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Transcript of Heizer om10 ch09-layout
10/16/2010
1
99 Layout StrategiesLayout Strategies
P P i t t ti tP P i t t ti t
9 - 1© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
PowerPoint presentation to accompany PowerPoint presentation to accompany Heizer and Render Heizer and Render Operations Management, 10e Operations Management, 10e Principles of Operations Management, 8ePrinciples of Operations Management, 8e
PowerPoint slides by Jeff Heyl
OutlineOutline
Global Company Profile: McDonald’sThe Strategic Importance of
9 - 2© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
The Strategic Importance of Layout DecisionsTypes of LayoutOffice Layout
Outline Outline –– ContinuedContinued
Retail LayoutServicescapes
Warehousing and Storage Layouts
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Cross-DockingRandom DockingCustomizing
Fixed-Position Layout
Outline Outline –– ContinuedContinued
Process-Oriented LayoutComputer Software for Process-Oriented Layouts
W k C ll
9 - 4© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Work CellsRequirements of Work CellsStaffing and Balancing Work CellsThe Focused Work Center and the Focused Factory
Outline Outline –– ContinuedContinued
Repetitive and Product-Oriented Layout
Assembly-Line Balancing
9 - 5© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
y g
Learning ObjectivesLearning ObjectivesWhen you complete this chapter, you When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:should be able to:
1. Discuss important issues in office layout2 Define the objectives of retail layout
9 - 6© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
2. Define the objectives of retail layout3. Discuss modern warehouse
management and terms such as ASRS, cross-docking, and random stocking
4. Identify when fixed-position layouts are appropriate
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Learning ObjectivesLearning ObjectivesWhen you complete this chapter, you When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:should be able to:5. Explain how to achieve a good process-
oriented facility layout
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y y6. Define work cell and the requirements of
a work cell7. Define product-oriented layout8. Explain how to balance production flow
in a repetitive or product-oriented facility
Innovations at McDonald’sInnovations at McDonald’sIndoor seating (1950s)Drive-through window (1970s)Adding breakfast to the menu (1980s)
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(1980s)Adding play areas (late 1980s)Redesign of the kitchens (1990s)Self-service kiosk (2004)Now three separate dining sections
Innovations at McDonald’sInnovations at McDonald’sIndoor seating (1950s)Drive-through window (1970s)Adding breakfast to the menu (1980s)
Six out of the seven are
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(1980s)Adding play areas (late 1980s)Redesign of the kitchens (1990s)Self-service kiosk (2004)Now three separate dining sections
seven are layout
decisions!
McDonald’s New LayoutMcDonald’s New LayoutSeventh major innovation Redesigning all 30,000 outlets around the worldThree separate dining areas
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p gLinger zone with comfortable chairs and Wi-Fi connectionsGrab and go zone with tall countersFlexible zone for kids and families
Facility layout is a source of competitive advantage
Strategic Importance of Strategic Importance of Layout DecisionsLayout Decisions
The objective of layout strategy The objective of layout strategy is to develop an effective andis to develop an effective and
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is to develop an effective and is to develop an effective and efficient layout that will meet the efficient layout that will meet the firm’s competitive requirementsfirm’s competitive requirements
Layout Design Layout Design ConsiderationsConsiderations
Higher utilization of space, equipment, and peopleImproved flow of information, materials,
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p , ,or peopleImproved employee morale and safer working conditionsImproved customer/client interactionFlexibility
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Types of LayoutTypes of Layout
1. Office layout 2. Retail layout 3. Warehouse layout
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4. Fixed-position layout5. Process-oriented layout6. Work-cell layout 7. Product-oriented layout
Types of LayoutTypes of Layout1. Office layout: Positions workers,
their equipment, and spaces/offices to provide for movement of information
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2. Retail layout: Allocates shelf space and responds to customer behavior
3. Warehouse layout: Addresses trade-offs between space and material handling
Types of LayoutTypes of Layout
4. Fixed-position layout: Addresses the layout requirements of large, bulky projects such as ships and buildings
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5. Process-oriented layout: Deals with low-volume, high-variety production (also called job shop or intermittent production)
Types of LayoutTypes of Layout
6. Work cell layout: Arranges machinery and equipment to focus on production of a single product or group of related products
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group of related products7. Product-oriented layout: Seeks the
best personnel and machine utilizations in repetitive or continuous production
Layout StrategiesLayout StrategiesObjectives Examples
Office Locate workers requiring frequent contact close to one another
Allstate Insurance Microsoft Corp.
Retail Expose customer to high-margin items
Kroger’s SupermarketWalgreen’sBloomingdale’s
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Bloomingdale’s
Warehouse (storage)
Balance low cost storage with low-cost material handling
Federal-Mogul’s warehouseThe Gap’s distribution center
Project (fixed position)
Move material to the limited storage areas around the site
Ingall Ship Building Corp.Trump PlazaPittsburgh Airport
Table 9.1
Layout StrategiesLayout StrategiesObjectives Examples
Job Shop (process oriented)
Manage varied material flow for each product
Arnold Palmer HospitalHard Rock CafeOlive Garden
Work Cell (product families)
Identify a product family, build teams, cross train team members
Hallmark CardsWheeled Coach
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families) membersStandard Aero
Repetitive/ Continuous (product oriented)
Equalize the task time at each workstation
Sony’s TV assembly lineToyota Scion
Table 9.1
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Good Layouts ConsiderGood Layouts Consider
Material handling equipmentCapacity and space requirementsEnvironment and aesthetics
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Environment and aestheticsFlows of informationCost of moving between various work areas
Office LayoutOffice LayoutGrouping of workers, their equipment, and spaces to provide comfort, safety, and movement of informationMovement of i f ti i i
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information is main distinctionTypically in state of flux due to frequent technological changes
Relationship ChartRelationship Chart
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Figure 9.1
Supermarket Retail LayoutSupermarket Retail Layout
Objective is to maximize profitability per square foot of floor space
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Sales and profitability vary directly with customer exposure
Five Helpful Ideas for Five Helpful Ideas for Supermarket LayoutSupermarket Layout
1. Locate high-draw items around the periphery of the store
2. Use prominent locations for high-impulse and high-margin items
9 - 23© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
3. Distribute power items to both sides of an aisle and disperse them to increase viewing of other items
4. Use end-aisle locations5. Convey mission of store through careful
positioning of lead-off department
Store LayoutStore Layout
9 - 24© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Figure 9.2
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Retail SlottingRetail SlottingManufacturers pay fees to retailers to get the retailers to display (slot) their productContributing factors
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Limited shelf spaceAn increasing number of new productsBetter information about sales through POS data collectionCloser control of inventory
Retail Store Shelf Space Retail Store Shelf Space PlanogramPlanogram
Computerized tool for shelf-space management
5 facings
Shampoo
Shampoo
Shampoo
Shampoo
Shampoo
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managementGenerated from store’s scanner data on salesOften supplied by manufacturer
Conditioner
Conditioner
Shampoo
Shampoo
Shampoo
Shampoo
Conditioner
2 ft.
ServicescapesServicescapes1.1. Ambient conditionsAmbient conditions - background
characteristics such as lighting, sound, smell, and temperature
2.2. Spatial layout and functionalitySpatial layout and functionality - which involve customer
i l ti th l i
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circulation path planning, aisle characteristics, and product grouping
3.3. Signs, symbols, and Signs, symbols, and artifactsartifacts - characteristics of building design that carry social significance
Warehousing and Storage Warehousing and Storage LayoutsLayouts
Objective is to optimize trade-offs between handling costs and costs associated with warehouse space
9 - 28© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
associated with warehouse spaceMaximize the total “cube” of the warehouse – utilize its full volume while maintaining low material handling costs
Warehousing and Storage Warehousing and Storage LayoutsLayouts
All costs associated with the transactionIncoming transport
Material Handling CostsMaterial Handling Costs
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StorageFinding and moving materialOutgoing transportEquipment, people, material, supervision, insurance, depreciation
Minimize damage and spoilage
Warehousing and Storage Warehousing and Storage LayoutsLayouts
Warehouse density tends to vary inversely with the number of different items storedAutomated Storage and
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Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems (ASRSs) can significantly improve warehouse productivity by an estimated 500%Dock location is a key design element
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CrossCross--DockingDockingMaterials are moved directly from receiving to shipping and are not placed in storage in the warehouseRequires tight scheduling and
9 - 31© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
sc edu g a daccurate shipments, bar code or RFIDidentification used foradvanced shipmentnotification as materialsare unloaded
Random StockingRandom StockingTypically requires automatic identification systems (AISs) and effective information systemsRandom assignment of stocking locations allows more efficient use of space
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Key tasks1. Maintain list of open locations2. Maintain accurate records3. Sequence items to minimize travel, pick time4. Combine picking orders5. Assign classes of items to particular areas
CustomizingCustomizingValue-added activities performed at the warehouseEnable low cost and rapid response strategies
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strategiesAssembly of componentsLoading softwareRepairsCustomized labeling and packaging
omiz
atio
n
Storage racks
Warehouse LayoutWarehouse LayoutTraditional Layout
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Shipping and receiving docks
Office
Cus
to
Conveyor
Staging
Warehouse LayoutWarehouse LayoutCross-Docking Layout
Shipping and receiving docks
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Shipping and receiving docks
Offi
ce
FixedFixed--Position LayoutPosition LayoutProduct remains in one place Workers and equipment come to siteComplicating factors
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Limited space at siteDifferent materials required at different stages of the projectVolume of materials needed is dynamic
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Alternative StrategyAlternative StrategyAs much of the project as possible is completed off-site in a product-oriented facilityThis can
9 - 37© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
significantly improve efficiency but is only possible when multiple similar units need to be created
ProcessProcess--Oriented LayoutOriented Layout
Like machines and equipment are grouped togetherFlexible and capable of handling a
id i t f d t
9 - 38© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
wide variety of products or servicesScheduling can be difficult and setup, material handling, and labor costs can be high
Surgery
ER triage room
Emergency room admissions
ProcessProcess--Oriented LayoutOriented Layout
Patient A Patient A -- broken legbroken leg
Patient B Patient B -- erratic heart erratic heart pacemakerpacemaker
9 - 39© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Radiology ER Beds Pharmacy Billing/exit
Laboratories
Figure 9.3
Layout at Arnold Palmer HospitalLayout at Arnold Palmer Hospital
Central break and medical
supply rooms
Local linen
Pie-shaped rooms
Central nurses
9 - 40© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
supply
Local nursing pod
station
ProcessProcess--Oriented LayoutOriented Layout
Arrange work centers so as to minimize the costs of material handlingB i t l t
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Basic cost elements areNumber of loads (or people) moving between centersDistance loads (or people) move between centers
ProcessProcess--Oriented LayoutOriented Layout
Minimize cost = ∑ ∑ Xij Cij
n
i = 1
n
j = 1
where n = total number of work centers or
9 - 42© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
where n = total number of work centers or departments
i, j = individual departmentsXij = number of loads moved from
department i to department jCij = cost to move a load between
department i and department j
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Process Layout ExampleProcess Layout ExampleArrange six departments in a factory to minimize the material handling costs. Each department is 20 x 20 feet and the building is 60 feet long and 40 feet wide.
9 - 43© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
1. Construct a “from-to matrix”2. Determine the space requirements3. Develop an initial schematic diagram4. Determine the cost of this layout 5. Try to improve the layout6. Prepare a detailed plan
Department Assembly Painting Machine Receiving Shipping Testing(1) (2) Shop (3) (4) (5) (6)
Assembly (1)
Number of loads per week
50 100 0 0 20
Process Layout ExampleProcess Layout Example
9 - 44© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Painting (2)
Machine Shop (3)
Receiving (4)
Shipping (5)
Testing (6)
30 50 10 0
20 0 100
50 0
0
Figure 9.4
Area 1 Area 2 Area 3
Process Layout ExampleProcess Layout Example
Assembly Painting Machine ShopDepartment Department Department
(1) (2) (3)
9 - 45© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Area 4 Area 5 Area 660’
40’
Receiving Shipping TestingDepartment Department Department
(4) (5) (6)
Figure 9.5
Process Layout ExampleProcess Layout ExampleInterdepartmental Flow Graph
100
50 30 Machine Assembly Painting
9 - 46© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Figure 9.6
50
10100
Shop (3)
Testing (6)
Shipping (5)
Receiving (4)
y(1)
g(2)
Process Layout ExampleProcess Layout Example
Cost = $50 + $200 + $40(1 and 2) (1 and 3) (1 and 6)
Cost = ∑ ∑ Xij Cij
n
i = 1
n
j = 1
9 - 47© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
(1 and 2) (1 and 3) (1 and 6)+ $30 + $50 + $10
(2 and 3) (2 and 4) (2 and 5)+ $40 + $100 + $50
(3 and 4) (3 and 6) (4 and 5)
= $570
Process Layout ExampleProcess Layout ExampleRevised Interdepartmental Flow Graph
30
50 100 Machine Painting Assembly
9 - 48© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Figure 9.7
50
50 100
Shop (3)
Testing (6)
Shipping (5)
Receiving (4)
g(2)
y(1)
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Process Layout ExampleProcess Layout Example
Cost = $50 + $100 + $20(1 and 2) (1 and 3) (1 and 6)
Cost = ∑ ∑ Xij Cij
n
i = 1
n
j = 1
9 - 49© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
(1 and 2) (1 and 3) (1 and 6)+ $60 + $50 + $10
(2 and 3) (2 and 4) (2 and 5)+ $40 + $100 + $50
(3 and 4) (3 and 6) (4 and 5)
= $480
Area 1 Area 2 Area 3
Process Layout ExampleProcess Layout Example
Painting Assembly Machine ShopDepartment Department Department
(2) (1) (3)
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Area 4 Area 5 Area 660’
40’
Receiving Shipping TestingDepartment Department Department
(4) (5) (6)
Figure 9.8
Computer SoftwareComputer SoftwareGraphical approach only works for small problemsComputer programs are available to sol e bigger problems
9 - 51© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
solve bigger problemsCRAFTALDEPCORELAPFactory Flow
CRAFT ExampleCRAFT ExampleA A A A B B
A A A A B B
D D D D D D
C C D D D D
D D D D B B
D D D D B B
D D D E E E
C C D E E F
9 - 52© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice HallFigure 9.9
TOTAL COST 20,100EST. COST REDUCTION .00ITERATION 0
(a)
C C D D D D
F F F F F D
E E E E E D
TOTAL COST 14,390EST. COST REDUCTION 70ITERATION 3
(b)
C C D E E F
A A A A A F
A A A F F F
Computer SoftwareComputer SoftwareThree dimensional visualization software allows managers to view possible layouts and assess process, material handling
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handling, efficiency, and safety issues
Work CellsWork CellsReorganizes people and machines into groups to focus on single products or product groupsGroup technology identifies
9 - 54© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
p gyproducts that have similar characteristics for particular cellsVolume must justify cellsCells can be reconfigured as designs or volume changes
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Advantages of Work CellsAdvantages of Work Cells1. Reduced work-in-process inventory2. Less floor space required3. Reduced raw material and finished
goods inventory4 Reduced direct labor
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4. Reduced direct labor5. Heightened sense of employee
participation6. Increased use of equipment and
machinery7. Reduced investment in machinery and
equipment
Requirements of Work CellsRequirements of Work Cells
1. Identification of families of products2. A high level of training, flexibility
and empowerment of employees
9 - 56© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
and empowerment of employees3. Being self-contained, with its own
equipment and resources4. Test (poka-yoke) at each station in
the cell
Improving Layouts Using Improving Layouts Using Work CellsWork Cells
9 - 57© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Current layout - workers in small closed areas.
Improved layout - cross-trained workers can assist each other. May be able to add a third worker as additional output is needed.
Figure 9.10 (a)
Improving Layouts Using Improving Layouts Using Work CellsWork Cells
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Current layout - straight lines make it hard to balance tasks because work may not be divided evenly
Improved layout - in U shape, workers have better access. Four cross-trained workers were reduced.
Figure 9.10 (b)
U-shaped line may reduce employee movement and space requirements while enhancing communication, reducing the number of workers, and facilitating inspection
Staffing and Balancing Staffing and Balancing Work CellsWork Cells
Determine the takt timeDetermine the takt time
Takt time =Total work time available
Units required
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Units required
Determine the number Determine the number of operators requiredof operators required
Workers required =Total operation time required
Takt time
Staffing Work Cells ExampleStaffing Work Cells Example600 Mirrors per day requiredMirror production scheduled for 8 hours per dayFrom a work balance
chart totaloperation time d
60
50
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p= 140 seconds
Stan
dard
tim
e re
quire
d
Operations
Assemble Paint Test Label Pack forshipment
40
30
20
10
0
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Staffing Work Cells ExampleStaffing Work Cells Example600 Mirrors per day requiredMirror production scheduled for 8 hours per dayFrom a work balance
chart totaloperation time
9 - 61© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
p= 140 seconds
Takt time = (8 hrs x 60 mins) / 600 units = .8 mins = 48 seconds
Workers required =Total operation time required
Takt time
= 140 / 48 = 2.91
Work Balance ChartsWork Balance ChartsUsed for evaluating operation times in work cellsCan help identify bottleneck operations
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operationsFlexible, cross-trained employees can help address labor bottlenecksMachine bottlenecks may require other approaches
Focused Work Center and Focused Work Center and Focused FactoryFocused Factory
Focused Work CenterIdentify a large family of similar products that have a large and stable demandMoves production from a general-purpose,
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Moves production from a general purpose, process-oriented facility to a large work cell
Focused FactoryA focused work cell in a separate facilityMay be focused by product line, layout, quality, new product introduction, flexibility, or other requirements
Focused Work Center and Focused Work Center and Focused FactoryFocused Factory
Work Cell Focused Work Center Focused Factory
Description: Work cell is a temporary product-oriented arrangement of machines and
A focused work center is a permanent product-oriented arrangement of machines and personnel in what is
A focused factory is a permanent facility to produce a product or component in a product-oriented
9 - 64© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall Table 9.2
personnel in what is ordinarily a process-oriented facility
ordinarily a process-oriented facility
facility. Many focused factories currently being built were originally part of a process-oriented facility
Example: A job shop with machinery and personnel rearranged to produce 300 unique control panels
Example: Pipe bracket manufacturing at a shipyard
Example: A plant to produce window mechanism for automobiles
Repetitive and ProductRepetitive and Product--Oriented LayoutOriented Layout
1. Volume is adequate for high equipment tili ti
Organized around products or families of Organized around products or families of similar highsimilar high--volume, lowvolume, low--variety productsvariety products
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utilization2. Product demand is stable enough to justify high
investment in specialized equipment3. Product is standardized or approaching a phase
of life cycle that justifies investment 4. Supplies of raw materials and components are
adequate and of uniform quality
ProductProduct--Oriented LayoutsOriented LayoutsFabrication line
Builds components on a series of machinesMachine-pacedRequire mechanical or engineering changes to balance
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Assembly linePuts fabricated parts together at a series of workstationsPaced by work tasksBalanced by moving tasks
Both types of lines must be balanced so that the time to perform the work at each station is the same
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ProductProduct--Oriented LayoutsOriented Layouts
1. Low variable cost per unit2. Low material handling costs3. Reduced work-in-process inventories4. Easier training and supervision
AdvantagesAdvantages
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5. Rapid throughput
1. High volume is required2. Work stoppage at any point ties up the
whole operation3. Lack of flexibility in product or production
rates
DisadvantagesDisadvantages
McDonald’s Assembly LineMcDonald’s Assembly Line
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Figure 9.12
Disassembly LinesDisassembly LinesDisassembly is being considered in new product designs“Green” issues and recycling standards are important consideration
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Automotive disassembly is the 16th
largest industry in the US
AssemblyAssembly--Line BalancingLine BalancingObjective is to minimize the imbalance between machines or personnel while meeting required outputStarts with the precedence relationships
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relationshipsDetermine cycle timeCalculate theoretical minimum number of workstationsBalance the line by assigning specific tasks to workstations
Wing Component ExampleWing Component Example
This means that tasks B and E cannot be done
Performance Task Must FollowTime Task Listed
Task (minutes) BelowA 10 —B 11 AC 5 B
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cannot be done until task A has been completed
D 4 BE 12 AF 3 C, DG 7 FH 11 EI 3 G, HTotal time 66
Wing Component ExampleWing Component ExamplePerformance Task Must Follow
Time Task ListedTask (minutes) Below
A 10 —B 11 AC 5 B
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D 4 BE 12 AF 3 C, DG 7 FH 11 EI 3 G, HTotal time 66 I
GF
C
D
H
B
E
A10
1112
5
4 3
711 3
Figure 9.13
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Performance Task Must FollowTime Task Listed
Task (minutes) BelowA 10 —B 11 AC 5 B
Wing Component ExampleWing Component Example480 available
mins per day40 units required
C l iProduction time available per day
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I
GF
C
D
H
B
E
A10
1112
5
4 3
711 3
Figure 9.13
D 4 BE 12 AF 3 C, DG 7 FH 11 EI 3 G, HTotal time 66
Cycle time =p y
Units required per day= 480 / 40= 12 minutes per unit
Minimum number of
workstations=
∑ Time for task i
Cycle time
n
i = 1
= 66 / 12= 5.5 or 6 stations
Wing Component ExampleWing Component ExamplePerformance Task Must Follow
Time Task ListedTask (minutes) Below
A 10 —B 11 AC 5 B
480 available mins per day
40 units requiredCycle time = 12 mins
Minimum workstations = 5.5 or 6
Line-Balancing Heuristics
1. Longest task time Choose the available task with the longest task time
2. Most following tasks Choose the available task with the largest number of following tasks
3. Ranked positional Choose the available task for
9 - 74© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
I
GF
C
D
H
B
E
A10
1112
5
4 3
711 3
Figure 9.13
D 4 BE 12 AF 3 C, DG 7 FH 11 EI 3 G, HTotal time 66
3. Ranked positional weight
Choose the available task for which the sum of following task times is the longest
4. Shortest task time Choose the available task with the shortest task time
5. Least number of following tasks
Choose the available task with the least number of following tasks
Table 9.4
480 available mins per day
40 units requiredCycle time = 12 mins
Minimum workstations = 5.5 or 6
Performance Task Must FollowTime Task Listed
Task (minutes) BelowA 10 —B 11 AC 5 B
Wing Component ExampleWing Component Example
Station 2
5
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D 4 BE 12 AF 3 C, DG 7 FH 11 EI 3 G, HTotal time 66Station
1
Station 3Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6Station 6
I
GF
H
C
D
B
E
A10 11
12
4
3 7
11
3
Figure 9.14
Performance Task Must FollowTime Task Listed
Task (minutes) BelowA 10 —B 11 AC 5 B
Wing Component ExampleWing Component Example480 available
mins per day40 units required
Cycle time = 12 minsMinimum
workstations = 5.5 or 6
9 - 76© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
D 4 BE 12 AF 3 C, DG 7 FH 11 EI 3 G, HTotal time 66
Efficiency =∑ Task times
(Actual number of workstations) x (Largest cycle time)
= 66 minutes / (6 stations) x (12 minutes)= 91.7%
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America.