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Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
The Psychology of Service: Interacting with Customers and Clients
Part II
Dieter Zapf
Valencia
15th Oct. 2008
Johann Wolfgang Goethe-UniversitätFrankfurt am Main
Fachbereich Psychologie und Sportwissenschaften Institut für PsychologieUniversität Frankfurt, Institut für Psychologie, 60054 Frankfurt Arbeits- & Organisationspsychologie
Dieter Zapf2 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Content
1. What is service?
2. Emotional labour – emotion work
3. Emotional job requirements
4. Antecedents of Emotion Work and Emotional Job Requirements
5. Emotional Job Requirements and Well-being at Work
6. Emotion regulation strategies
7. Emotion regulation strategies, job performance and well-being at work
8. Relations between emotion work requirements and emotion regulation
9. Motives for doing emotion work
10.Emotion work and age
Dieter Zapf3 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
6. Emotion Regulation Strategies
Dieter Zapf4 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Secondary Task
Interaction -oriented Sub-GoalsRequirement to express positive, negative or sympathy emotions Sensitivity RequirementsEmotional Dissonance
Redefinition Internal Task
Redefined Goals
Primary Task
Cognitive Regulation RequirementsE.g. Complexity
CognitiveAction Regulation
Goal Specification, Monitoring, Feedback
Planning,
Emotion regulation
AutomatedEmotion regulation
surface actingdeep acting
Emotional deviance
Object-oriented Sub-Goals
Secondary taskparallel to primary task
Automatisation
• Occupational IdentitySocialisationPersonalityEmotionalCompetencies
Well-being
Service Organisation
Work Task
Organisational Goals
Customer Orientation
Display rules
External Tasks
••••
Regulation of Work Behaviour
Consequences
Customers
Frequency, Duration, Quality
of Service Interactions
Regulation problems (job stressors)
Framework Model of Service Work in Organisations
Performance
Dieter Zapf5 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Study
1. Diary study:
2. 48 participants (14 hairdressers, 14 flight attendants, 8 nurses, 7 salespersons, 5 call centre agents) responded to a questionnaire and filled in a diary for 10 working days and provided
3. 385 diary entries
4. The diary was filled in at the end of the work day. Participants had to refer to an emotionally significant interaction of the day
5. Response rate 47% (between 12 (sales) and 78% (hairdresser))
6. Mean age 32 years; 70% women
Dieter Zapf6 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Felt and Expressed Emotions – Diary Study
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
FeltExpressed
Zapf, Trumpold, Erian, Keck & Weber (2008)
Dieter Zapf7 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Felt and Expressed Emotions – Diary Study
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
FeltExpressed
Zapf, Trumpold, Erian, Keck & Weber (2008)
Culture specific?
Dieter Zapf8 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Diary Study on Emotion Regulation
Method:
Participants were interviewed, and they were asked to record for 7 consecutive days, all interactions at work and in private life that lasted 10 minutes or more.
N=78 participants from Switzerland
QuestionsWas there a requirement to display an emotion? Yes - NoDid you display the required emotion? Yes - NoDid you feel the emotion? Yes - No
Variables: Required – displayed – felt: Emotional harmonyRequired – displayed – not felt: Emotional dissonanceRequired – not displayed – not felt: Emotional deviance
Tschan, Rochat & Zapf (2005, JOOP)
Dieter Zapf9 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Diary Study on Emotion Regulation
Results:
848 work-related interactions reported (coworkers and clients)
49% interactions involved an emotion regulation requirement
89 % interactions with clients involved an emotion regulation requirement
31% interactions with coworkers involved an emotion regulation requirement
10% interactions involved emotional dissonance
9% interactions involved emotional deviance
Tschan, Rochat & Zapf (2005, JOOP)
Dieter Zapf10 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
The Process of Emotion Work: Emotion Regulation
The regulation of emotions to express organizationally desired emotions can be done by several strategies:
Surface acting:Regulation of visible behaviour (facial expression, gestures, voice) to match one‘s emotion display and the emotions required by the organization, while inner feelings are different
Deep acting:Regulation of inner feelings to match one‘s emotion display and the emotions required by the organization
Automatic emotion regulation:Regulation of visible behaviour (facial expression, gestures, voice) in an automatic mode, because an organizationally desired emotion is elicited by the situation (”effortless“): “Natural emotion”
Emotional deviance:Displayed and felt emotion does not match the organizationally desired emotion (intentionally or unintentionally)
Dieter Zapf11 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Regulation Model of Gross (1999) Em otional dem ands/d isp lay ru les
Situation S election
Situation M odification
Attentional Deploym ent
Cognitive Change
Response M odulation
Em otional Response Tendencies
Antecedent-
Focused
Em otion
Regulation
Response-
Focused
Em otion
Regulation
Behaviora l Experientia l Physio log ica l
Actional
In tra-psychologica l
Am plification Suppression
Deep acting
Surface acting
Grandey (2000)
Dieter Zapf12 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Surface Acting
Regulation of visible behaviour (facial expression, gestures, voice) to match one‘s emotion display and the emotions required by the organization, while inner feelings are different; according to Gross (1998) response focused: suppressing, intensifying or faking emotions
Studies show:
Surface acting is positively related to psychological strain (emotional exhaustion, psychosomatic symptoms) (e.g., Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Grandey, 2003; Totterdell & Holman, 2003; Tschan, Rochat & Zapf, 2005)
Surface acting is negatively related to well-being (satisfaction, personal accomplishment) (e.g., Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002)
Surface acting is negatively related to performance (e.g. affective delivery, customer satisfaction) (Grandey, 2003)
Negative relations with performance because the “true” emotions may lurk through
Surface acting appears as an unfavourable strategy which better should be avoided!
Dieter Zapf13 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Deep Acting
Regulation of inner feelings to match one‘s emotion display and the emotions required by the organization. With reference to Gross (1998): cognitive change and attention deployment
Studies show:
Deep acting is unrelated to psychological strain (e.g., Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Totterdell & Holman, 2003)
Deep acting is positively related to well-being (satisfaction, personal accomplishment) (e.g., Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002)
Deep acting is positively related to performance (self-rated performance, customer satisfaction) (e.g., Totterdell & Holman, 2003)
Deep acting appears as a successful strategy which should always be used!
Dieter Zapf14 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Automatic Emotion Regulation
Regulation of visible behaviour (facial expression, gestures, voice) in an automatic mode (Zapf, 2002), because an organizationally desired emotion is elicited by the situation (”effortless“): “genuinely felt emotion” (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993): passive deep acting (Hochschild, 1983)
So far only a few studies
Studies show:
Automatic Emotion Regulation is negatively related to psychological strain (e.g., Martínez-Iñigo, Totterdell, Alcover & Holman, 2007; Zammuner & Galli, 2005)
Automatic Emotion Regulation is positively related to well-being (satisfaction, personal accomplishment) (e.g., Martínez-Iñigo, Totterdell, Alcover & Holman, 2007; Zammuner & Galli, 2005)
Dieter Zapf15 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotional Deviance
Displayed and felt emotion does not match the organizationally desired emotion (intentionally or unintentionally) (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987)
Studies show:
Emotional Deviance is positively related to exhaustion (Tschan , Rochat & Zapf, 2005)
Emotional deviance should be avoided!
Dieter Zapf16 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Restrictions in the Application of DA and SA
Grandey (2000, p. 103): the more negative the events, the more emotion regulation is necessary
Totterdell & Holman (2003, p. 57): “Negative events … will be positively associated with deep and surface acting…
Many author assume that emotion regulation strategies can be used in every situation
Conclusion: There seem to be no restrictions in the application of DA and SA
Dieter Zapf17 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Anticipative and Situational Deep Acting
The concept of deep acting in the literature is situational deep acting: that is, this emotion regulation strategy is carried out during the interaction.
Hochschild (1983) has borrowed from theatre performance. Here “practicing” before going on stage plays a major role. Accordingly we assume that people do deep acting before the interaction (e.g., some firms like Wal-Mart cheer up before they start working).
We prepare for a social interaction when we anticipate any kind of difficulties or when the situation is extremely important. We therefore assume that anticipative deep acting will be used in negative or neutral situations.
We assume that human beings are overtaxed if they are expected to spontaneously transform negative feelings into positive ones. Therefore we expect that situational deep acting is constrained to neutral or positive situations.
Dieter Zapf18 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Review of the Literature - Conclusion
Surface acting appears as an unfavourable strategy:
positively related to psychological strain and
negatively related to satisfaction and performance
Deep acting appears as a favourable strategy:
unrelated to psychological strain (at least relation unclear) and
positively related to satisfaction and performance
There seem to be no restrictions in the application of DA and SA
Emotional Deviance is positively related to psychological strain.
There is little research on automatic emotion regulation (passive deep acting)
Dieter Zapf19 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Hypotheses
1. Automatic emotion regulation is restricted to positive situations; in negative or neutral situations the positive emotions would not be triggered automatically.
2. Situative deep acting is constrained to neutral or positive situations.
3. Anticipative deep acting will be used in negative or neutral situations.
4. Surface acting is used most often in negative or neutral situations
5. Emotional deviance appears most often in negative or very negative situations
Dieter Zapf20 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Study
1. Diary study:
2. 48 participants (14 hairdressers, 14 flight attendants, 8 nurses, 7 salespersons, 5 call centre agents) responded to a questionnaire and filled in a diary for 10 working days and provided
3. 385 diary entries
4. The diary was filled in at the end of the work day. Participants had to refer to an emotionally significant interaction of the day
5. Response rate 47% (between 12 (sales) and 78% (hairdresser))
6. Mean age 32 years; 70% women
Dieter Zapf21 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Measures
Based on Brotheridge and Lee’s (2003) instrument, extended based on
Totterdell & Holman (2003), Tschan, Rochat & Zapf (2005) and others.
The diary made short measures necessary.
Single items for
Quality of the situation, exhaustion, effort, satisfaction with interaction
Emotion regulation based on factor analyses Automatic emotion regulation: 2 items
Deep acting: 5 items
Anticipative deep acting: 2 items
Situative deep acting: 3 items
Surface acting: 6 items
Emotional deviance: 2 items
Self-rated performance: 3 items
Dieter Zapf22 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Measures
Based on Tschan, Rochat & Zapf (2005)
Categorial Measures:
Was there an expectation to display an emotion?
No – yes, if yes: positive – neutral – negative
Did you express the emotion?
No – yes
Did you feel the emotion?
No - yes
Dieter Zapf23 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Emotion Regulation on Performance
Automatic
AnticipDA
Surface A
Deviance
Interaction Level
Situation pleasant
.36**
-.04
.08+
-.20**
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
SituatDA
-.33**
Dieter Zapf24 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Regulation Dependent on Quality of the Interaction
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Negative Neutral Positive
No ExpectationDeep ActingSurface ActingEmotional Deviance
Dieter Zapf25 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
17,3
59,6
23,1
90,9
9,1 0,00,0
10,0
20,0
30,0
40,0
50,0
60,0
70,0
80,0
90,0
100,0
Very unpleasant Very pleasant
Deep ActingSurface ActingEmotional Deviance
Emotion Regulation Dependent on Quality of the Interaction
Dieter Zapf26 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
1,80
2,00
2,20
2,40
2,60
2,80
3,00
3,20
very unpleasant unpleasant neutral pleasant very pleasant
Anticipative DASituative DA
Anticipative and Situative Deep Acting Dependent on Quality of the Interaction
Dieter Zapf27 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Regulation Dependent on Emotion Felt
30,8
7,7
61,6
42
28 30
96,7
0,7 2,7
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
no/ little medium strong/ verystrong
Deviance
Surface Acting
Deep acting
100
0 0
76
16
8
24,2 21,5
54,4
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
no/ little medium strong/ verystrong
Deviance
Surface Acting
Deep acting
Happy/ SatisfiedAngry/ Irritated
Data subset: Positive emotion expected (N=261)
Dieter Zapf28 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Regulation and Performance
3,90
4,46
3,00
3,20
3,40
3,60
3,80
4,00
4,20
4,40
4,60
Surface Acting Deep acting
SD=.81
SD=.67
**
Data subset: Positive emotion expected (N=261)
Dieter Zapf29 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Regulation and Performance
3,22
3,90
4,46
3,00
3,20
3,40
3,60
3,80
4,00
4,20
4,40
4,60
Emotional Deviance Surface Acting Deep acting
SD=1.00
SD=.81
SD=.67
F=28.44 (d.f.=2) ***
**
**
Data subset: Positive emotion expected (N=261)
Dieter Zapf30 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Summary
Situation
Very positive Positive Neutral Negative Very negative
Automatic Emotion Regulation
Situational Deep Acting
Anticipative Deep Acting
Surface Acting
Emotional Deviance
- P
erfo
rman
ce
+
+
Str
ain
-
Dieter Zapf31 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
7. Emotion Regulation, Job Performance and Well-being at Work
Dieter Zapf32 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
?Secondary Task
Interaction -oriented Sub-GoalsRequirement to express positive, negative or sympathy emotions Sensitivity RequirementsEmotional Dissonance
Redefinition Internal Task
Redefined Goals
Primary Task
Cognitive Regulation RequirementsE.g. Complexity
CognitiveAction Regulation
Goal Specification, Monitoring, Feedback
Planning,
Emotion regulation
AutomatedEmotion regulation
surface actingdeep acting
Emotional deviance
Object-oriented Sub-Goals
Secondary taskparallel to primary task
Automatisation
• Occupational IdentitySocialisationPersonalityEmotionalCompetencies
Well-being
Service Organisation
Work Task
Organisational Goals
Customer Orientation
Display rules
External Tasks
••••
Regulation of Work Behaviour
Consequences
Customers
Frequency, Duration, Quality
of Service Interactions
Regulation problems (job stressors)
?
Framework Model of Service Work in Organisations
Performance
Dieter Zapf33 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Emotion Regulation on Exhaustion
Interaction Level
.21*
-.41** (-.11*)
.69** (.50**)
.58** (.31**)
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Sample: Hairdressers, flight attendants, nurses, salespersons, call centre agents
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
Automatic
AnticipDA
Surface A
Deviance
SituatDA
.03 (-.07)
Analysis with multiple predictors in parentheses
Exhaustion
Dieter Zapf34 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Emotion Regulation on Satisfaction with Interaction
Interaction Level
.01
.41** (.27**)
-.42** (-.15*)
-.46** (-.26**)
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
Automatic
AnticipDA
Surface A
Deviance
SituatDA
.18* (.08)
Analysis with multiple predictors in parentheses
Satisfaction with
Interaction
Dieter Zapf35 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Emotion Regulation on Effort
Interaction Level
.15 (p=.20)
-.64** (-.18**)
1.04** (.75**)
.88** (.45**)
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Sample: Hairdressers, flight attendants, nurses, salespersons, call centre agents
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
Automatic
AnticipDA
Surface A
Deviance
SituatDA
-.25** (-.12*)
Analysis with multiple predictors in parentheses
Interaction effortful
“Did you have to make an effort to control your emotions during the interaction?”
Dieter Zapf36 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Emotion Regulation on Performance
Interaction Level
Performance
.05
.32** (.20**)
-.31** (-.06)
-.40** (-.27**)
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
Automatic
AnticipDA
Surface A
Deviance
SituatDA
.24** (.16**)
Analysis with multiple predictors in parentheses
Dieter Zapf37 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Diary Study on Emotion Regulation
Tschan, Rochat & Zapf (2005)
Requirement to Display an Emotion L2 Negative affectivity
L1 Control
L1 Emotion work requirement
-.22 (.093)*
.13 (.035)* -.25 (.076)*
Emotional Dissonance
L2 Negative affectivity
L1 Control
L1 Emotional DissonanceSurface Acting
L1 Negative emotion felt
-.20 (.071)* .07 .030)* -.19 (.081)*
-1.25 (.119)*
Emotional Deviance L2 Negative affectivity
L1 Control
L1 Emotional DevianceVenting
L1 Negative emotion felt
-.20 (.089)*
.09 (.032)* -.48 (.124)*
-.49 (.083)*
Effects on Situational Well-being
Dieter Zapf38 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
8. Relations between Emotion Work Requirements and Emotion Regulation
Dieter Zapf39 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Secondary Task
Interaction -oriented Sub-GoalsRequirement to express positive, negative or sympathy emotions Sensitivity RequirementsEmotional Dissonance
Redefinition Internal Task
Redefined Goals
Primary Task
Cognitive Regulation RequirementsE.g. Complexity
CognitiveAction Regulation
Goal Specification, Monitoring, Feedback
Planning,
Emotion regulation
AutomatedEmotion regulation
surface actingdeep acting
Emotional deviance
Object-oriented Sub-Goals
Secondary taskparallel to primary task
Automatisation
• Occupational IdentitySocialisationPersonalityEmotionalCompetencies
Well-being
Service Organisation
Work Task
Organisational Goals
Customer Orientation
Display rules
External Tasks
••••
Regulation of Work Behaviour
Consequences
Customers
Frequency, Duration, Quality
of Service Interactions
Regulation problems (job stressors)
Framework Model of Service Work in Organisations
Performance
Emotional JobRequirements
Emotional JobRequirements
Dieter Zapf40 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Hierarchical Data Structure
Person
Questionnaire
DiaryDay 1
DiaryDay 2
DiaryDay 10
DiaryDay 3
Level 2
. . . Level 1
Single interactions with customers
These data are not statistically independent
General characteristics of the person and her situation
Dieter Zapf41 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Hierarchical Data Structure
Emotional Dissonance
Surface Acting Day 1
Surface Acting Day 2
Surface Acting Day 10
Surface Acting Day 2
Level 2
. . . Level 1
N=48
N=385
Dieter Zapf42 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotional Job Requirements and Emotion Regulation Strategies
Automatic Deep Acting Anticip DA
Situational DA
Surface Acting
EmotionalDeviance
Display PositiveEmotions
.04 0.24 n.s.
.23 1.51 p=.07
.45 2.72 **
-.08 -.46 n.s.
.15 .96 n.s.
.04 .29 n.s.
Display NegativeEmotions
-.01 -.09 n.s.
.19 1.48 p=.073
.12 .80 n.s.
.29 2.34 *
.12 .91 n.s.
.26 2.26 *
Display SympathyEmotions
.04 .33 n.s.
.11 .93 n.s.
.07 .48 n.s.
.17 1.34 p=.094
.16 1.31 p=.098
-.05 -.46 n.s.
EmotionalNeutrality
.16 1.30 n.s.
.15 1.55 p=.064
.20 1.77 *
.08 .69 n.s.
.03 .24 n.s.
.05 .74 n.s
SensitivityRequire-ments
.10 1.09 n.s.
.26 2.71 **
.25 2.22 *
.27 2.50 **
.14 1.37 p=.088
.09 .90 n.s.
EmotionalDissonance
-.19 -1.80 *
.18 1.64 p=.054
.20 1.66 *
.14 1.13 n.s.
.39 4.31 **
-.03 -.54 n.s.
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Sample: Hairdressers, flight attendants, nurses, salespersons, call centre agents
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
Dieter Zapf43 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
9. Motives for Doing Emotion Work
Dieter Zapf44 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
The Starting Point
Organisational
Display
Rules
Emotional
Labour
Show positive emotions
Emotion regulation
Show positive emotions
Dieter Zapf45 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
The Starting Point
Organisational
Display
Rules
Emotional
Labour
Show positive emotions
Emotion regulation
Show positive emotions
The emotion is just the "symptom"
Both the organisation and the
employee “want more”
Dieter Zapf46 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Reasons and Motives for Emotion Regulation
Service Quality (SERVQUAL, Zeithaml et al., 1990): Courtesy Responsiveness Reliability Security Competence Understanding the customer
Motives in organisational psychology (see Maslow, 1954; Jahoda, 1981), e.g.:
Social motives Recognition Self-esteem regulation
Dieter Zapf47 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Reasons and Motives for Emotion Regulation – the Literature
Totterdell & Holman, (2003)
Affect regulation
Glaso et al. (2006) Reasons to regulation emotion in supervisor-subordinate relations:
To appear competent
Motivate somebody
Keep a good relationship
Dieter Zapf48 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Qualitative Interviews 12 qualitative interviews (open question and preliminary list)
led to the following result:
Why do you regulate your emotions when interacting with customers?
Dieter Zapf49 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Qualitative Interviews 12 qualitative interviews (open question and preliminary list)
led to the following result:
• Avoid Escalation• Avoid Argument• Keep Control
• Personally important
• Feel better
• Good Personal Relation• Create Certain Atmosphere
• Motivate Customer
• Reaction to Customer
• Competent Impression
• Clear Display Rules
• Part of Job
• Endanger Job
Why do you regulate your emotions when interacting with customers?
Dieter Zapf50 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Research Question 12 qualitative interviews (open question and preliminary list)
led to the following result:
• Avoid Escalation• Avoid Argument• Keep Control
• Personally important
• Feel better
• Keep Good Relations• Create Certain Atmosphere
• Motivate Customer
• Reaction to Customer
• Competent Impression
• Clear Display Rules
• Part of Job
• Endanger Job
Why do you regulate your emotions when interacting with customers?
How are these motives
related to
emotion regulation strategies?
Dieter Zapf51 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Hypotheses (exploratory)
• Avoid Escalation• Avoid Argument• Keep Control
• Personally important
• Feel better
• Good Personal Relation• Create Certain Atmosphere
• Motivate Customer
• Reaction to Customer
• Competent Impression
• Clear Display Rules
• Part of Job
• Endanger Job
Surface acting Deep acting
Surfacting and Anticipative DA
Automatic Reg Situative DA
Situative DA
Automatic Reg
Automatic Reg Situative DA
Dieter Zapf52 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Diary Study
1. Diary study:
2. 48 participants (14 hairdressers, 14 flight attendants, 8 nurses, 7 salespersons, 5 call centre agents) responded to a questionnaire and filled in a diary for 10 working days and provided
3. 385 diary entries with full data set
4. The diary was filled in at the end of the work day. Participants had to refer to an emotionally significant interaction of the day
5. Response rate 47% (between 12 (sales) and 78% (hairdressers))
6. Mean age 32 years; 70% women
Dieter Zapf53 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Diary Studies - Measures
Based on Brotheridge and Lee’s (2003) instrument, extended based
on Totterdell & Holman (2003), Tschan, Rochat & Zapf (2005) and
others.
Emotion regulation based on factor analyses Automatic emotion regulation: 2 items
Anticipative deep acting: 2 items
Situative deep acting: 3 items
Surface acting: 6 items
Emotional deviance: 2 items
Plus: 13 single items on motives for regulation
Dieter Zapf54 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Regulation Motives Diary Study
2,63
2,94
3,02
3,15
3,27
3,38
3,47
3,56
3,62
3,69
3,70
3,82
4,08
1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5
Avoid Escalation
Endanger Job
Avoid Argument
Motivate Customer
Keep Control
Feel better
Good Personal Relations
Reaction to Customer
Create Certain Atmosphere
Competent Impression
Clear Display Rules
Personally important
Part of Job
Dieter Zapf55 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Motives on Emotion Regulation Strategies
Automatic
AnticipativeDA
SurfaceActing
EmotionalDeviance
Interaction Level
.122
.045
.131+
.071
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
SituativeDA
.130+
Clear Display Rules
Surfacting
O Anticipative DA
Situative DA
Dieter Zapf56 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Automatic
AnticipativeDA
SurfaceActing
EmotionalDeviance
Interaction Level
-.243**
.082*
-.028 n.s.
.188**
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
SituativeDA
.297**
AvoidArgument
Surfacting
Anticipative DA
Effects of Motives on Emotion Regulation Strategies
Dieter Zapf57 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Automatic
AnticipativeDA
SurfaceActing
EmotionalDeviance
Interaction Level
.345**
-.005
.150*
-.267**
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
SituativeDA
-.200**
Good Personal Relations
Situative Deep acting
Effects of Motives on Emotion Regulation Strategies
Automatic Reg
Situative DA
Dieter Zapf58 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Automatic
AnticipativeDA
SurfaceActing
EmotionalDeviance
Interaction Level
.200**
.058*
.222**
-.118
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
SituativeDA
-.133**
MotivateCustomer
Situative Deep acting
Effects of Motives on Emotion Regulation Strategies
Dieter Zapf59 Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Automatic
AnticipativeDA
SurfaceActing
EmotionalDeviance
Interaction Level
.416**
-.078+
.075
-.113
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
SituativeDA
-.259**
Reaction to Customer
Automatic Emotion Regulation
Effects of Motives on Emotion Regulation Strategies
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Automatic
AnticipativeDA
SurfaceActing
EmotionalDeviance
Interaction Level
.405**
.004
.177**
- .142*
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
SituativeDA
-.260**
Feel better
Automatic Reg
Situative DA
Effects of Motives on Emotion Regulation Strategies
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Automatic
AnticipativeDA
SurfaceActing
EmotionalDeviance
Interaction Level
.012
.011
.020
.016
Diary Study: N=48 with 385 diary entries
Statistical analysis: Hierarchical Linear Modeling HLM6
SituativeDA
.155*
Competent Impression
o Automatic Reg
o Situative DA
Effects of Motives on Emotion Regulation Strategies
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Summary of Results
• Avoid Escalation• Avoid Argument• Keep Control • Personally
important• Feel better
• Good Personal Relation• Create Certain Atmosphere
• Motivate Customer
• Reaction to Customer
• Competent Impression
• Clear Display Rules
• Part of Job
• Endanger Job
Surface acting
Anticipative Deep Acting
Situative Deep Acting
Automatic Reg
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Summary & Conclusion
1. Participants report a variety of motives to regulate emotions
2. Motives are related to different emotion regulation strategies
3. Showing emotions are “symptoms”
4. Next step: relate to other established concepts such as
trust
psychological contract
organizational commitment
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10. Emotion Work and Age
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Why is the Employment Rate of Older Employees so low?
Deterioration of Performance of older workers because of
Reduced physical strength
Deterioration of basic cognitive abilities (e.g., reaction time, perception, recognition time, memory, dual tasks performance, etc.)
Reduced flexibility and learning motivation
Little familiarity with new technology
However: Compensation by
increased knowledge
Increased practical job experience
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However:
What about
social and emotional
skills?
So far no study has systematically examined the effects of aging in emotional labour
Why is the Employment Rate of Older Employees so low?
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Hypothesis:
Older Employees
are
Good Emotion Workers !
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Some Empirical findings Age differences in problem-solving styles: In emotional salient situations older people use more
emotion focused strategies than younger ones.
(Blanchard-Fields, Jahnke & Camp,1995)
Older adults show greater affect control and appraise conflict situations more positively than younger adults. (Diehl,Coyle, & Labouvie-Vief,1996)
More use of humor (a strategy of cognitive restructuring) (Vaillant, 1977 )
Older individuals are less confrontative, contribute less to conflicts, show more distancing, more positive reappraisal, however, less active problem solving (Lazarus, Pimeley & Novacek, 1987),
Research in wisdom: Older people show more social sensitivity and prespective taking (Baltes, Staudinger, Maercker & Smith, 1995)
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... in Conclusion
Younger people ...
Show more - active- interpersonal - behavioural coping- seeking help
Are more confrontative and aggressive
Contribute to conflicts
Older people ...
Show more - passive- intrapsychological - emotional coping (such as perspective taking, distancing or positive reappraisal )
Are less confrontative
Better match with social requirements in service
interactions!
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ExplanationsStress research:
Active behavioural coping better in high control situations
Passive intrapsychological emotional coping better in low control situations
Developmental Psychology, wisdom research:
Throughout their lives people experience situations
High in uncertainty and unpredictability
Low in control
Consequence:
Older people
learn to cope with unpredictability and low control
Develop emotional coping strategies
Better match with social requirements in service interactions!
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Sample
Municipal youth and social welfare office (n=557) International insurance (n=399) Security firm (n=310) Hospital (N=158) Wholesale company (n=81) social workers (n=66)
Total sample: N=1571 Women: 55%, Men: 45%
Age: Minimum 19 years, maximum 73 years, M=40,93 years (SD 10,64)
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Hypothesis 1: Direct Age effect – Emotional Dissonance
Older service employees report less emotional dissonance than their younger colleagues, even if they - in general - have the same job requirements.
Requirement to display Positive Emotions: n.s.
Emotional dissonance: significant differences between 7 age groups, F=7.27, p<.01
2,6
2,7
2,8
2,9
3
3,1
3,2
3,3
19-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-73
Positive EmotionsEmotional Dissonance
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19-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-73 Jahre
Alter
2,00
2,20
2,40
2,60
2,80
Mit
telw
ert
Em
oti
on
ale
Ers
chö
pfu
ng
Hypothesis 1: Direct Age Effect - Burnout
Age
Older service employees
perceived lower levels of burnout
emotional exhaustion F=8.49 depersonalization F=8.55 and personal accomplishment (inverted) F=4.38, all p< .01
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19-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-73 Jahre
Alter
1,70
1,80
1,90
2,00
2,10
2,20
2,30
2,40
2,50
Mit
telw
ert
Dep
erso
nal
isat
ion
Age
Older service employees
perceived lower levels of burnout
emotional exhaustion F=8.49 depersonalization F=8.55 and personal accomplishment (inverted) F=4.38, all p< .01
Direct Age Effect - Burnout
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-1,00
-0,50
0,00
0,50
1,00
niedrig ( -1 SD) hoch (+1 SD)
emotional dissonance
emo
tio
nal
exh
aust
ion
Jüngere(-1SD)
Ältere(+1SD)
Hypothesis 2: Moderating Effect of Age
• Interaction of age and emotional dissonance on emotional exhaustion
younger employees
older employees
low (-1SD) high (+1SD)
After controlling for the same variables before,
the direct effect of age (ß=-.09**) and the moderating effect (ß=-.09**) were again significant
and also explained an additional 2% of the variance of emotional exhaustion in the analysis
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Moderating Effect of Age
•Interaction of age and emotional dissonance on depersonalisation
-1,00
-0,50
0,00
0,50
1,00
niedrig ( -1 SD) hoch (+1 SD)
emotional dissonance
dep
erso
nal
izat
ion
Jüngere(-1SD)
Ältere(+1SD)
younger employees
older employees
low (-1SD) high (+1SD)
Even after controlling for emotional requirements and work and organizational stressors (ttl 10 variables),
the direct effect of age (ß=-.11**) and the moderating effect (ß=-.09**) were significant
and explained an additional 2% of the variance of depersonalization in step 4 and 5 of the moderated hierarchical regression analysis
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Conclusion
Older employees have a strength in emotion regulation which may well balance weaknesses in other areas
In service work they may be as good or even better than their younger colleagues