ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Harvesters’ perceptions of population status and conservationof Chinese caterpillar fungus in the Dolpa region of Nepal

Uttam Babu Shrestha • Kamaljit S. Bawa

Received: 21 August 2013 / Accepted: 17 November 2014

� Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014

Abstract Chinese caterpillar fungus is in spotlight

because of its high market value, unusual life history, and

numerous medicinal uses. One of the most expensive bio-

logical resources of the world, Chinese caterpillar fungus is

harvested by the most impoverished communities of the

Himalaya to sustain their livelihoods. Skyrocketing inter-

national trade and intensive local collections from the wild

have raised concerns about the status of natural populations

and their conservation. We assessed harvesters’ percep-

tions of the population status of Chinese caterpillar fungus,

causes of decline, and sustainable harvesting in Dolpa,

Nepal. Most harvesters (95.1 %) believe that the abun-

dance of Chinese caterpillar fungus has decreased during

the last 5 years. This belief is supported by trends in

average annual per capita harvest. Climate change, over

harvesting, premature harvesting, and reduced number of

the larvae are the cited causes of decline in harvests. To

validate the harvester’s perceptions of climate change, we

analyzed temperature and precipitation data. Pearson’s

Chi-square tests between the perceptions of abundance of

Chinese caterpillar fungus and demographic variables such

as harvesting experience, age, place of origin and education

are not significant, indicating that the perceptions are

independent of demographic characteristics of harvesters.

A large proportion of harvesters (79.31 %) believe that the

population might recover if collection is periodically ban-

ned for 1–2 years. Other protection measures suggested by

the harvesters include changes in the harvesting time,

regulation of prices, protection of habitat including solid

waste management and control of cattle grazing, and

development of local capacity for harvesting on a sus-

tainable basis. A systematic management plan that incor-

porates trans-national efforts to sustain populations that

occur across several countries facing similar human and

physical pressures and ecological impacts is needed.

Keywords Medicinal plants � Harvesting � Conservation �Dolpa � Nepal

Introduction

Ecosystems and constituent populations all over the globe

are under human pressures, and populations of many spe-

cies are declining (Butchart et al. 2010). Consequences of

this decline for ecosystem functioning or human well-being

are not well understood. As the pressures on populations

and ecosystems increase, deficit of knowledge about their

status is likely to increase. How do we fill this growing gap

in our understanding of human impacts? One way to

accelerate this understanding and to test meaningful

hypotheses is to harness knowledge and perceptions of

local people experiencing this change. Perceptions of local

communities indeed are being increasingly used to assess

Editor: by Ulo Mander.

U. B. Shrestha (&)

Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of

Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia

e-mail: ubshrestha@yahoo.com

U. B. Shrestha

International Centre for Applied Climate Sciences, University of

Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia

K. S. Bawa

Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Boston,

100 Morrissey Blvd., Boston, MA 02125, USA

K. S. Bawa

Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment

(ATREE), Bangalore, India

123

Reg Environ Change

DOI 10.1007/s10113-014-0732-7

impacts of global change on ecosystems: effects of climate

change on ecosystems (Byg and Salick 2009; Chaudhary

and Bawa 2011); benefits and costs of protected areas

(Karanth and Nepal 2012); relationship among livestock,

agriculture and natural resources (Tschopp et al. 2010);

human–wildlife conflict (Dar et al. 2009); use, trade, and

conservation of medicinal plants (Uprety et al. 2011); and

management of Matsutake mushroom (Amend et al. 2010).

Here, we provide the quantitative assessment of the per-

ceptions of harvesters on population status, causes of

decline, and prospects for sustainable harvesting of Chi-

nese caterpillar fungus.

Chinese caterpillar fungus is a complex formed by a

parasitic relationship between the fungus Ophiocordyceps

sinensis and caterpillar of the several species of moth

belonging to genus Thitarodes (Winkler 2009). There are at

least 57 potential host species of moth belonging to the

family Hepialidae (Lepidoptera) (Wang and Yao 2011).

The fungus propagules are released from stroma in late

summer and infect the host caterpillar in late autumn when

the caterpillar is beneath the soil; however, it is not known

how the fungus infects the caterpillar (Zhang et al. 2012).

Following the unknown period of host dormancy, the

fungus grows and spreads its hyphae inside the host cat-

erpillar killing it by consuming the essential nutrients

(Cannon et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2012). The fungus from a

mycelial growth phase finally forms one or more stroma

from the head of the buried dead caterpillar (Winkler

2009). The fungal stroma grows to 2–6 cm above the soil

surface in early spring when it is harvested along with the

sub-terrain mummified caterpillar (Fig. 1a).

Chinese caterpillar fungus has been used for various

therapeutic uses in traditional Chinese medicine and

Tibetan medicines for centuries (Shrestha et al. 2010;

Winkler 2009). It is used to strengthen lung and kidneys,

increase energy and vitality, stop hemorrhage, and decrease

phlegm (Holliday and Cleaver 2008). A recent study

showed that it is also effective as an anti-aging and anti-

tumor agent (Wong et al. 2010). Cordycepin, a major

chemical compound of the fungus has anti-inflammatory

properties (Kondrashov et al. 2012). However, Chinese

caterpillar fungus is widely traded as an aphrodisiac and a

powerful tonic (Holliday and Cleaver 2008; Winkler 2009)

and is popularly known as ‘‘Himalayan Viagra.’’

The quest for natural aphrodisiac has made this so-called

Himalayan Viagra the most expensive biological com-

modity in the world with current price of up to US

$140,000/kg for the highest quality Chinese caterpillar

fungus, two times as much as gold (Xuan 2012). With the

estimated annual production of *85–185 tons (Winkler

2009), current global market of Chinese caterpillar fungus

might be at between 5 and 11 billion US dollars (Shrestha

2012). From 1997 to 2008, the price has increased by

*900 % in Tibet (Winkler 2009) and in Nepal, from 2001

to 2011, by *2,300 % (Shrestha and Bawa 2013).

With the growing global market, the economic signifi-

cance of Chinese caterpillar fungus at local level has

increased. Chinese caterpillar fungus harvesting and trade

have become major sources of cash income for the

mountain communities; income from the fungus contrib-

utes 53.3 % of total household cash income in Dolpa

District of Western Nepal (Shrestha and Bawa 2014b). The

income derived from the fungus harvesting provides money

for food and education and acts as a safety net for the

people in this region. Chinese caterpillar fungus alone

contributed *41 % of the total revenue generated from 62

species of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) by the

Department of Forests, Government of Nepal in 2011

(GoN 2011).

Exploding market demand and the dramatic price

increases are leading to rapid increases in the number of

harvesters. About 70,000 harvesters are estimated to be

involved in Chinese caterpillar fungus harvesting in Dolpa

each year, and there is a widespread concern about the

sustainability of the current harvest rates (Cannon et al.

2009; Zhang et al. 2012; Shrestha and Bawa 2013; Shrestha

et al. 2014). However, little is known about trends in

populations, the harvesting practices, and the impact of

such practices on the persistence of populations. Based on

the assumption that the harnessing of local knowledge may

be the most efficient and the least expensive way to gather

preliminary data, we assessed harvesters’ perceptions on

the population status of Chinese caterpillar fungus, causes

of decline, and prospects for sustainable harvesting. WeFig. 1 Chinese caterpillar fungus a in the natural habitat and b after

harvesting and cleaning

U. B. Shrestha, K. S. Bawa

123

address three specific questions: (1) what are the percep-

tions of harvesters about the status of Chinese caterpillar

fungus populations? (2) what factors are perceived by the

harvesters as drivers of decline? and (3) what conservation

measures do the harvesters think need to be taken for

continued existence of populations in large numbers? We

examine the extent to which perceptions are consistent with

actual data on trends in average annual per capita harvest

levels as well as observed data of temperature and pre-

cipitation. We also analyze how demographic variables

(harvesting experience, age, origin of the harvesters, and

education) influence perceptions of harvesters.

Methods

Study area

Field surveys to collect information on harvesters’ percep-

tions and their socioeconomic characteristics were carried

out in the remote alpine pastures of Majphal Village

Development Committee (VDC) in Dolpa, Nepal (Fig. 2) in

May–July 2011. Although Chinese caterpillar fungus is

reported from 27 districts of Nepal (Devkota 2010) and

commercially collected from ten districts, Dolpa district is

regarded as a major repository of Chinese caterpillar fungus,

contributing 40 % of the Nepalese supply in 2011. Physio-

graphically, Dolpa lies in trans Himalayan zone at altitudes

ranging from 1,275 to 7625 m elevation and about 30 % of

the district is covered by grassland, the main habitat for

Chinese caterpillar fungus. The species is collected from 24

pastures of Dolpa (DFO-Dolpa 2010); five of these (Saiku-

mari, Pokepani, Ruppatan, Chinarangsi, and Batule) are

located in the Majphal VDC. This study covered the har-

vesters in Saikumari, Chinarangsi, Ruppatan, and Batule and

their camps in three localities: Tarpare (4,016 m), Opa

(3,841 m), and Baghdanda (3,743 m). The temporary camp

locations are assigned to the harvesters by local institution,

Toridwari Herbs Collection and Management Committee.

Data collection and analysis

Data were collected by administering questionnaires and

by personal field observations. The questionnaire-based

surveys conducted in Nepali language were limited to

harvesters having at least 5-year experience of Chinese

caterpillar fungus harvesting (demographic characteristics

of the harvesters are given in Table 1). We first collected

and listed names of all harvesters in our pool. Name slips

were placed in a box, and the interviewees were randomly

chosen through the lottery method and without replace-

ment. A substitute was chosen if the randomly drawn

respondent was not available or did not want to be inter-

viewed. Written consent from the respondents was secured

Fig. 2 Map of the study area showing the origin of harvesters

Table 1 Demographic characteristics of Chinese caterpillar fungus

harvesters

Demographic characteristics Number

(%)

Total number of the harvesters 203

Gender

Male 170 (83.7)

Female 33 (16.3)

Origin

From Dolpa (natives) 126 (62.1)

From outside Dolpa (outsiders) 76 (37.9)

Average family size 5.94 ± 2.40

Average percentage of family members involved in

harvesting

48.2 ± 24.2

Average age of the harvesters 31 ± 11

Average years of harvesting experience 7.7 ± 3.89

Academic qualification

Illiterate 43 (21.2)

Literate 66 (32.5)

Secondary 81 (39.9)

Bachelor or higher 13 (6.4)

Chinese caterpillar fungus in the Dolpa region of Nepal

123

before the interviews by explaining the study objectives.

Harvesters were interviewed in the evening when they

returned back to their camps from the pasture after a

daylong harvesting. Altogether, we interviewed 203 har-

vesters from 4 districts, 17 VDCs, and 50 villages (ca.

10 % of total and ca. 35 % of the population meeting the

selection criteria) with sets of structured and semi-struc-

tured questionnaires during May–June 2011 (respondents’

residence is shown in Fig. 2). There were about 2600

collectors in three camps during the survey year. Ques-

tionnaires included demographic parameters, perceptions

of harvesters about the status of Chinese caterpillar fungus

populations, and number of annual harvests. Since this

resource is very precious and plays a significant role in

household income, respondents recalled their annual har-

vest or earnings very well. We asked two open-ended

questions: (a) what are the causes of decline? and (b) how

the decline can be curtailed in future (sustainable har-

vesting) if a harvester mentioned decline?

We analyzed the data by counting frequencies and cal-

culating percentages of the responses. Cross-tabulation and

Chi-square tests were used to analyze the interdependence

of the responses among the age of the harvesters (B25,

26–40, C41 years old), experience in harvesting (5, 6–10,

C11 years), education (illiterate, literate, secondary,

bachelor, or higher), and origin (harvesters from Dolpa—

insider, harvesters outside Dolpa—outsider). Linear

regression was used to ascertain trends in average annual

per capita harvest over the 5-year period.

To validate the results of the harvester’s perceptions on

climate change, we analyzed temperature and precipitation

datasets produced by APHRODITE (Yasutomi et al. 2011).

It is the highest resolution (0.25�) gridded data available

for this region developed by interpolation technique using

observations obtained from weather stations. We extracted

gridded data for entire Dolpa district (study area) from this

continental-scale dataset and analyzed average annual and

seasonal trends in mean temperature from 1961 to 2007

and precipitation from 1951 to 2007.

Results

Harvesters’ perceptions on status of Chinese caterpillar

fungus

A majority of the harvesters (95.1 %) believed that Chinese

caterpillar fungus has now become less abundant than it was

5 years ago. In contrast, only 1.0 % of the harvesters perceived

it to be more abundant now. The remaining 2.5 % harvesters

found no change, and 1.5 % harvesters did not know the status.

Pearson’s Chi-square test revealed that responses on the

abundance of Chinese caterpillar fungus are not significantly

dependent on harvesting experience (V2 = 5.4, P = 0.49),

age (V2 = 6.5, P = 0.37), origin of the harvesters (V2 = 4.4,

P = 0.22), and education (V2 = 7.1, P = 0.62) (Fig. 3),

meaning the responses are not related to the demographic

parameters.

Analysis of the survey data on the trends of per capita

average annual harvest shows a continuous decline from

2006 to 2010. A linear regression shows that per capita

average annual harvest has declined at a rate of 32.58

(P \ 0.0001) pieces per harvester per year (Fig. 4).

Causes of decline as perceived by local people

Harvesters were asked to highlight the perceived causes of

decline if they mentioned that Chinese caterpillar fungus is

less common now than it was 5 years earlier. Harvesters

attributed decline to various causes that can be placed into

two major categories related to harvesting and climate

(Fig. 5a). Over harvesting is perceived as one of the major

causes of decline (75.35 % harvesters), followed by pre-

mature harvesting (23.15 %). Climate change (less snow

during winter, warming, and early melting of snow in

spring) was next in importance though the harvesters did

not use the exact term—climate change. Less snow in the

pasture during winter is perceived as the major cause of

decline in abundance by 66.02 % of the harvesters. Like-

wise, 51.72 and 38.42 % of harvesters perceived early

melting of snow in spring and overall warming (increased

temperature) are the causes of decline, respectively.

Perceptions on sustainable harvesting

In response to open-ended question about local perceptions on

sustainability of extraction, harvesters listed a total 17 differ-

ent measures (Fig. 5b). Majority of the harvesters (79.31 %)

believed that a ban of harvesting for 1–2 years would help to

conserve this species allowing sufficient time for regeneration.

Management of solid waste in the pasture was the second

highest (40.39 %) response. Only one harvester mentioned

that rotational harvest in different pastures would help for

sustainable management of Chinese caterpillar fungus.

Changes in temperature and precipitation

Both positive and negative anomalies of average annual

temperature were observed until 1990, and then, continu-

ous positive anomaly except in the year 1994 was observed

(Fig. 6a). Annual average temperature has significantly

increased with the rate of 0.04 �C per year (P = 0.000) in

the period from 1961 to 2007 in the study area. Likewise,

the seasonal average temperature showed increasing trends

in all seasons, the greatest increase, 0.07 �C per year,

occurred in the summer season (Fig. 6d).

U. B. Shrestha, K. S. Bawa

123

Mean annual precipitation in Dolpa over the 56-year

period from 1951 to 2007 was 576 mm. Standardized

precipitation anomalies of annual and seasonal precipita-

tion are given in Fig. 7. Annual precipitation has slightly

decreased with the rate of 3.3 mm per year (P = 0.01) for

the 56-year period with the maximum decrease in monsoon

season (2.8 mm per year). No clear trends of winter and

spring precipitation were observed in the study area.

Discussion and conclusions

Our results show that 95.1 % of the harvesters perceived

that Chinese caterpillar fungus is less abundant now. Lack

of significance in Chi-square tests between demographic

variables and responses indicates that results are uniform

among harvesters irrespective of experience, age, origin,

and education level. Harvesters’ perception of decline in

Chinese caterpillar fungus is supported by the surveys that

indicate a decline in per capita average annual harvest by

32.58 pieces per year during the 5-year period from 2006 to

2010. Data from other parts of Nepal are lacking. However,

quoting local harvesters, popular press has reported decline

in abundance from Nepal (Taggart 2012). Likewise, a

decrease in overall production in recent years has been

reported in China (Zhang et al. 2012) and in India (Negi

et al. 2006; Jeffrey and Dyson 2012). In Bhutan, the total

quantity of trade—based on the auction data—has

Fig. 3 Harvesters’ perceptions

about the abundance of Chinese

caterpillar fungus

Fig. 4 Trends in a average per

capita total annual harvest and

b average per capita daily

harvest

Chinese caterpillar fungus in the Dolpa region of Nepal

123

continuously declined by 50.83 kg per year from 2008 to

2011 (Dahal 2009; Chhetri 2011, analyzed here).

Harvesters attribute decline to several anthropogenic

pressures; the most cited cause is over harvesting followed

by premature harvesting. In Bhutan, 70 % of harvesters

viewed over exploitation and habitat destruction as a cause

of decline of Chinese caterpillar fungus population

(Shrivastava et al. 2010). Although a plot-wise study of

wild mushrooms showed that intensive harvesting did not

affect the population adversely (Arora 2008), this may not

be true for a parasitic fungus complex such as Chinese

caterpillar fungus. Unlike other fungi, Chinese caterpillar

fungus harvesting is done at a massive scale. Virtually,

every individual encountered by tens of thousands of har-

vesters is harvested, eliminating potential for regeneration.

Ma (2010) conservatively estimated that about 300,000

Chinese citizens are involved in Chinese caterpillar fungus

harvesting in Tibet. Compared with Tibet, in a much

smaller landscape of Dolpa, Nepal, about 70,000 people are

involved in Chinese caterpillar fungus harvesting (DFO-

Dolpa 2010). Therefore, per capita pressure and intensity

of harvest are much higher in Dolpa than in Tibet. A

species is considered as overharvested when the harvest

rate of any given natural populations of that species

exceeds its natural replacement rate (Peres 2010). How-

ever, the impacts of this massive-scale harvesting on nat-

ural populations of Chinese caterpillar fungus and

associated ecosystems are largely unknown. Nor do we

know the natural replacement rate of Chinese caterpillar

fungus. Thus, the assumptions of overharvesting and the

variation in overharvesting across space and time remain to

be validated.

Premature harvesting is also perceived as a cause of

decline by many harvesters. We observed that traders

Fig. 5 Frequency of harvesters’

perceptions on a causes of

decline in abundance of Chinese

caterpillar fungus and

b sustainable harvesting of

Chinese caterpillar fungus

U. B. Shrestha, K. S. Bawa

123

prefer immature (non-spore bearing) specimens to the

spore bearing ones, and paid more money for immature

individuals. Our observations show that 94.4 % of the

collected individuals are without sexual spore—principal

sources of propagation of Chinese caterpillar fungus—

when harvested. After a fungal spore infects and enters

into the host caterpillar body, the fungus grows, kills,

and fills caterpillar body with threadlike vegetative

hyphae; a perithecial stroma emerges from the head of

caterpillar forming a stalked fruiting body above soil

surface that releases ascospores and apparently infects

new caterpillars (Zhang et al. 2012). Therefore, early

harvesting does not permit sexual spore (ascospores)

release, which reduces the likelihood of infection of the

new host caterpillar and forming Chinese caterpillar

fungus complex. Harvesters are motivated by ‘‘if not

taken by me another will’’ attitude that leads them to

harvest every individual encountered regardless of

maturity.

Changes in climatic variables such as early melting of

snow in spring, less snow in the pasture during winter,

and overall warming are perceived as major contributing

factors for the decline. Climate change was one of the

two most cited reasons for Matsutake mushroom decline

in Yunnan, China (Amend et al. 2010). Increasing

temperature during autumn and winter seasons causes

significant delay in fruiting of fungi (Kauserud et al.

2010). The increase in overall fruiting period due to

advance in the first fruiting date and delay in last

fruiting date has been also reported for many species of

fungi due to climate change (Gange et al. 2007). Habitat

suitability model of Chinese caterpillar fungus shows

that mean temperature of the coldest quarter and pre-

cipitation seasonality are major contributing bioclimatic

factors determining the potential distribution of Chinese

caterpillar fungus (Shrestha and Bawa 2014a). Although

our results on perceptions of early melting of snow, less

snow cover, and warming are consistent with the results

Fig. 6 Anomalies in average

temperature during 1961–2007.

a annual, b winter (December,

January, and February), c spring

(March, April, and May),

d summer (June, July, and

August), e fall (September,

October, and November)

Chinese caterpillar fungus in the Dolpa region of Nepal

123

on perceptions of climate change reported by Byg and

Salick (2009) and Chaudhary and Bawa (2011) in other

parts of the Himalaya, the impact of such changes on

the ecology and productivity of Chinese caterpillar

fungus is not known. However, there is ample scientific

evidence for unprecedented change in temperature,

precipitation, and natural ecosystems in the Himalaya

(Shrestha et al. 2012). Analysis of average annual and

seasonal temperature and precipitation showed increas-

ing mean temperature and decreasing precipitation in the

study area. The perceptions of overall warming and

early melting of snow can be attributed to the increase

in average temperature. Similarly, the perceived change

in less precipitation is validated by the decreasing trends

of annual and seasonal precipitation. Furthermore,

satellite-based observations showed winter snow covered

percentage in the Himalaya has declined in the last

decade (Immerzeel et al. 2009; Paudel and Andersen

2010).

Apart from over harvesting, premature harvesting, and

climate change, there could be several other anthropogenic

and natural drivers of Chinese caterpillar fungus decline.

One of the hurdles in understanding the causes of decline is

the very limited knowledge of natural history and regen-

eration process of the species. Although Zhang et al. (2012)

summarize the key elements of the comprehensive life

cycle, the mode of infestation and role of sexual (ascosp-

ores) and asexual spore (conidia) in parasitism remain

largely unclear. There are conflicting claims about the

duration of Chinese caterpillar fungus life cycle (Winkler

2009; Zhang et al. 2012). In addition, the plant species that

the host caterpillar feeds on and the population dynamics of

those species in the natural habitats are largely unknown.

Population fluctuations of food plants can cause fluctua-

tions in populations of host caterpillar and ultimately the

Caterpillar fungus. Thus, long-term monitoring of the

natural populations of Chinese caterpillar fungus and its

host to track the impacts of harvesting is necessary.

Fig. 7 Standardized

precipitation anomalies during

1951–2007. a Annual, b winter

(December, January, February),

c pre-monsoon (March, April,

May), d monsoon (June, July,

August, September), e post-

monsoon (October, November)

U. B. Shrestha, K. S. Bawa

123

Due to limited information on ecology and natural

history, the high economic value of the fungus, and

massive scale of harvesting, there is no single overarching

solution for sustainable management of this resource. In

order to deal with multiple factors that might be respon-

sible for decline in populations, a number of steps might

be required to manage the Chinese caterpillar fungus

populations. The collection of the fungus is done from de

facto open access pasture land. Thus, it is highly likely

that the resource will be further depleted if the pressures

continue and there is no response to prevent further

depletion, leading to Hardin’s (1968) ‘tragedy of the

commons’ situation. There are a number of conservation

measures, interestingly proposed by the harvesters, to

prevent decline and to promote long-term sustainability of

the resource. Harvesters advocate: (a) development of

rules that would include a periodic ban on collection for

1–2 years from the same place and change the harvesting

time, (b) regulation of prices, (c) protection of habitat

including solid waste management and control of cattle

grazing, and (d) development of local capacity for har-

vesting on a sustainable basis.

First, as suggested by harvesters, initiation of conser-

vation efforts by enforcing harvest and trade regulations or

restrictions would be necessary. Harvests of Chinese cat-

erpillar fungus were regulated in Nepal until 2001 and in

Bhutan until 2004, but were discontinued due to increasing

pressure from harvesters, and poor enforcement in remote

areas where the fungus grows. Bhutan has now initiated a

permit system, with each household receiving three permits

for Chinese caterpillar fungus harvesting (Wangchuk et al.

2012). The system is intended to limit the number of har-

vesters and minimize the ecosystem impacts, but it might

not help the regeneration of Chinese caterpillar fungus as

harvest is still done by anyone, anywhere, and anytime.

Some harvesters have also suggested changes in the date of

collection to conserve the species. Current regulations have

no fixed calendar date (except for the starting day of har-

vest) for harvesting, allowing collectors to extract Chinese

caterpillar fungus freely anytime. If collection duration is

fixed and the specimens regenerated later are prevented

from extraction, populations may be sustained for a long

time. A similar perception among Chinese caterpillar fun-

gus harvesters in China was documented by Weckerle et al.

(2010).

Second, as also perceived by local people, maximizing

benefits to local communities often creates an incentive for

conservation of species and results in a win–win situation

(Marshall et al. 2006). The economic value shared by local

harvesters compared to its price in national and interna-

tional markets is very nominal. The government adminis-

tered auction system for both buyers and sellers of Chinese

caterpillar fungus has been in practice in Bhutan (Cannon

et al. 2009). This system provides bargaining opportunity

to local harvesters and maximizes benefits by curtailing

market chain. Furthermore, this type of system, if strictly

enforced, can provide real estimates of the amount of

harvest that can be a proxy for population estimates in time

and space.

Third, Chinese caterpillar fungus habitat management

from unintended activities of harvesters while harvesting

Chinese caterpillar fungus that includes solid waste man-

agement, control of excessive grazing, and reduction of

adverse impacts on landscape (soil, water, and forests)

during harvest, is needed. Solid waste management is also

cited by a significant number of harvesters as a way to

conserve Chinese caterpillar fungus as they perceive hap-

hazard solid waste disposal to have an adverse impact on

the species. Harvesters have been witnessing the excessive

use of fuelwood, open defecation, and accumulation of

solid waste in the pristine landscape. Soil compaction in

the area is visible due to the excessive movement of a large

number of harvesters. Older harvesters recalled that

15–20 years ago they did not need a hoe and used fingers to

uproot but now because of the compacted soil, the use of

hoe is necessary. In Nyingchi district of Tibet, 100,000 m2

of grasslands are damaged each year by Chinese caterpillar

fungus harvesters (Zhou et al. 2009; c.f. Zhang et al. 2012),

but the quantitative assessment of the damage to grasslands

in Nepal is still lacking.

Fourth, and finally, there is an opportunity for estab-

lishing or strengthening local institutions to sustainably

manage this open access resource. Even now, the habitats

are accessible to everybody after paying a nominal levy

(equivalent to price of one piece of Chinese caterpillar

fungus) fixed by local institutions. For thousands of years,

self-organized local communities have successfully man-

aged resources through sustainable institutions (Ostrom

1999). Emergence of such institutions is facilitated by the

perceived knowledge about the resource and the impacts of

harvesting along with sociocultural incentives for changing

harvesting behaviors (Brooks 2010). In our study area and

many parts of Dolpa, local communities have started for-

mation of formal and informal institutions to regulate

harvests. Fixing the date of beginning the harvest, con-

trolling poaching of the resource through the protection by

community volunteers, setting rules for solid waste man-

agement, determining appropriate locations for camping,

and collecting revenue from the harvesters are the activities

undertaken by those organizations. However, without a

common platform that can bring together all stakeholders,

these activities would not help in fostering sustainable

resource management. Therefore, cooperation between

state agencies, local institutions, researchers, and other

stakeholders is necessary for the long-term management of

this resource.

Chinese caterpillar fungus in the Dolpa region of Nepal

123

Our work represents one of the first efforts to document

the population status of one of the most precious species

that plays a critical role in the livelihoods of thousands of

very poor. Our results raise a series of questions that have a

bearing on the long-term monitoring of Chinese caterpillar

fungus populations; the impact of current harvesting

practices; knowledge of life history, ecology, and distri-

bution of the species; and development of appropriate

harvesting guidelines in the context of management of

Chinese caterpillar fungus by various stakeholders. It is

ironic that for a species that is worth 5–11 billion US

dollars market every year, even the various stages of life

history remain fairly unknown, and there is no systematic

management plan, and trans-national efforts to sustain

populations that across several countries facing similar

human and physical pressures and ecological impacts.

Acknowledgments This work is supported by Rufford Small Grants

for Nature Conservation (RSGs) and National Geographic Society.

We are grateful to Bharat Babu Shrestha, Sujata Shrestha, Shivaraj

Ghimire, Kamal Nepali, Puspa Shahi, and all the people of Dolpa for

their support in the field.

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