, subject to birth and

death and therefore impermanent.

o Theory of momentariness (Kshanabhanga or Impermanence): It tells

that everything ,in this world is merely a conglomeration of perishable

qualities. According to it. Things that can produce effect exist and whatever

can not produce effect has no existence.

Jainism:According to Jaina tradition, there were 24 Tirthankaras( religious teacher). Rishabha was the

first one. Arishtanemi or Neminatha was the twenty second. Parsvanatha was the twenty third

who was the son of king Asvasena of Varanasi.

1. Life of Mahavira: Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara . Born in 540 BC

at Kundagrama near Vaisali . The parents of Mahavira were Siddhartha, a

Janatrika chief of Kundapura , and Trishala, a Kshatriya lady related to the ruling

families of Vaishali and Magadha and Jameli was the daughter.

2. At the age of 30, he left his home and began to wander as a naked monk. At the age

0f 42, Mahavira attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala-jnana,

on the northern bank of river Rijupalika, outside Jrimbhikagrama , a little

known locality in eastern India. He was now known as a Kevalin (omniscient),

a Jina (conqueror) and Mahavira (the great hero).

3. Mahavira became the head of a sect called Nigranthas (free from Fetters), known in

later times as Jains or followers of Jina (conqueror).

4. Mahavira died at Pava in south Bihar , after wandering for 35 years as a religious

teacher, at the age of 72.


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5. The 23rd teacher , Parsav , the immediate predecessor of Mahavira, was a prince of

Benaras and enjoined on his disciples the great four vows of non-injury, truthfulness,

abstention from stealing and non-attachment. Mahavira added the vow of

Brahamcharya or continence to this.

6. Mahavira had 11 disciples called Ganadharvas , heads of school. Only Arya

Suddharma survived Mahavira and became the first Thera . During the reign of

last Nanda ruler of Magadha, the Jain Church was ruled by two theras, Sambhutvijaya

and Bhadrabahu.

7. Way to Nirvana (Three Ratnatraya):

o Right faith ( Samyak vishwas )

o Right knowledge ( Samyak jnan )

o Right conduct ( Samyak karma )

8. Sacred Literature:

o The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a form of Prakrit called

Ardhamagadhi, and may be classified as follows:


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1. The twelve Angas

2. The twelve Upangas

3. The ten Parikarnas

4. The six Chhedasutras

5. The four Mulasutras.

9. Spread of Jainism:

o Jainism received patronage from the kings of the time,

including Chandragupta Maurya. Udayin , successor of Ajatshatru was a

devoted Jain. In the south, royal dynasties such as the Gangas, Kadambas.

Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism. In.Gujarat, patronage came

from wealthy merchants.

o Kharavela , the ruler of Kalinga , was great patron of Jainis. He dedicated

some caves for the use of Jaina monks in the Udaygiri hills.

o The concrete expression of Jainisms religious zeal is seen all over the country

in works of art and architecture. The 57-foot high statue

of Gomateshvara at Sravanabelagola in Mysore, erected in 983 or 984 AD is

a marvel of its kind. The temples at Mount Abu and those at Palithana in


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Gujarat and Moodabidri and Karkala in the south make a rich contribution to

the Indian heritage.

10. Jaina Councils:

o By the end of fourth century BC, there was a serious famine in the Ganges

valley leading to a great exodus of many Jaina monks to the Deccan and South

India (Sravana Belgola) along with Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta

Maurya .They returned to the Gangetic valley after 12 years. The leader of the

group, which stayed back at Magadha was Sthulabahu . The changes that

took place in the code of conduct of the followers of Sthulabahu led to thedivision of the Jainas into Digambaras (sky-clad or naked)

and Svetambaras (white-clad).

o First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the

third century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the

lost 14 Purvas.

o Second Council was held at Valabhi in the 5th century AD under the

leadership of Devaradhi Kshamasramana and resulted in final compilation

of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

During the centuries that followed, further splits took place amongst both the

sections- the Digambaras and Svetambaras- the most important of them

begins the one that renounced idol worship altogether and devoted itself to

the worship of the scriptures. They are called Terapanthis among the

Svetambaras INDIAN HISTORY: Maurya Empire

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11. The Maurya Empire: Historians have used a variety of sources to reconstructthe history of the Mauryan Empire. These include archaeological finds, especially

sculpture.

o Also valuable are contemporary works, such as the account

of Megasthenes (a Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya),

which survives in fragments.

o Another source that is often used is the Arthashastra , parts of which were

probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya , traditionally believed to be the

minister of Chandragupta.

o Besides, the Mauryas are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic

literature, as well as in Sanskrit literary works.

o While these are useful, the inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE) on

rocks and pillars are often regarded as amongst the most valuable sources.

o Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta describes how Chanakya won the

diplomatic battle against the Nanda minister Rakshasa, how Rakshasa was

compelled to work for Chandragupta and also how the Nandas were f inally

over thrown.

12. Chandragupta Maurya:

o Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the empire in 305 BC. His family is

identified by some with the tribe of Moriya mentioned by Greeks. According to


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one tradition, the designation is derived from Mura , the mother or

grandmother of Chandragupta, who was wife of a Nanda king.

o Buddhist writers represent Chandragupta as member of Kshatriya caste,

belonging to the ruling clan of little republic of Pipphalivana, lying probably

between Rummindei in the Nepalese Tarai and Kasai in the Gorakhpur district.

o Under Chandragupta Maurya, for the first time, the whole of northern India

was united.

o Chandragupta became a Jain and went to Sravanbelgola with Bhadrabahu,

where he died by slow starvation.

o Chandragupta was the protege of the Brahman, Kautilya or Chanakya, who

was his guide and mentor, both in acquirnig a throne and in keeping it.

o Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta

Maurya by Seleucus.

13. Bindusara:

o Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 297 B.C. To Greeks

Bindusara was known as Amitrochates.


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o A Greek named Deimachos was received as Ambassador of Greece in

Bindusara's court.

o Bindusara extended Mauryan control in Deccan as far south as Mysore.

o Bindusar patronized Ajivikus.

14. Asoka:

o According to the Buddhist tradition, Asoka usurped the throne alter killing his

99 brothers and spared Tissa, the youngest one. Radhagupta a Minister of

Bindusar helped him in fratricidal struggle.

o During Bindusara's reign, Ashoka successively held the important viceroyalties

of Taxila and Ujjain.

o Ashoka is referred to as Devanampiya (the beloved of gods) Piyadassi (of

amiable appearance) in inscriptions.

o Under Asoka. the Mauryan Empire reached its climax. For the first time, the

whole of the subcontinent, leaving out the extreme south, was under imperialcontrol.

o Asoka (ought the Kalinga war in 261 BC in the 9th years of his coronation. The

king was moved by massacre in this war and therefore abandoned the policy


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of physical occupation in favour of policy of cultural conquest. In oilier words,

Bherighosha was replaced by Dhammaghosha.

o Asoka was not an extreme pacifist. He did not pursue the policy of peace for

sake of peace under all conditions. Thus he retained Kalinga after its conquest

and incorporated it into his empire.

o According to the Kashmir chronicle of Kalhana, Ashoka's favourite deity was

Shiva. Ashoka claimed of spiritual conquest of the realms of his Hellenistic,

Tamil and Ceylonese neighbours. Hellenistic neighbours of Ashoka were:

Antiochos II (Theos of Syria), Ptolemy II (Philadelphos of Egypt), Antigonos(Gonatas of Macedonia), Magas (of Cyrene) and Alexander (of Epirus).

o After making deep study of Buddhist scriptures Ashoka started undertaking

dharam-yatras (tours of morality) in course of which he visited the people of

his country and instructed them on Dharma (morality and piety).

o Asokas Dhamma cannot be regarded as sectarian faith. Its broad objective

was to preserve the social order it ordained that people should obey their

parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and show mercy to

slave and servants.He held that if people behaved well they would attain

Swarga (heaven). He never said that they would attain Nirvana, which was

goal of Buddhist Teaching.

o During Ashok's reign the Buddhist church underwent reorganization, with the

meeting of the third Buddhist Council at Patliputra in 250 B.C.


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o Ashoka's son Prince Mahendra visited Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka) as a Buddhist

missionary and convinced the ruler of the island kingdom, Devanampiya Tissa

to convert to Buddhism.

o Ashoka ruled for 37 years and died in 232 B.C. With his death a political

decline set in, and soon after the empire broke up.

o As per the Puranic texts, the immediate successor of Ashoka was his son

Kunala. The Chronicals of Kashmir, however, mention Jalauka as the son and

successor. Kunalawas succeeded by his sons, one of whom, Bandhupalita, is

known only in Puranas, and another, Sampadi, is mentioned by all traditionalauthorities. Then there was Dasratha who ruled Magadha shortly after Ashoka

and has left three epigraphs in the Nagarjuni Hills in Bihar, recording the gift

of caves to the Ajivikas.The last king of the Maurya dynasty was Brihadratha,

who was overthrown by his commanderin- chief, Pushyamitra, who laid the

foundation of the Sunga dynasty.

15. The Mauryan Administration: The establishment of elaborate bureaucracyappear to be a remarkable feature of the Mauryas.

o Central Administration:

1. The Mauryan government was a centralised bureaucracy of which the

nucleus was the king.

2. The Arthshastra refers to the highest officers as the eighteen tirthas,

the chief among them were the Mantrin (chief

minister), Purohit (high priest), Yuvraja (heir-apparent)

and Senapati (commander-in-chief).


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3. The head of the judiciary was the king himself, but there were special

tribunals of justice, headed by Mahamatras and Rajukas .

o Provincial Administration:

1. The empire was divided into a number of provinces. Probably, five. The

northern province, called Uttarapatha had Taxila as its capital.

Western province, known as Avantipatha had its capital in Ujjain .

Prachyapatha with its capital Toshali (Kalinga) formed the Easternprovince while Dakshinapatha with its capital Surarnagiri was the

Southernmost province. Central province. Magdha , with its capital

at Pataliputra , was the headquarters of the entire kingdom.

2. The terms used in the Ashokan edicts for provincial governors

are Kumara and Aryaputra . The former may have been the title of

the sons of the king and later may have referred to close relatives.

o District Administration:

1. Provinces were sub-divided into districts for purposes of

administration, and a group of officials worked in each district. In the

inscriptions of Ashoka there are references to Rajukas and Pradesikas,

charged with the welfare of Janapadas or country parts and Pradesas

or districts. Mahamatras were charged with the administration of

cities ( Nagala Viyohalaka ) and sundry other matters, and a host of

minor officials, including clerks ( Yuta ), scribes ( Lipikar ) and reporters

( Pativedaka ).


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o Urban Administration:

1. Urban administration had its own hierarchy offcials. Kautilya lays down

in detail the duties of the Nagaraka which included maintenance of law

and order, supervision of sanitation arrangement and to take

measures against outbreaks of fire. The Nagaraka has under him

subordinate officials called sthanika and gopa who were placed in

charge of the wards into which the town was divided.

o Rural Administration:

1. The rural areas were governed by Gramika Head of a village. He was

generally elected by the people. He was not a paid servant.

o Military Administration:

1. The most striking feature of Mauryan military administration was

maintanence of a huge army.They also maintained a Navy.According

to Megasthenes the administration of Army was carried by a board of

30 officers divided into six committees, each committee consisting of 5

members. They are:

1. Army

2. Cavalry


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3. Elephants

4. Chariots

5. Navy

6. Transport

2. Beside this Ashoka appointed Dhammamahamatra, the most important

official entrusted with establishing and promoting Dhamma. Authorized

to tour and alleviate the woes of people.

16. Arthashastra:

o Arthashastra , written by Chandragupta Mauryas Prime Minister Chanakya ,

primarily delves into the statecraft and administration.The Arthashastra has 15

adhikarnas or books. Of which, the first five deal with tantra or internal

administration of the state, eight deal with avapa or its relations with

neighboring stales, and the last two are miscellaneous in character.

17. Economy:

o In order to raise resources to meet the heavy expenditure on an ever

increasing bureaucracy and huge standing army, the Mauryan state founded

new settlements. The shudras for the first time were aided by the state in


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settling down as farmers in the settlements. In the newly- settled areas, which

formed the crown land or crown village( sita ), land was granted to retired

village officials and priests.

o The state controlled almost all economic activities.The chief sources of revenue

were the bhaga and the bali. The bhaga was the king's share of the produce of

the soil, which was normally fixed at one-sixth, though in special cases it was

raised to one-fourth or reduced to one-eighth. Bali was an extra impost levied

on special tracts for the subsistence of certain officials. Taxes on the land were

collected by the Agronomoi who measured the land and superintended the

irrigation works.

o In urban areas the main sources of revenue were birth and death taxes, fines

and tithes on sales. Arthshastra refers to certain high revenue functionaries

styled the samaharti and the sannidharti.

o The state also provided irrigation facilities and charged water-tax.Tolls were

also levied on commodities brought to town for sale and they were collected at

gate.The slate enjoyed monopoly in mining, sale of liquor, manufacture of

arms etc.

o During Mauryan period, the punch marked coins were the common units of

transactions.The copper coin of eighty ratis (146.4 grs) was known as

Karshapana. The name was also applied to silver and gold coins, particularly in

south.

o Tamralipti m the Gangetic delta was the most prosperous port on the East

Coast of India.Broach was a major port during the Mauryan period.


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18. Society:

o Megasthenes had mentioned 7 castes in Mauryan society. They were

philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans, magistrates and

councilors.

o Slavery was an established institution during the Maurya period.

o Varna (caste) and ashram (periods of stages of religious discipline), the two

characteristic institutions of the Hindu social polity, reached a definite stage in

the Maurya period.

19. Art & Architecture: The Mauryas were famous for their art and architecture.

o The Mauryas introduced stone masonry on large scale.Fragments of stone

pillars and slumps indicating the existence of an 80-pillared hall have been

discovered at Kumarhar on outskirts of Patna.The pillars represent the

Masterpiece of Mauryan sculpture. Each pillar is made of single piece of

sandstone. only their capitals which are beautiful pieces of sculpture in form of

lion or bulls are joined with pillar on the top.

o The most important art remains are animal capitals of the pillars, single Lion

capital at Rampurva and Lauriya Nandangarh, single bull capital at Rampurva,

four lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi.

o The Mauryan artisans also started the practice of hewing out caves from rocks

for monks to live in. the earliest example are Barabar caves in Gaya.


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o Stupas were built throughout the empire to enshrine (he relics of Buddha). Of

these, the most famous are at Sanchi and Bui hut.

20. Ashokan Inscriptions:

o Ashoka used the mediumof his edicts to expound the policy of Dhamma. These

inscriptions are inscribed on rocks, pillars and cave.

o The Ashokan inscriptions were in local script. Those found in northwest, in the

region of Peshawar, are in the Kharoshthi script (derived from Aramaic script

used in Iran), near modern Kandhar, the extreme west of empire, these are in

Greek and Aramaic, and elsewhere in India these are in the Brahmi script.

o MAJOR ROCK EDICTS:

1. Manshera - Hazara, Pakistan

2. Shahbazgarhi - Peshawar, Pakistan

3. Girnar (Junagarh) - Gujarat

4. Sopara - Thana, Maharashtra


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5. Yerragudi - Kurnool, A.P

6. Jaugarh or Jaugada - Ganjam, Orissa

7. Dhauli - Puri, Orissa

8. Kalsi - Dehradun, Uttrakhand

o MINOR ROCK EDICTS :

1. Ahraura - U.P.

2. Sahasram - Bihar

3. Rupnath - M.P.

4. Gujjarra - M.P.

5. Panguraria (Budhni)- M.P.

6. Bhabru - Rajasthan


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7. Bairat - Rajasthan

8. Yerragudi - Andhra Pradesh

9. Maski - Andhra Pradesh

10. Rajul-Mandagiri - Andhra Pradesh

11. Govimath - Karnataka

12. Palkigundu - Karnataka

13. Siddhapur - Karnataka

14. Jatinga-Rameshwar - Karnataka

15. Brahmagiri - Karnataka

16. Udayagolam - Karnataka


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17. Mittur - Karnataka

18. Sannatai - Karnataka

19. New Delhi - Amarpuri colony of Lajpat Nagar

20. Bahapur - New Delhi.

o PILLAR EDICTS:

1. Delhi Topara

2. Delhi Meerut

3. Lauriya Araraj Bihar

4. Lauriya Nandangarh Bihar

5. Rampurva

6. Prayag Kaushmbi U.P.


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o Minor Pillar Edicts :

1. Rummindei - Nepal border

2. Nigliva-Sagar - Nepal, near Rummindei

3. Sanchi - M.P.

4. Sarnath - U.P.

5. Prayag - U.P. (Warning to monks)

6. Queens Edict - Prayag

o CAVE EDICTS:

1. Ashokas Edicts have been located in the caves in the Barabar Hills (old

name Khallitak and Pravaragizi), which were donated to Ajivikas.

These caves are called Sudama, Karnachopar and Vishwajhonpadi.

2. A cave of Lomash Rishi was also found here but with no inscriptions.


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3. Dusharathas Cave Edicts: In the Ajivika caves in the Nagarjuni Hills

which were called Gopi, Vapi and Vadathik.

o and Samaiyas among the Digambaras.

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