Heparan sulfate in skeletal development, growth, and ...
Transcript of Heparan sulfate in skeletal development, growth, and ...
Heparan Sulfate in Skeletal Development, Growth, and Pathology:
The Case of Hereditary Multiple Exostoses
Julianne Huegel, Federica Sgariglia, Motomi Enomoto-Iwamoto, Eiki Koyama,
John P. Dormans and Maurizio Pacifici
Translational Research Program in Pediatric Orthopaedics, Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104
Running title: Heparan sulfate in development and skeletal dysplasia
Key words: Heparan sulfate; cell surface proteoglycans; growth plate; signaling proteins; ectopic
cartilage; Hereditary Multiple Exostoses
• Heparan sulfate proteoglycans and a number of growth factors they control are expressed
and active in the growth plate and surrounding perichondrium
• Congenital mutations in HS-synthesizing and modifying enzymes and HSPG expression
cause severe skeletal and craniofacial phenotypes
• Recent developments in understanding Hereditary Multiple Exostoses (HME) suggest
that aberrant growth factor signaling plays a major role in exostosis initiation and growth
Funding: NIH RC1AR058382 and R01AR061758.
Correspondence to:
Julianne Huegel
Abramson Research Center Room 904
3615 Civic Center Blvd
Philadelphia, PA 19104
267-425-2077
Review Developmental DynamicsDOI 10.1002/dvdy.24010
Accepted Articles are accepted, unedited articles for future issues, temporarily published onlinein advance of the final edited version.© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.Received: May 14, 2013; Revised: Jun 21, 2013; Accepted: Jun 22, 2013
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Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential component of cell surface and matrix-associated
proteoglycans (HSPGs). Due to their sulfation patterns, the HS chains interact with numerous
signaling proteins and regulate their distribution and activity on target cells. Many of these
proteins, including bone morphogenetic protein family members, are expressed in the growth
plate of developing skeletal elements, and several skeletal phenotypes are caused by mutations in
HS-synthesizing and modifying enzymes. The disease we discuss here is Hereditary Multiple
Exostoses (HME), a disorder caused by mutations in HS synthesizing enzymes EXT1 and EXT2,
leading to HS deficiency. The exostoses are benign cartilaginous-bony outgrowths, form next to
growth plates, can cause growth retardation and deformities, chronic pain and impaired motion,
and progress to malignancy in 2-5% of patients. We describe recent advancements on HME
pathogenesis and exostosis formation deriving from studies that have determined distribution,
activities and roles of signaling proteins in wild type and HS-deficient cells and tissues. Aberrant
distribution of signaling factors combined with aberrant responsiveness of target cells to those
same factors appear to be a major culprit in exostosis formation. Insights from these studies
suggest plausible and cogent ideas about how HME could be treated in the future.
Introduction
Heparan sulfate (HS) is a versatile and essential component of cell surface and matrix-
associated proteoglycans (HSPGs) (Bernfield et al., 1999). Due to their specific chemistry and
highly negative charge, the HS chains can bind to a number of proteins, including growth factors,
signaling proteins, integral membrane receptors, chemokines, and extracellular matrix proteins
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(Hacker et al., 2005; Bishop et al., 2007). Studies have indicated that in particular, the HS chains
endow the proteoglycans with the key ability to regulate the distribution and availability of the
growth and signaling proteins and their respective interactions, function and bioactivity on target
cells (Bernfield et al., 1999; Lin, 2004; Umulis et al., 2009). Because many of these proteins,
including members of the hedgehog, bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), fibroblast growth
factor (FGF) and Wnt families, are expressed in the growth plate (Kronenberg, 2003), it is
evident that HS influences many important processes in skeletogenesis and skeletal growth and
morphogenesis. Mice deficient in Ext1, an essential HS polymerizing enzyme, show altered
patterns of Indian hedgehog (Ihh) diffusion, increasing the range of signaling and resulting in
significant changes in growth plate morphology (Koziel et al., 2004; Hilton et al., 2005). N-
sulfotransferase 1 (Ndst1) is another critical enzyme in HS assembly, establishing tissue-specific
sulfation patterns by replacing acetyl groups with sulfate modifications. Loss of Ndst1 also
causes severe changes in Hedgehog distribution and growth plate function (Yasuda et al., 2010).
The significance of HS chains and HSPGs in skeletogenesis is reiterated by the fact that there are
a number of skeletal and craniofacial phenotypes related to genetic mutations in HS-synthesizing
and modifying enzymes and in HSPG expression (Bishop et al., 2007). A case in point is
Hereditary Multiple Exostoses (HME), a pediatric autosomal-dominant disorder during which
cartilage outgrowths called exostoses form next to the growth plate of skeletal elements such as
long bones, ribs and pelvis and protrude into the adjacent perichondrium and neighboring tissues
(Porter and Simpson, 1999; Hecht et al., 2005). In turn, the exostoses can cause skeletal
deformities, chronic pain and early onset osteoarthritis, among a variety of other pathological
events (Dormans, 2005; Jones, 2011). HME –also called Multiple Osteochondroma (MO) or
Multiple Hereditary Exostoses (MHE) - is estimated to affect 1 in 50,000 children, and is almost
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100% penetrant. The majority of cases of HME are caused by loss-of-function mutations in
EXT1 and EXT2, which encode for Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases. After a number of
other enzymes create a linkage tetrasaccharide on a serine residue of the core protein, Ext1 and
Ext2 are collectively responsible for polymerization of the HS chain (Esko and Selleck, 2002).
The number and type of EXT mutations are many and lead to varying degrees of HS deficiency
(Jennes et al., 2009). What is not fully understood is whether and how the HS deficiency leads to
exostosis formation, whether it can account for all the various symptoms and complications of
the syndrome, and what could be done therapeutically to treat or reverse it. Several recent studies
reported by this and other groups have aimed to decipher the possible roles of HS deficiency on
exostosis formation and HME pathogenesis in general, and have also provided clues on the
genesis of other complications of the disease. In so doing, these studies have contributed to
further understand also the normal roles of HS and HSPGs in skeletal development and growth.
This review article summarizes the studies and provides a critical assessment of current findings
and underlying hypotheses.
HME Pathology and Population Studies
HME presents with predominantly orthopedic manifestations. The exostoses are the most
evident trait of the syndrome from which it takes its name, and are composed of a growth plate-
like cartilaginous cap overlaying a bony base (Fig. 1) (Jones, 2011). Because of their location,
size, number and interactions, the exostoses can cause: compression of nerves, blood vessels, and
tendons with consequent pain and impairment of motion; skeletal deformities and growth
retardation by interfering with normal growth plate function; and early onset osteoarthritis (Fig 2,
A-B). Patients with HME often show slightly shortened stature, bowing and shortening of
forearm elements, changes in angulations of the knee and fingers, and limb-length inequalities.
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Previous hypotheses suggested that exostoses growing along the bones of the forearm affected
their shape and introduced a “steal phenomenon” that caused bone shortening. However, recent
experiments show no change in overall bone volume and no correlation between forearm
shortening and the presence of an osteochondroma. This work indicates that HS loss may be
important for directing the ratio between peripheral and longitudinal growth (Jones et al., 2013).
Exostoses can also sometimes occur in craniofacial elements such as the mandible (Ruiz and
Lara, 2012). Chronic pain and restrictions in activity are common consequences of the disease.
A recent national cohort study in the Netherlands found a significantly lower outcome in
physical functioning and resultant role limitations, social functioning, vitality, pain, and general
health perception in patients with HME compared with three separate reference groups (Goud et
al., 2012). Unfortunately, as these symptoms and difficulties progress, patients must undergo
surgery, with 70% of patients undergoing an operation by the time they reach 18 years of age. In
children, surgery can be dangerous as it can cause irreversible damage to the adjacent growth
plate. Although no new exostoses form after puberty when the growth plates close, existing
exostoses can continue to grow and cause further pain and complications, leading to a surgical
rate of 67% in adults (Goud et al., 2012).
One potentially serious complication of HME is the transformation of benign exostoses to
malignant chondrosarcomas, a life-threatening progression of this syndrome that occurs in about
2 to 5% of patients (Fig. 2, C-D). For patients whose exostoses undergo malignant degeneration,
the mean age at time of diagnoses- 35 years old- is younger than that for general HME patients
(Bjornsson et al., 1998). Another serious complication of HME is the formation of exostoses on
the surface of the vertebrae, which can compress the spinal cord or nerve roots (Fig. 2, E-F).
Spinal cord compression due to exostoses has been seen to manifest as motor or sensory deficits
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including gait disturbance, weakness or numbness, amplified reflex responses and spasticity, and
incontinence (Zaijun et al., 2011; Bari et al., 2012). Vertebral exostoses can also impinge on the
esophagus, impairing normal swallowing (Perrone, 1967). Additionally, exostoses on both
vertebral as well as costal surfaces can interfere with lung function and can cause spontaneous
hemothorax, pneumothorax, and pericardial effusion, typically leading to immediate surgical
intervention (Assefa et al., 2011).
It is interesting that, although HS production in HME patients is likely to decrease in all
tissues, the only truly apparent and diagnostic phenotype are the exostoses themselves.
However, as indicated above, HME patients can suffer from a variety of less obvious problems
that can include wound healing delay, learning disabilities, dental problems and others (Hosalkar
et al., 2007; Wiweger et al., 2012). This clinical and biomedical complexity, though still not fully
understood and clear, certainly relates well with the fact that HSPGs regulate numerous, if not
most, physiologic processes in the growing and adult organism. Thus, a generalized deficiency
in HS could, and should, have broad and widespread consequences the severity of which would
reflect the specific importance and roles that HS and HSPG have in different tissues and organs
and distinct biological contexts and processes (Bishop et al., 2007).
HS Synthesis and HME Genetics
Heparan sulfate (HS) constitutes the glycosaminoglycan moiety of such cell surface and
matrix proteoglycans as syndecans, glypicans and perlecan (Bernfield et al., 1999). The HS
chains are composed of repeating D-glucuronic acid (GlcA) and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine
(GlcNAc) residues that are assembled into linear polysaccharides in a biosynthetic process
including initiation, elongation, and modification steps. Synthesis is initiated in the endoplasmic
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reticulum by the addition of a xylose to a serine residue in the proteoglycans core protein by
xylosyltransferase. The linker tetrasaccharide is completed in the Golgi apparatus by the
addition of two galactose residues and a glucuronic acid, carried out by galactyltransferases I and
II and glucuronosyltransferase I, respectively. HS elongation is then performed in a stepwise
manner by the Golgi-associated heterodimer complexes of EXT1 and EXT2 that are ubiquitously
expressed type-II transmembrane glycoproteins (Esko and Selleck, 2002). Both proteins and
expression of both alleles are required to produce and maintain normal physiologic HS levels and
homeostasis. During assembly, the nascent chains undergo extensive modifications that include
N-deacetylation/N-sulfation, epimerization, and O-sulfation, requiring a number of enzymatic
reactions and providing a range of HS structural variability between and within tissues that
confer structural and protein-binding specificity (Bulow and Hobert, 2006).
EXT1 and EXT2, originally considered to be tumor-suppressor genes, are part of a family
of EXT proteins that also includes three EXTL (exostosin-like) members. The latter proteins
have roles in HS synthesis as well, including addition of the first carbohydrate residue to the
tetrasaccharide linkage (Kitagawa et al., 1999; Kim et al., 2001; Busse et al., 2007; Okada et al.,
2010). Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 are responsible for about 90% of HME cases, with the
majority (~65%) seen in EXT1, the protein believed to have enzymatic activity within the
EXT1/EXT2 complex (EXT2 plays a structural role and may also have chaperone functions)
(McCormick et al., 1998). To date, over 650 unique mutations have been found in these two
genes, most of which are nonsense, frame shift, or splice-site mutations (Jennes et al., 2009;
Ciaverella et al., 2012). These inactivating mutations result in premature termination of EXT
proteins, causing premature degradation and nearly complete loss of function (Wuyts and Van
Hul, 2000). Very recently, a family of patients negative for EXT1 or EXT2 mutations was
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shown to have intronic rearrangement within the first intron of EXT1, suggesting a possible
mechanism for HME that would not be detected with conventional diagnostic techniques
(Waaijer et al., 2013).
Several studies have been carried out with the goal of establishing a relationship between
genotype and phenotype, but no firm relationship has been obtained yet. Interestingly, there is a
wide spectrum of variation in disease presentation within families and between individuals with
the same mutation, suggesting additional genetic, hormonal, or environmental influences in
phenotype specification and severity. However, some general correlations have been determined
in a number of HME population studies. Due to its enzymatic function, EXT1 mutations are
correlated to more severe presentations of the disease (Francannet et al., 2001; Porter et al.,
2004). Additionally, male patients typically show a more severe clinical presentation, which is
hypothesized to be caused by a later growth plate closure, allowing more time for exostosis
formation. Accordingly, patients with a greater number of exostoses (>20) usually have more
disabilities and deformities (Alvarez et al., 2006; Pedrini et al., 2011).
Animal Models of HME
The development of skeletal elements in the skull, trunk and limbs initiates with the
formation of ecto-mesenchymal and mesenchymal cell condensations at prescribed times and
locations. Several condensations located in the skull region undergo intramembranous
ossification and produce skeletal elements such as the calvaria and jaw. The remaining and more
numerous condensations undergo endochondral ossification during which the condensed
mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes and become organized into growth plates
closely surrounded by perichondrial tissues. The growth plate chondrocytes proliferate, undergo
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hypertrophy and are replaced by endochondral bone and marrow, thus sustaining skeletal growth
until the end of puberty and producing definitive skeletal elements throughout the body that
include ribs, vertebrae and long bones (Kronenberg, 2003). As pointed out above, the growth
chondrocytes express both cell surface and matrix-associated HSPGs including syndecan-3,
glypicans-5 and perlecan that are required for function, including regulation of growth factor
distribution and action and relationships of growth plate with surrounding tissues and most
importantly perichondrium (Arikawa-Hirasawa et al., 1999; Viviano et al., 2005; Habuchi et al.,
2007; Yasuda et al., 2010). As pointed out above, the exostoses exhibit an intriguing growth
plate-like organization in which their main axis of elongation is at about 90° angle compared to
that of the adjacent native growth plate. Understanding the role of HS and HSPGs in the growth
plate is thus critical for elucidating the processes by which exostoses can form and grow next to,
but never within, the growth plates and protrude into perichondrium and surrounding tissues.
A number of zebrafish models have been developed to assess changes in HSPGs and their
affect on cartilage development. Dackel (dak/ext2) mutants lack HS chains and showed a severe
cartilage phenotype, with disorganized cells that failed to flatten and intercalate into stacks and
lost expression of collagen10a1. However, these cells are able to express markers of both early
chondrocytes as well as perichondrium, suggesting that they are capable of forming components
of an exostosis. Interestingly, pinscher mutants (pic/slc35b2) exhibit an even more severe
phenotype, with thickened perichondrium and reduced matrix deposition. Pic mutants are unable
to transport sulphate donors into the Golgi and produce sulphate-less GAGs (including keratin
sulfate and chondroitin sulfate). This demonstrates the necessity of GAG chains in maintaining
proper chondrocyte and perichondrial cell phenotype and morphology (Wiweger et al., 2011).
Transplant experiments show that most dak mutant cells can be rescued by surrounding WT
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cells, taking on a proper flat and intercalated phenotype. However, these cells occasionally grow
out from the edge of developing cartilage, oriented perpendicular to the WT cells; this growth
mimics developing exostoses in humans that consistently form along the side of the growth plate,
extending into the perichondrium. This model suggests that the location of mutant cells within a
cartilage element may dictate their responsiveness to changes in growth factor distribution or
ability to contact neighboring WT cells (Clement et al., 2008).
Over the last decade or so, several mammalian models of HME have also been developed
to uncover and understand exostosis pathogenesis as well as the roles of HS in normal
mammalian skeletal development (Table 1). Ext1-null mice are embryonic lethal at E8.5,
indicating the essential importance of HSPGs for sustaining and regulating critical
developmental stages (Lin et al., 2000). Indeed, as early as day E10.5, Ext1 expression becomes
conspicuous in the developing limb buds (Stickens et al., 2000). Interestingly, mice
heterozygous-null for Ext1- originally created as a model of HME- were found to be largely
normal and to lack an obvious skeletal phenotype (Hilton et al., 2005). However, upon closer
examination their growth plates exhibited subtle changes including an increase in collagen II
expression, a decrease in collagen X expression, and increased BrdU incorporation in the
proliferative zone, collectively suggesting altered chondrocyte proliferation and maturation
patterns. Because the overall length of limb bones in adult mutant mice were similar to those in
wild-type mice, it was proposed that the above effects of Ext1 and HS deficiency would be
compensated over time (Hilton et al., 2005). Mice lacking Ext2 were also found to be embryonic
lethal and the embryos actually failed to undergo gastrulation, likely as a result of a disruption of
several signaling pathways critical to mesoderm development and formation of extra-embryonic
structures (Stickens et al., 2005). Heterozygous null Ext2+/-
mice showed growth plate
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disturbances similar to those in their Ext1+/-
counterparts, with a disorganized proliferative zone
and changes in Ihh expression domains. Of significant interest was the fact that a small
percentage of the Ext2+/-
mice did develop small exostosis-like outgrowths along the ribs near
the costochondral junction, supporting the idea that a partial loss of Ext function and HS
production may be sufficient for exostosis formation (Stickens et al., 2005).
Intriguingly, however, the HS levels observed in surgical retrieval specimens of human
exostosis cartilage were found to be very low and apparently lower than the 50% levels
presumably caused by a single heterozygous EXT mutation (Hecht et al., 2005). Loss-of-
heterozygosity could explain such low HS levels, but LOH has actually been documented in only
a few cases (Bovee et al., 1999) though it may have been underestimated originally because of
the mixed nature of cells within exostoses (Jones, 2011). Thus, it is possible that secondary
mutations in other HS-related genes, action of HS degrading enzymes such as heparanase
(Trebicz-Geffen et al., 2008), or other mechanisms may play roles in reducing HS levels further.
To test these ideas, we recently created and analyzed double heterozygous Ext1+/-
;Ext2+/-
mice
(double hets) (Zak et al., 2011). Because a full complement of Ext proteins is needed for normal
levels of HS synthesis, it was predicted that these compound mice would have a significant
decrease in HS levels (about 25%) compared to single heterozygous mutant (about 50%) and
wild types (100%). Indeed, we found that in addition to developing rib exostosis-like outgrowths
as seen in single Ext2+/-
heterozygous mice, almost half of the compound Ext1+/-
;Ext2+/-
mutants
exhibited stereotypic exostoses next to the growth plates of long bones and deformations in their
pelvis. The exostoses displayed a growth plate-like arrangement of chondrocyte zones with
typical expression patterns of zone markers such as Sox9, Col2, Indian hedgehog (Ihh) and
Col10. The HS levels in growth plates and exostoses of these mice were significantly reduced
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compared to those in wild-type littermates as indicated by immunostaining, and the HS chains
that were produced by cultured compound mutant chondrocytes were shorter than those
produced by WT chondrocytes. We also found evidence of changes in chondrocyte response to
growth factors important for normal skeletal development (Zak et al., 2011). These phenotypes
strongly support the idea that significant, but not necessarily complete, loss of Ext expression and
HS production is sufficient for formation of multiple stereotypic exostoses. Thus, it appears that
exostosis initiation and frequency are inversely related to overall Ext expression and function and
increase almost linearly in single het vs double hets vs WT. This finding may explain the broad
range of phenotype severities seen in HME patients in whom EXT protein function and HS
production may vary depending on the nature of the EXT mutation and other concurrent genetic
modulations.
Other mouse models of HME have provided additional information about exostosis
pathogenesis and the role of HS in normal growth plate development. A hypomorphic, gene-
trapped Ext1Gt/Gt
mouse line expressing a truncated form of Ext1 displayed shortened skeletal
elements and fused vertebrae at E15.5 (Koziel et al., 2004). These changes were accompanied
by increased distribution and signaling of Ihh within the growth plate and delayed hypertrophic
differentiation, reiterating the idea that Ext expression and HS production are needed to regulate
action and distribution of signaling proteins within the growth plate. Postnatal, chimeric and
conditional inactivation of Ext1 in chondrocytes in mouse growth plate cartilage was found to
result in the formation of numerous exostoses throughout the appendicular skeleton, indicating
that a full Ext loss leads to aggressive exostosis formation (Jones et al., 2010). Conditional
deletion of Ext1 from limb mesenchyme utilizing Prx1-Cre transgenic mice caused severe limb
skeletal defects including joint fusion and variable numbers of developing digits. These effects
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were at least partially attributed to broader and non-physiologic distribution of bone
morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and BMP signaling activity on targets (Matsumoto et al., 2010).
HS and Signaling Proteins
The above studies clearly indicate that HS and HSPGs are critical to determine and
supervise the distribution of signaling proteins, their range of action, and the effects exerted on
their targets. They also make it plain that HS deficiencies can have profound repercussions on
those mechanisms and could directly contribute to pathologic changes. Interactions between
growth factors and HS have been thoroughly studied for many years in a multitude of organ
systems, cell types, and in vivo scenarios. One major overall insight stemming from all this
work is that however, those interactions and relationships are contextually dependent and can
specifically vary depending on the developmental stage of the tissue or organ, the types of cells
involved, the presence of other systemic and local factors, etc. (Rider and Mulloy, 2010). One
well-characterized HS interaction is the one with members of the fibroblast growth factor (FGF)
family. In this relationship, HS is most often required for effective signal transduction as it acts
as a FGF co-receptor (Hacker et al., 2005). Early stage Ext2 null embryos do not in fact respond
to FGF signaling, conceivably an explanation for their early embryonic lethal phenotype
(Shimokawa et al., 2011). Fibroblasts isolated from Ext1Gt/Gt
mice show decreased amounts of
cell surface HS as expected and, in addition, exhibit a reduced signaling response to FGF2 and
consequent decrease in proliferation after growth factor stimulation (Osterholm et al., 2009).
Hedgehog signaling is another important regulator of axial and limb skeletal
development. Since primary cilia are largely responsible for this signaling pathway, there is
much evidence that they are also essential for skeletal development (Huangfu and Anderson,
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2005). Conditional deletion of the primary cilium component Kif3a in chondrocytes resulted in
both limb and cranial skeletal abnormalities, including exostosis-like cartilaginous masses
forming near the growth plate. We showed that unexpectedly, the mutant Kif3a-null growth
plates displayed a drastic reduction in HSPG expression (and in particular syndecan-3 and
perlecan) and a concomitant broader distribution of Ihh within the growth plate and all along the
adjacent perichondrium. This was associated, and probably directly caused, ectopic hedgehog
signaling all along the perichondrium, ectopic chondrogenesis and then local formation of
ectopic exostosis-like cartilaginous masses, suggesting a role for hedgehog proteins and
defective Kif3a-related mechanisms in exostosis formation as well (Koyama et al., 2007).
Primary cilia are also at least partially responsible for organizing chondrocytes into their growth-
plate specific columnar structures. Substantiating the role of the primary cilia in HME, this
polarity has been found to be lost in human osteochondroma cells, suggesting significant changes
in cell adhesion and motility and related cell-matrix and cell-cell communication mechanisms
(de Andrea et al., 2010).
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), a subfamily of the TGFβ superfamily of secreted
proteins, also regulate a number of stages in skeletal development. Depletion of HS from the
surface of C2C12 cells enhanced BMP2 bioactivity while inhibiting its internalization (Jiao et
al., 2007). Disruption of HS chains with exogenous heparinase also increased pSmad1/5/8
signaling in human mesenchymal stem cells (Manton et al., 2007). Several members of both the
BMP and FGF families are expressed in growth plate and/or perichondrium and have been
shown to be part of interactive loops regulating Ihh and PTHrP expression and overall growth
plate activities (Zou et al., 1997; Pathi et al., 1999). Misexpression of Ihh causes changes in the
expression of pro-chondrogenic BMPs as well as their anti-chondrogenic antagonists Noggin and
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Chordin, altering the differentiation of cells in the growth plate as well as the bordering
perichondrium (Pathi et al., 1999).
During mesenchymal condensation in early skeletal development, Wnt ligands induce an
accumulation of β-catenin in the cytoplasm. In turn, β-catenin translocates to the nucleus and
binds to transcription factors, controlling downstream gene transcription to determine an
osteogenic lineage. Ablation of β-catenin initiates cartilage formation while transgenic
overexpression of Wnt signaling promotes osteoblast differentiation (Day et al., 2005). Wnt
ligands also bind tightly to HSPGs at the cell surface, which act to maintain the solubility of
hydrophobic Wnt and stabilize its activity (Fuerer et al., 2010; Kikuchi et al., 2011). The Wnt/β-
catenin signaling pathway also plays important roles in cartilage maintenance and growth plate
function (Yuasa et al., 2009). Interestingly, postnatal β-catenin ablation in cartilage causes
exostosis-like cartilage masses to form off of the growth plate as well as in the periosteum.
Additionally, cartilage tissue collected from osteochondromas of HME patients showed little to
no β-catenin positive cells, potentially extending the lifespan of exostosis chondrocytes (Cantley
et al., 2012). In sum, the above and related studies have provided clear evidence for essential
roles that HS-dependent mechanisms have to orchestrate and coordinate the different functions
and processes within the growth plate as they relate to the function and action of signaling
proteins and factors (Minina et al., 2002).
Signaling Proteins and Exostosis Initiation
The above studies hint to the possibility that a decrease in Ext expression/HS levels and a
concomitant increase in signaling protein distribution/action may initiate ectopic chondrogenesis
and exostosis formation. To test these possibilities more directly, we recently resorted to in vitro
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studies in which we isolated mouse embryo limb mesenchymal cells and grew them in
chondrogenic conditions in micromass culture (Huegel et al., 2013). Cultures were maintained in
absence or presence of Surfen, a small molecule heparan sulfate antagonist (Schuksz et al.,
2008). Indeed, Surfen treatment caused a dose-dependent increase in the number of alcian blue-
positive cartilaginous nodules (Fig 3, A-C). Interestingly, the nodules in Surfen-treated cultures
had lost their typical round, individual morphology and fused with one another, indicating that
the nodules were unable to maintain their border and circumscribed perimeter normally occupied
by flat perichondrium-like cells (Ahrens et al., 1979). Isolated RNA from the micromass cultures
was subjected to qPCR. Surfen treatment clearly caused a significant increase in expression of
characteristic chondrogenic genes including aggrecan, collagen type II, Runx2 and Sox9,
confirming that loss of HS function stimulates chondrogenic differentiation of progenitor cells
(Fig 3D). The same effects were observed when Ext1fl/fl
limb bud cells in micromass cultures
were treated with a Cre-expressing adenovirus, thus reducing Ext expression and HS production;
the effects and responses were abrogated and reduced by addition of the BMP antagonist Noggin
(not shown) (see (Paine-Saunders et al., 2002)).
As discussed previously, HS mediates the interaction of chondrogenic factors with target
cells, limiting their availability, distribution and action (Bernfield et al., 1992; Lin, 2004). Thus,
we reasoned that Surfen could have stimulated chondrogenesis by increasing availability and
action by signaling proteins. For proof-of-principle, we chose BMP signaling since it has strong
pro-chondrogenic activity (Weston et al., 2000). Indeed, BMP signaling -as indicated by
pSmad1/5/8 phosphorylation levels- was greatly enhanced by Surfen treatment of limb
mesenchymal micromass cultures and its increase preceded the increase in cartilage nodule
formation. These responses were abrogated by addition of the BMP antagonist Noggin. Reporter
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plasmid assays confirmed that cells treated with Surfen were more sensitive to both endogenous
and exogenous BMP2 (Huegel et al., 2013). To verify these observation in vivo, we
conditionally deleted Ext1 in perichondrium flanking the upper portions of the growth plate in
Ext1fl/fl
;Gdf5Cre mouse embryos. We found that many mutant perichondrial cells became
positive for pSmad1/5/8 signaling in the nucleus, while most cells in controls were negative.
Limb explants treated with Surfen showed similar changes in signaling (Fig 4, C-D). This
ectopic BMP signaling was followed by formation of ectopic cartilage within perichondrium (Fig
4, A-B). Collectively, these studies suggest that Ext1 and HS are critical regulators of the
perichondrium phenotype -allowing it to act as an anti-chondrogenic border around the growth
plate- and are also essential to restrain and contain cartilage growth. In an Ext1- and HS-deficient
environment, BMP signaling would be enhanced and mis-regulated, leading to abnormal
behavior and growth of chondrocytes and enhanced chondrogenic response of perichondrium.
Other Modifiers of HS
Another interesting aspect of the biology of HS chains and HSPGs is that the chains can
be modified extracellularly by the action of enzymes such as heparanase (HPSE) and sulfatases
(Ai et al., 2007; Fux et al., 2009). Indeed, increased expression of HPSE has been described in
exostosis tissue (Trebicz-Geffen et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2010). Responsible for cleaving HS
chains into small fragments, the endoglucuronidase HPSE has pro-proliferative activity and is
implicated in a range of cancers by assisting in the structural remodeling of the extracellular
matrix during cellular invasion and release of growth factors (Ilan et al., 2006). This invasive
characteristic is also seen in tooth development when dental follicular cells penetrate through the
epithelial root sheath to differentiate into cementoblasts, which coordinates with up-regulated
HPSE expression (Hirata and Nakamura, 2006). Additionally, increased levels of HPSE are
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present at the chondro-osseous junction in developing bones, suggesting that HPSE plays a role
in late chondrocyte differentiation during endochondral ossification (Brown et al., 2008). It also
suggests that regulated degradation of HS chains could promote factor release and signaling
during other key points of the bone formation process.
Sulfatases modify extracellular HS chains by selectively cleaving 6-O-sulfate groups,
altering the structural pattern and heterogeneity and impacting interaction with signaling
molecules (Ai et al., 2007). The idea that the HS sulfation pattern can be fluid after synthesis
provides another level of cell or tissue-specific regulation of HSPG function. During Xenopus
embryogenesis, Sulf1 enzyme expression is highly regulated, and acts negatively on both BMP
and FGF signaling, allowing for the formation of morphogen gradients vital to axis patterning,
somitogenesis, and other key developmental processes (Freeman et al., 2008). More recently,
articular cartilage in Sulf1-/-
mice was shown to display a spontaneous osteoarthritis phenotype
with decreased BMP and upregulated FGF signaling (Otsuki et al., 2010). Evidently, Sulf
expression is also necessary for maintaining articular cartilage homeostasis by regulating
signaling between chondrocytes.
Concluding Remarks and Future Directions
The above studies have provided major new insights into the interplays amongst HS
biology, growth plate function and exostosis formation as well as the complexities and subtleties
of these mechanisms. It appears plausible and likely therefore that exostosis formation is the
ultimate outcome of changes in HS-dependent signaling pathways, including BMP and Ihh
pathways, converging to create pro-chondrogenic responses and proliferative environments along
the border of growth plates. Exostosis formation would thus result from increased distribution of
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these factors, increased responsiveness of the cells to these factors, and reduced capacity of
growth plate cartilage and/or perichondrium to remain distinct and phenotypically stable.
Other aspects of exostosis biology remain to be clarified. For instance, exostoses have
been shown to often consist of a mix of HS-expressing and HS-null cells (Jones, 2011),
suggesting that the cell population within each exostosis may be varied and phenotypically
diverse and may have varying developmental origins. With regard to the latter, different
hypotheses have been put forward over the years regarding the origin of exostosis forming cells.
One hypothesis is that the cells represent borderline growth plate chondrocytes that would
misbehave as a result of Ext/HS deficiency and lack of Ext tumor suppressor function, thus
behaving as benign tumor cells and solely responsible for exostosis formation (Fig 5A). A
second hypothesis is that the cells would originate in perichondrium and would be progenitors in
nature (Fig 5B). The cells would lose their fibrogenic/progenitor phenotype and become
reassigned to the chondrogenic lineage, and would undergo de novo chondrogenesis and give
rise to the exostoses. The third possibility is that the cells would originate in the groove of
Ranvier, a specialized region of perichondrium near the epiphysis which is rich in progenitor
cells and may contain a specialized stem cell niche (Fig 5C). Data in favor of, and against, these
various hypotheses exist in the literature, thus requiring further work and more refined tools to be
clarified and defined in a conclusive manner. As pointed out above, it may be that these
hypotheses are not mutually exclusive and that exostosis formation could co-involve growth
plate and perichondrial/groove cells. Their common denominators would be: enhanced
responsiveness to growth factors; greater availability of those factors to act; increased enzymatic
degradation of existing HS chains by heparanase; and inclusion of a mixed cell population (Fig
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5D). Based on our studies, we believe the contribution of perichondrial/groove cells may be
preponderant.
An equally critical issue to be addressed in the future is whether and how exostosis
formation could be prevented or even reversed therapeutically. As discussed above, symptomatic
exostoses are removed surgically at present, but surgery is dangerous, can have complications
and cannot be used to remove each exostosis since the number of exostoses is usually very high
in each patient. Hence, biological solutions are needed to aid surgery. Given that the exostoses
likely represent a de novo chondrogenic process involving growth plate chondrocytes,
perichondrial cells or both, it is plausible to assume that anti-chondrogenic tools could be
effective to block exostosis formation. Powerful anti-chondrogenic mechanisms include the
retinoid pathway, Wnt signaling, and BMP antagonists such as Noggin and Gremlin. We have
recently used acute activation of retinoid signaling via nuclear retinoic acid receptor-selective
synthetic agonists to prevent and block heterotopic ossification, an ectopic endochondral
processes triggered by trauma or gain-of-function activin receptor 1a mutations (Shimono et al.,
2011). It is conceivable that such therapy may work in HME as well, and we will be testing this
thesis in one of our HME mouse models in the near future. Another possibility is that
microRNAs could be used to treat HME as it is being currently tested in other cancer fields. A
recent study has shown that the miR transcriptome in human exostosis tissue differs from that of
normal human cartilage pointing to multiple putative therapeutic targets (Zuntini et al., 2010).
Last but not least, the identification of Surfen as an HS antagonist shows that HS can be affected
and modulated by pharmacological means. Thus, it is possible that HS agonists could be
identified and would increase HS bioactivity, reduce turnover or increase EXT expression.
Whatever their mechanisms of action, the drugs would then be tested for ability to increase or
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restore HS function/levels in HME mouse models and eventually patients, reduce exostosis
formation and ameliorate other symptoms. Our genetic studies show that exostosis formation
does not require a complete loss of Ext function to occur. It may be that pharmacological
prevention of exostosis formation may require a significant, but not a major and complete,
increase in HS function and levels as well.
Acknowledgements
The original studies described in this review were supported by NIH grants
RC1AR058382 and R01AR061758. We are grateful to Dr. David Kingsley (Stanford University)
for providing the Gdf5-Cre mice and Dr. Yu Yamaguchi (Sanford-Burnham Medical Research
Institute) for providing the Ext1fl/fl
mice. We also thank Ms. Jennifer Talarico for helping with the
clinical images.
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Table 1. Summary of current models of EXT deficiency in mice.
*Note that original nomenclature has been replicated in this table. The term exostosis is considered
synonymous with a number of other terms including osteochondroma and chondroma.
Genotype Skeletal phenotype Detection of exostoses* Reference
Ext1+/-
Minor alterations in growth plate
chondrocytes None
Hilton, 2005
Ext2+/-
Minor alterations in growth plate
chondrocytes
Small exostoses in ribs of <20% of
mice Stickens, 2005
Ext1+/-;Ext2+/- Bowed forearms, shortened HS
chains
Stereotypic exostoses in long bones
in 50% of mice; exostoses display
growth plate-like characteristics Zak, 2011
Ext1Gt/Gt
Shortened skeletal elements,
delayed chondrocyte
differentiation, prenatal lethal at
E15 None Koziel, 2004
Col2-rtTA-
Cre;Ext1e2neofl/e2neofl Shortened limbs
Aggressive epiphyseal
osteochondromas in all mice
Jones, 2009
Jones, 2012
Col2-CreERT;Ext1fl/fl
(stochastic model)
Bowed forearms, scoliosis,
short stature
Overgrowth of growth plate cartilage
to form cartilage-capped bony
protrusions
Matsumoto,
2010a
Prx1Cre;Ext1fl/fl
Severe skeletal abnormalities,
joint fusion, shortened limbs,
missing carpals/metacarpals,
postnatal lethal None
Matsumoto,
2010b
GDF5Cre;Ext1fl/fl
Shortened skeletal elements,
joint fusion in digits, postnatal
lethal Small exostoses in all mice
Mundy, 2010
Huegel, 2013
Col2CreER;ββββ-catenin fl/fl
Changes in chondrocyte
proliferation and differentiation
Lateral outgrowth of the growth
plate to form chondroma-like
masses Cantley, 2013
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Figure legends
FIGURE 1: Histological comparison of a typical human growth plate and an exostosis.
(A) Longitudinal section through a normal growth plate shows the stratified organization of the
chondrocytes and their distinct morphologies in each zone. Note that the chondro-osseous border
is located at the bottom of the picture. (B) The exostosis contains similar diverse populations of
chondrocytes but absence of clear organization. Note that the chondro-osseous border is located
on the left reflecting the 90° orientation of the exostosis relative to the longitudinal axis of the
adjacent growth plate. The cartilaginous portions stains strongly with Safranin-O, while the
adjacent bone is stained with fast green. (B, Inset) A macroscopic view of exostosis tissue
removed from a patient. Stereotypic exostoses are continuous with normal medullary and cortical
bone and are covered by perichondrial tissue. Bar for A and B, 75 µm; bar for inset, 2 mm.
FIGURE 2: Images from patients with Hereditary Multiple Exostoses. (A) Frontal and
(B) lateral X-ray images of the forearm of a 14 year-old HME patient reveal the presence of a
large exostosis at the distal end of the radius (arrowheads). (C) X-ray image and (D) CT scan
reveal the presence of a chondrosarcoma lesion near the scapula in a 17 year-old patient
(arrows). The humerus also contains exostoses (arrowheads). (E-F) These intraoperative CT
scans demonstrate the presence of an exostosis lesion within the spinal canal at the T12 level
(arrowhead).
FIGURE 3: Pharmacological interference with HS stimulates chondrogenesis. (A-C)
Mouse embryo limb bud mesenchymal cells in micromass cultures were treated with vehicle
(control) or 5 or 10 µM Surfen for 5 to 7 days. Note that the treated cultures display a much
larger number of alcian blue-positive cartilaginous nodules and that several of them are fused
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into each other. (D) qPCR analysis shows that expression of indicated cartilage marker genes is
up-regulated by Surfen in a dose-dependent manner in the micromass cultures. Vertical bars in
each histogram indicate standard deviations (Huegel et al., 2013).
FIGURE 4: Heparan sulfate inhibition leads to ectopic BMP signaling and cartilage
formation. (A-B) Histological images of Safranin-O/fast green-stained epiphyses showing that
ectopic cartilage was forming along the flanking perichondrium in Surfen-treated explants
(outlined in D), while the chondro-perichondrial border was continuous and intact in controls.
(C-D) Immunostaining images showing that phosphorylated Smad1/5/8 staining is apparent in
the perichondrium flanking the epiphysis of Surfen treated explants (arrowheads in B), while
there is background staining in control long bones (Huegel et al., 2013).
FIGURE 5: Schematic summarizes current hypotheses regarding the origin of exostosis-
forming cells. Those cells are currently thought to be: (A) growth plate chondrocytes themselves
(blue); (B) perichondrial cells (red); or (C) cells originating in the groove of Ranvier (purple).
Data in favor and against each of these theses have been reported in recent years. Our own work
indicates that perichondrium, including the groove of Ranvier, could represent a source of these
cells. It is also possible that the exostosis-founding cells could reside in growth plate or
perichondrium at the onset of exostosis formation, and would subsequently recruit cells from
surrounding sites to sustain and boost the outgrowth process. Thus, exostosis formation could
involve more than one source of cells (D). Other factors may also play a role in initiation and
growth of ectopic cartilage, including increased range and responsiveness of growth factor
signaling as well as upregulated heparanase.
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