History of American Education Dan Driscoll. History of American Education Republican Education...

History of American History of American EducationEducation

Dan DriscollDan Driscoll

History of American EducationHistory of American Education

Republican EducationRepublican Education

o Northwest Ordinances 1785, 1787 > ?Northwest Ordinances 1785, 1787 > ?

o The Dartmouth College Case > ?The Dartmouth College Case > ?

o De Tocqueville’s Ed Observations > ?De Tocqueville’s Ed Observations > ?

o Jackson Democracy & Jackson Democracy & Industrialization > ?Industrialization > ?

The readingsThe readings


American Ed’s 2nd Moment: American Ed’s 2nd Moment: PresentPresent

1840’s/50’s patterns forming > present1840’s/50’s patterns forming > present Society, Economy, Schools > vaguely Society, Economy, Schools > vaguely

familiarfamiliar People familiar, too > looking a bit differentPeople familiar, too > looking a bit different

o DiversityDiversity Common schools taking hold > WASP Common schools taking hold > WASP

homogeneity crumblinghomogeneity crumbling American society undergoing American society undergoing

fundamental changefundamental change “ “Break down of formerly unified social Break down of formerly unified social

form”form”


o DiversityDiversity Urban centers, industrialization Urban centers, industrialization

fracturing agrarian, village societyfracturing agrarian, village society Age of Jackson > celebration of “common Age of Jackson > celebration of “common

man”man” Men no longer on homestead; role of Men no longer on homestead; role of

women changingwomen changing Growing industrial capacity creating Growing industrial capacity creating

demand for labordemand for labor Jobs drawing Americans, others to urban Jobs drawing Americans, others to urban

centerscenters Many looked, sounded, believed, acted Many looked, sounded, believed, acted

differentlydifferently


o DiversityDiversity Opportunities triggered massive influx Opportunities triggered massive influx

immigrantsimmigrants

Not everyone happy about it > Nativists Not everyone happy about it > Nativists > pushed back against immigrants > > pushed back against immigrants > racist, often violentracist, often violent

First to feel Nativist hatred, first to arrive First to feel Nativist hatred, first to arrive in large numbers > Irish Catholicsin large numbers > Irish Catholics

Sheer numbers and concentration in Sheer numbers and concentration in urban centers > Catholics pushed back urban centers > Catholics pushed back against Nativists…and the common against Nativists…and the common schoolsschools


o The Catholics: Archbishop HughesThe Catholics: Archbishop Hughes 1800 Catholics 1% US population1800 Catholics 1% US population 1821-1850: 2-1/2-million Europeans; 1.7-1821-1850: 2-1/2-million Europeans; 1.7-

million 1840’smillion 1840’s 1821-1850: million+ Irish; 780,000 1840’s1821-1850: million+ Irish; 780,000 1840’s Irish virtually all Catholic > concentrated Irish virtually all Catholic > concentrated

NY, BostonNY, Boston 1850: 50% NYC foreign born1850: 50% NYC foreign born Coincided with spread of publicly Coincided with spread of publicly

supported common schools > particularly supported common schools > particularly MA and NY, elsewhere alsoMA and NY, elsewhere also


o The Catholics: Archbishop HughesThe Catholics: Archbishop Hughes NY common schools controlled by Public NY common schools controlled by Public

School Society > not strictly “public”School Society > not strictly “public” Protestant overtones incurred ire of Protestant overtones incurred ire of

CatholicsCatholics Nativist anti-Catholicism > America “… Nativist anti-Catholicism > America “…

sewer of Ireland”; textbook: “...deceitful sewer of Ireland”; textbook: “...deceitful Catholics”Catholics”

Ethnic slurs > “Paddies” > punishment for Ethnic slurs > “Paddies” > punishment for refusing to read King James Biblerefusing to read King James Bible

Moral education without religion Moral education without religion unacceptable to Catholicsunacceptable to Catholics

Not Irish alone > Germans, Italians sought Not Irish alone > Germans, Italians sought dual language schools > denied by Public dual language schools > denied by Public School SocietySchool Society


o The Catholics: Archbishop HughesThe Catholics: Archbishop Hughes 1840 NY’s Archbishop Hughes urged 1840 NY’s Archbishop Hughes urged

Catholics demand restoration of public Catholics demand restoration of public funds for religious schools > discontinued funds for religious schools > discontinued 18251825

Nativists, “Know Nothing” political party Nativists, “Know Nothing” political party enraged > became violently anti-Catholicenraged > became violently anti-Catholic

Hughes: common schools an idea spread Hughes: common schools an idea spread “….from dark regions of Prussia…”“….from dark regions of Prussia…”

NYS legislature dissolved Public School NYS legislature dissolved Public School Society 1842 > put schools under public Society 1842 > put schools under public control, some local autonomycontrol, some local autonomy

Legislative change not enough for Legislative change not enough for Catholics and Hughes > no money for Catholics and Hughes > no money for religious schoolsreligious schools


o The Catholics: Archbishop HughesThe Catholics: Archbishop Hughes Hughes, church leaders > create Catholic Hughes, church leaders > create Catholic

schools emphasizing religion, private fundsschools emphasizing religion, private funds First Plenary Council 1852 urged Catholics to First Plenary Council 1852 urged Catholics to

“encourage the establishment and support of “encourage the establishment and support of Catholic schools; make every sacrifice which Catholic schools; make every sacrifice which may be necessary for this project”may be necessary for this project”

Catholic school system took hold very slowlyCatholic school system took hold very slowly Immigration continued, even faster > 1851-Immigration continued, even faster > 1851-

1870; 1.3-million Irish, 1.7-million Germans, 1870; 1.3-million Irish, 1.7-million Germans, many Catholicmany Catholic

By 1860’s MA just 14 parish schools, NY 30, By 1860’s MA just 14 parish schools, NY 30, CN 20; began growing rapidly after 1870CN 20; began growing rapidly after 1870


o The Catholics: Archbishop HughesThe Catholics: Archbishop Hughes

Three things about Catholic school Three things about Catholic school experience:experience:

1.1. Strong and ultimately successful Strong and ultimately successful assault on common schools from their assault on common schools from their very beginningvery beginning

2.2. Much right and much wrong on both Much right and much wrong on both sides; differences never resolvedsides; differences never resolved

3.3. Almost identical issues heard todayAlmost identical issues heard today

What’s a mother to do?What’s a mother to do?


Education of African-AmericansEducation of African-Americans History forces us to confront the unpleasantHistory forces us to confront the unpleasant Education never separate from larger Education never separate from larger

societysociety See both in African-American ed experienceSee both in African-American ed experience Also experience of every group “different”Also experience of every group “different”

o Education in the SouthEducation in the South Majority African-Americans in south until Majority African-Americans in south until

WWIIWWII Southern ed, literacy lagged > all groupsSouthern ed, literacy lagged > all groups Lag, slavery makes contemporary Lag, slavery makes contemporary

relevance problematicrelevance problematic


o Education of FreedmenEducation of Freedmen

Early education depended on charities, Early education depended on charities, wealthy > all groupswealthy > all groups

Early 1790’s free AAs in Boston asked for Early 1790’s free AAs in Boston asked for public support for separate school > public support for separate school > prejudice, racism at white schools; prejudice, racism at white schools; request deniedrequest denied

Parents started private school with white Parents started private school with white philanthropy helpphilanthropy help

1812 Boston reversed decision > granted 1812 Boston reversed decision > granted modest annual subsidymodest annual subsidy


o Education of FreedmenEducation of Freedmen

1830 Boston School Committee > black 1830 Boston School Committee > black primary schools in growing AA sectionsprimary schools in growing AA sections

1790s > 1820’s whites founded AA charity 1790s > 1820’s whites founded AA charity schools many cities; some integrated, most schools many cities; some integrated, most notnot

AA parents supported inexpensive pay AA parents supported inexpensive pay schools with black teachersschools with black teachers

Private schools run by AA > NYC, Brooklyn, Private schools run by AA > NYC, Brooklyn, Columbus, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Columbus, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Troy, Rochester, New Brunswick, Cincinnati, Troy, Rochester, New Brunswick, Princeton; most northern cities with large Princeton; most northern cities with large black populationblack population


o Quaker African Free SchoolsQuaker African Free Schools None more active than Quakers extending None more active than Quakers extending

ed to free AAed to free AA Quaker school in Philadelphia for AA boys Quaker school in Philadelphia for AA boys

1770; girls 1787; night school for adults 1770; girls 1787; night school for adults 17891789

By 1800 Quaker African Free Schools > By 1800 Quaker African Free Schools > Baltimore, Burlington, NJ, Providence, Baltimore, Burlington, NJ, Providence, Wilmington, NY, BostonWilmington, NY, Boston

Not entirely dependent white charity > Not entirely dependent white charity > parents paid weekly tuition to Boston parents paid weekly tuition to Boston African Free SchoolAfrican Free School

1820’s in NY 100 AA students in private 1820’s in NY 100 AA students in private schools, 620 in African Free School; 1,000+ schools, 620 in African Free School; 1,000+ not in schoolnot in school


o Quaker African Free SchoolsQuaker African Free Schools African Free Schools increased elementary African Free Schools increased elementary

schooling for blacks, disputed white belief schooling for blacks, disputed white belief in AA inferiorityin AA inferiority

Couldn’t deliver on post-ed promise > jobsCouldn’t deliver on post-ed promise > jobs

Grad of NY African Free School wrote 1819:Grad of NY African Free School wrote 1819:

What are my prospects? To what shall I turn What are my prospects? To what shall I turn my head? Shall I be a mechanic? No one will my head? Shall I be a mechanic? No one will employ me; white boys won’t work with me. employ me; white boys won’t work with me. Shall I be a merchant? No one will have me in Shall I be a merchant? No one will have me in his office; white clerks won’t associate with his office; white clerks won’t associate with me. Drudgery and servitude, then, are my me. Drudgery and servitude, then, are my prospective portion.prospective portion.


o African-American Ed in Common African-American Ed in Common School EraSchool Era Kaestle: difficult to extend common Kaestle: difficult to extend common

school reforms to Catholics; even more school reforms to Catholics; even more difficult to bring black children into difficult to bring black children into common schools;common schools;

As common schools spread > absorbed As common schools spread > absorbed black charity, African Free Schools > black charity, African Free Schools > trend toward central administration, trend toward central administration, weakening of independent schoolsweakening of independent schools

AA parents > make separate but unequal AA parents > make separate but unequal work or press for integrationwork or press for integration

Some supported common school ideal Some supported common school ideal and integration; some sought separate and integration; some sought separate black institutions in a racist societyblack institutions in a racist society


o African-American Ed in Common School African-American Ed in Common School EraEra Except New England, NY blacks couldn’t Except New England, NY blacks couldn’t

vote > denied one of goals of common vote > denied one of goals of common schools > political participationschools > political participation

Jobs, education beyond primary level Jobs, education beyond primary level closed; civil rights laws blockedclosed; civil rights laws blocked

DeTocqueville told 1831:DeTocqueville told 1831:

……the law with us is nothing if it is not the law with us is nothing if it is not supported by public opinion – the people are supported by public opinion – the people are imbued with the greatest prejudice against imbued with the greatest prejudice against Negroes, and the magistrates don’t feel strong Negroes, and the magistrates don’t feel strong enough to enforce the laws favorable to them.enough to enforce the laws favorable to them.


o African-American Ed in Common School African-American Ed in Common School EraEra

1845 MA law > all children had right to 1845 MA law > all children had right to attend neighborhood schoolsattend neighborhood schools

Boston School Committee: ruled law did not Boston School Committee: ruled law did not apply to segregationapply to segregation

Education having little effect on job Education having little effect on job discrimination > considerable frustration discrimination > considerable frustration parents and studentsparents and students

1842 black newspaper in Albany asked 1842 black newspaper in Albany asked rhetorically how many abolitionist merchants, rhetorically how many abolitionist merchants, lawyers hiring grads of African Free Schoolslawyers hiring grads of African Free Schools


o African-American Schooling InitiativesAfrican-American Schooling Initiatives AA parents did not accept 2d, 3rd rate AA parents did not accept 2d, 3rd rate

schools > fought back with own ed efforts, schools > fought back with own ed efforts, resistance common schools directionresistance common schools direction

1820 10,000 AAs NYC > created black 1820 10,000 AAs NYC > created black institutionsinstitutions

1823 African Methodist Episcopal Zion 1823 African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church split from mainstream Methodists Church split from mainstream Methodists > independent black church> independent black church

1827 NY’s AA leaders began 1827 NY’s AA leaders began Freedom’s Freedom’s JournalJournal, first black newspaper, first black newspaper

Leaders strong interest in Manumission Leaders strong interest in Manumission Society running black schools > pushed Society running black schools > pushed attendanceattendance


o African-American Schooling InitiativesAfrican-American Schooling Initiatives Head Manumission Society white Head Manumission Society white

Englishman Charles Andrews > supported Englishman Charles Andrews > supported by AA community until about 1830by AA community until about 1830

Andrews became enthusiast back-to-Andrews became enthusiast back-to-Africa colonization movementAfrica colonization movement

Colonization advocates discouraged black Colonization advocates discouraged black education > a diversion to emigration to education > a diversion to emigration to Africa > vigorously opposed by black Africa > vigorously opposed by black leadersleaders

Andrew’s colonization efforts > declining Andrew’s colonization efforts > declining enrollment in Manumission Society schools enrollment in Manumission Society schools > increases resistance from black leaders> increases resistance from black leaders


o African-American Schooling InitiativesAfrican-American Schooling Initiatives 1832 Society ousted Andrews > “prejudice 1832 Society ousted Andrews > “prejudice

now existing against him among coloured now existing against him among coloured population”population”

Replaced with AA James Adams > Replaced with AA James Adams > enrollments rose > hired teachers who had enrollments rose > hired teachers who had “the confidence of the coloured people”“the confidence of the coloured people”

Two years later, Manumission Society Two years later, Manumission Society schools, 1,500 AA students transferred to schools, 1,500 AA students transferred to NY’s Public School Society > same overseer NY’s Public School Society > same overseer that would butt heads with Hughes and that would butt heads with Hughes and Catholics laterCatholics later

Public School Society had near monopoly on Public School Society had near monopoly on free schools in NYfree schools in NY


o African-American Schooling InitiativesAfrican-American Schooling Initiatives Behind backs of black leaders, Public Behind backs of black leaders, Public

School Society reduced all but one black School Society reduced all but one black school to primary level only > enraged black school to primary level only > enraged black leadersleaders

Without secondary schools, enrollments Without secondary schools, enrollments again dropped > AA parents turned to again dropped > AA parents turned to private schools, once againprivate schools, once again

AA enthusiasm common schools ups, downsAA enthusiasm common schools ups, downs

More radical leaders pushed for separate, More radical leaders pushed for separate, Afro-centric schools > many embraced Afro-centric schools > many embraced return to Africa movementreturn to Africa movement

Moderates, the majority, pressed Moderates, the majority, pressed attendance, moral ed, intellectual attendance, moral ed, intellectual improvement, parental involvementimprovement, parental involvement


o African-American Schooling InitiativesAfrican-American Schooling Initiatives Pushed for black teachers in schoolsPushed for black teachers in schools School boards often caved to demands > School boards often caved to demands >

avoid boycotts, integrationavoid boycotts, integration Moderates two debates > against white and Moderates two debates > against white and

black segs > separate schools different black segs > separate schools different reasonsreasons

Black integrationists: seg schools violated Black integrationists: seg schools violated Justice, few resources, compromised political Justice, few resources, compromised political rights, contact essential to reduce prejudicerights, contact essential to reduce prejudice

Black segs: AA children in white schools Black segs: AA children in white schools subjected to insults, stereotyping, white subjected to insults, stereotyping, white teachers’ low expectations of students, black teachers’ low expectations of students, black teachers never integrated into white schoolsteachers never integrated into white schools


o African-American Schooling InitiativesAfrican-American Schooling Initiatives Teaching one of few professions open to Teaching one of few professions open to

educated AAs > parents placed high educated AAs > parents placed high premium on black teacherspremium on black teachers

Black teacher demands routinely ignored > Black teacher demands routinely ignored > 22 years after mandatory segregation 22 years after mandatory segregation ended in NYC 1873 not single black teacher ended in NYC 1873 not single black teacher hiredhired

Desegregation > lost AA teaching positionsDesegregation > lost AA teaching positions White establishment turned black seg White establishment turned black seg

arguments against black majority > seg arguments against black majority > seg schools created “…at the urgent and schools created “…at the urgent and repeated requests of the colored people repeated requests of the colored people themselves” > ignored that demands never themselves” > ignored that demands never from more than small minorityfrom more than small minority


o The Salem DecisionThe Salem Decision 1844 Salem, MA city attorney Richard 1844 Salem, MA city attorney Richard

Fletcher wrote opinion: “Perfect equality is Fletcher wrote opinion: “Perfect equality is the vital principle” of the common school the vital principle” of the common school systemsystem

All must have opportunity for power, wealth All must have opportunity for power, wealth > trained for public office > absence would > trained for public office > absence would lead to class oppression, class warfare: lead to class oppression, class warfare: FletcherFletcher

He rejected separate-but-equal argument; He rejected separate-but-equal argument; doubted black schools would have equal doubted black schools would have equal resources, but regardless: resources, but regardless:

……it would in no way affect the decision of the it would in no way affect the decision of the question. The colored children are lawfully question. The colored children are lawfully entitled to the benefits of the free schools, entitled to the benefits of the free schools, and are not bound to accept an equivalent.and are not bound to accept an equivalent.


o Progress NeverthelessProgress Nevertheless Tyack: “…no…greater faith in the Tyack: “…no…greater faith in the

equalizing power of schooling or a clearer equalizing power of schooling or a clearer understanding of the democratic promise of understanding of the democratic promise of public education than…black Americans”public education than…black Americans”

Stats > 1890 higher % AAs in St. Louis in Stats > 1890 higher % AAs in St. Louis in public schools than whites, 18.7% v. 12.9%public schools than whites, 18.7% v. 12.9%

Phillie 1897 85% AA children in school at Phillie 1897 85% AA children in school at least part time, illiteracy AAs 10-20 y/o least part time, illiteracy AAs 10-20 y/o under 4%under 4%

1870 9.9% AAs 5-19 y/o in school; 1900 31%1870 9.9% AAs 5-19 y/o in school; 1900 31% Non-whites 1940 born about 1870 = 2.8 Non-whites 1940 born about 1870 = 2.8

years school; those born 1890 = 5 yearsyears school; those born 1890 = 5 years AA illiteracy 1870 = 80% > 44.5% 1900AA illiteracy 1870 = 80% > 44.5% 1900


AssignmentsAssignments

o Readings:Readings:

Urban & Wagoner Text: Chap. 5Urban & Wagoner Text: Chap. 5

Reprints: Mann’s Annual Report #12; Reprints: Mann’s Annual Report #12; Anderson: Ed of Blacks in the South Anderson: Ed of Blacks in the South (pdfs)(pdfs)

Prepare for midterm: review Prepare for midterm: review PowerPoints, lecture notesPowerPoints, lecture notes

History of American Education Dan Driscoll. History of American Education Republican Education...

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