Guardians of Language

8/13/2019 Guardians of Language

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)e book is concerned *ainly -it te fo+rt and fift cent+ries and consists of a series of st+dies onte #ra**arian and is !rofession 5Part 26 and a !roso!o#ra!y of te lateanti/+e #ra**arians andte oter teacers of letters belo- te level of retorician 5Part 226. )e sco!e and !+r!ose of te!roso!o#ra!y are described at len#t in te introd+ction to Part 22.

2n constr+ctin# Part 2, 2 ave not atte*!ted to ar#+e a sin#le tesis b+t ave tried to follo- te leadss+##ested by one broad to!icte inter!lay of social stat+s, individ+al skill, and social relations. After

a

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brief !rolo#+e, te first se#*ent, etters in te 0orld 5Ca!ters 1 and &6, sets te ter*s of tedisc+ssion, e*!asiin# te i*!ortance of te #ra**arian;s !rofession and dra-in# attention to so*eof its ano*alies or a*bi#+ities. Ca!ter 1, )e *!ire and describes is !art in !reservin# te lin#+istic, #eo#ra!ic,and social bo+ndaries tat ordered te life of te +rban elite. Providin# te one e(!erience tat all*e*bers of te elite -o+ld sare, is scool -as a so+rce of contin+ity and stability, and -as not leasti*!ortant as s+c in te e*!ire restored and rene-ed after te tro+bles of te tird cent+ry. Ca!ter &,Professio Litterarum, ten e(a*ines te #ra**arian;s role as a !rofessional in tis conte(t andco*!ares tat role -it te *odern notion of a !rofession.

)ere are so*e evident si*ilarities b+t -e are ere concerned *ore -it te differences bet-een teancient !rofession and te *odern conce!tion, -ic stresses te a+tority and a+tono*y tat te!rofessional #ains by *asterin# a body of s!ecialied kno-led#e and skills, and -ic ass+*es tat te!rofessional;s skills contrib+te to te co**on #ood. )ese differences are e(a*ined in tree sections.2n te first, ?o*e @ariable efinitions: iteracy, etters, and te


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at lar#e. et on te social !yra*id of te elite tey stood far closer to te base tan to te !innacle: onetoken of teir social !overty is teir notable lack of social *obility, es!ecially teir li*ited s+ccess in-innin# te careers in te i*!erial service tat -ere o!en to *any oter literary *en in te !eriod. )e#ra**arians -ere t+s caracteried by a co*bination of i# and lo- stat+s: tis a*bi#+ity in t+rnantici!ates te differin# i*a#es of te #ra**arian tat e*er#e first in te follo-in# se#*ent, A Placeto ?tand 5Ca!ters and D6, -ere te #ra**arians s!eak for te*selves, and ten in Ca!ter E, )e

?ocial Relations of te


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!ossible to incl+de very little tat as reaced *e since Fove*ber 198$.

2 ave been e(traordinarily fort+nate in te s+!!ort tat 2 ave received fro* instit+tions andindivid+als alike. 2 terefore -is to tank te Fational >ndo-*ent for te =+*anities for an2nde!endent ?t+dy and Researc 4ello-si! 5198%816 tat !rovided *e a year in -ic to read, tink,and -rite free fro* *y ordinary d+ties te ivision of te =+*anities in te University of Cica#oand Karl I. 0eintra+b, for*erly ean of te ivision, for te leave of absence tat allo-ed *e to take

+! te fello-si! and for te f+nds tat later el!ed *e !+t te draft of te book on co*!+ter forrevision te Iose! Re#enstein ibrary for its s!lendid reso+rces, and !artic+larly-en even tose#ave o+tte staff of 2nterlibrary oan, -o andled any n+*ber of odd re/+ests -it +nfailin# s!eedand co+rtesy te University of California Press, for +ndertakin# to !+blis a bi# book on a s+b3ecto+tside te *ainstrea* of c+rrent classical scolarsi! and te !eo!le at te Press -o ave ad aand in te !ro3ect: oris Kretsc*er for er lon# !atience and #ood advice, Jary a*!rec for erefficient s+!ervision of te !rod+ction, and Pa+l Psoinos for te *arvelo+s !recision and intelli#enceof is editin#. Jy #ratit+de to all tese is all te *ore dee!ly felt -en 2

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reflect tat eac re!resents a for* of s+!!ort +navailable to te *en -o are te s+b3ect of tis book.

4ro* te -ork of oter scolars 2 ave !rofited i**ensely: tis -ill, 2 o!e, be evident fro* te notes,-ere 2 ave tried to record *y debts rater tan !+rs+e disa#ree*ents. Jy #reat !ersonal tanks *+st#o to Peter Bro-n, -o as lon# follo-ed and enco+ra#ed te !ro#ress of te book and -o, as editorof tis series, s-iftly !+t is fin#er on te !laces tat needed i*!rove*ent in te co*!leted draft andto Arnaldo Jo*i#liano, -ose invitation to s!eak abo+t te #ra**arians and teir a+dience to isse*inar in Fove*ber 197E bro+#t *y to+#ts into foc+s at an early, critical sta#e, and -o asal-ays been ready to talk abo+t *y -ork -it te ran#e and a+tority tat is +ni/+ely is. 2n addition,Alan . Boot, Alan Ca*eron, C. P. Iones, Carles >. J+r#ia, and Ia*es >. PARKE 4>BRUAR 198D

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A--R!IATI#NS

Abbreviations of 3o+rnal titles are tose fo+nd inL'anne philologique, -it a fe- s*all and fa*iliar


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variations. Pa!yrolo#ical collections, series, and te like are denoted by te abbreviations fo+nd in I. 4.Lates et al., Checlist of !ditions of Gree Papyri and "straca , &d ed., B+lletin of te A*erican?ociety of Pa!yrolo#ists, s+!!le*ent 1 5Jisso+la, Jont., 19786. Beyond te abbreviations notedbelo-, and e(ce!t in te case of very co**on te(ts, editions of !ri*ary so+rces are noted in tecitations, +s+ally by te editor;s na*e. )e biblio#ra!y !rovides f+ll references for te books andarticles cited in te notes and in te !roso!o#ra!y.

AC" >. ?c-art, ed.,Acta conciliorum oecumenicorum, vols. in 1 5Berlin andei!i#, 1918&6

A! L'anne pigraphique: #e$ue des pu%lications pigraphiques relati$es & l'antiquitromaine5Paris, 1888 6

A( @. =offiller and B. ?aria, eds.,Antie nschriften aus (ugo)sla$ien1 5a#reb, 19$86

Anecd. *el$. =. =a#en, ed.,Anecdota *el$etica5ei!i#, 187%6

Anecd. +ared.


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CCCJ Corpus Christianorum, Contin+atio *ediaevalis 5)+rno+t, 19EE 6

CC?< Corpus Christianorum, series


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CS!L Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum5@ienna, 18EE 6

CS*/ Corpus;antinae, D% vols. 5Bonn, 18&8976

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CTh ). Jo**sen, ed., Theodosiani li%ri ?7 cum Constitutioni%us Sirmondianis5Berlin, 19%D6

0ig ). Jo**sen, ed.,0igesta, Cor!+s i+ris civilis, 1 5Berlin, 189$6

@0 @ouilles de 0elphes5Paris, 19%8 6

@estschr. /erl.gypt. +us.

@estschrift >um 849Bhrig. /estehen des /erliner gyptischen +useums, ?taatlicesJ+se+* + Berlin, Jitteil+n#en a+s der M#y!tiscen ?a**l+n#, 8 5Berlin, 1976

@Gr* 4. Iacoby, ed.,0ie @ragmente der griechischen *istorier5Berlin and eiden,19&$ 6

@*G K. JNller, ed.,@ragmenta historicorum Graecorum, D vols. 5Paris, 18D18D6

@orsch. !ph. @orschungen in !phesos5@ienna, 19%E 6

@? @ouilles de ?anthos, 2nstit+t franOais d;arcolo#ie, 2stanb+l, and 2nstit+t franOaisd;t+des anatoliennes d;2stanb+l 5Paris, 19D8 6


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*ist. Gr. min. . A. indorf, ed.,*istorici Graeci minores, & vols. 5ei!i#, 187%716

=+n#er =. =+n#er,0ie hochsprachliche profane Literatur der /y>antiner, & vols.,=andb+c der Altert+*s-issenscaft, 1&:D.1 and & 5J+nic, 19786

A!pidaur. 0. Peek, ed.,nschriften aus dem Aslepieion $on !pidauros, Abandl+n#en der?Mcsiscen Akade*ie der 0issenscaften + ei!i#, !ilolo#iscistorisceKlasse, E%:& 5Berlin, 19E96

A,ice)Cimie> 1Ceme)nelum AgerCemenelensis6, 4o+illes de Ce*enel+*, & 5Paris, 197D6

A"SP! @. atysev, ed.,nscriptiones antiquae orae septentrionalis Ponti !uini Graecaeet Latinae, vols. 1, &, 5?t. Petersb+r#, 188D19%16 vol. 1, &d ed. 5?t. Petersb+r#,191E6

/u%on 4. ?cindler, ed.,0ie nschriften $on /u%on 1,ord)Lyien6, ?it+n#sbericte derQsterreiciscen Akade*ie der 0issenscaften, !iloso!iscistorisce Klasse,&78:$ 5@ienna, 197&6

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C7#


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GLS . Ialabert, R. Jo+terde, et al., eds.,nscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie,?ervice des anti/+its et des bea+( arts, Bibliot/+e arcolo#i/+e et istori/+e5Paris, 19&9 6

GLTyr I.P. ReyCo/+ais, ed.,nscriptions grecques et latines dcou$ertes dans les fouillesde Tyr 18352)83DE6, vol. 2,nscriptions de la ncropole, B+lletin d+ J+se deBeyro+t, &9 5Paris, 19776

G# R. Ca#nat et al., eds.,nscriptiones Graecae ad res #omanas pertinentes, vols.5Paris, 19%1&76

GSF nschriften griechischen Stdte aus Fleinasien5Bonn, 197& 6

G7# . Joretti, ed.,nscriptiones Graecae ur%is #omae 8)2, ?t+di !+bblicatidall;2stit+to italiano !er la storia antica, 17, &&, &8 5Ro*e, 19E8796

Fy>i. >. ?c-ertei*, ed.,0ie nschriften $on Fy>ios und mge)%ung, vol. 1,Gra%tete5Bonn, 198$ GGSF18H6

LAfr. R. Ca#nat and A. Jerlin, eds.,nscriptions latines d'Afrique 1Tripolitaine Tunisie+aroc65Paris, 19&$6

LAlg. ?.


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nscr. tal. nscriptiones taliae5Ro*e, 19$1 6

Priene 4. =iller von


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5Berlin, 19%D6

"L0 P.


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Altertumsissenschaft5?t+tt#art, 189197&6

#!?+!!l. ge%ungser desFaisers (ustinian, =andb+c der Altert+*s-issenscaft, 8:&: &. )eil, C. =osi+s,0ie rmische Literatur in der Neit der +onarchie %is auf *adrian, t ed. 5J+nic,19$D6 $. )eil, J. ?can,0ie Neit $on *adrian

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188D6 %is auf Constantin 12KE6, $d ed., rev. C. =osi+s and


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191D&16

TA+ >. Kalinka et al., eds., Tituli Asiae +inoris5@ienna, 19%1 6

)e+ffel 0. ?. )e+ffel, Geschichte der rmischen Literatur, $. Band,0ie Literatur $on 35

nach Chr. %is >um Ausgange des Alter)tums, Et ed., rev. 0. Kroll, 4. ?k+tsc, et al.5ei!i# and Berlin, 191$6

TLL Thesaurus linguae Latinae5ei!i#, 19%% 6

0al,#het. Gr. C. 0al, ed.,#hetores Graeci, 9 vols. in 1% 5?t+tt#art and )Nbin#en, 18$&$E6

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&ART I

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&ro,ogue

Anaarbus

2n te so+teast co*er of Asia Jinor lies te #reat !lain left beind as te )a+r+s Jo+ntains dro! a-ayfro* te coast before t+rnin# back to *eet te A*an+s ran#e, -ic rises fro* te so+t. )e !ocketof land t+s for*ed -as called by te


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city;s earlier s+r#e of !ros!erity. 2ndeed, alto+# b+rned by te Persians in &E%, te city *+st still avebeen kno-n to be !ros!ero+s, else te #olds*it -o+ld not ave cosen it as a !ro*isin# site for ise(!ensive skills.G9H 2t ad of co+rse can#ed as -ell, in a -ay tat Aeti+s co+ld ave antici!ated forte city tat ad boasted te title of te*!le -arden several #enerations earlier co+ld no- clai* its o-nCristian *artyrs and a re#+lar ecclesiastical ierarcy, overseen by te Arian biso! Atanasi+s.G1%H

G7H )e *+t+al onor -o+ld ave been bro+#t o+t all te *ore if, as co**only in s+c circ+*stances,

a co!y of te for*al decree -as sent by te ost city to be set +! in te onorand;s native to-n: cf., fore(a*!le,La%raunda$:&.EE, on te #ra**arian )i. Cla+di+s Anteros, !!. 1$Df. andG/ulg. $:&.1D7$+A+A8.18G1& ?+!!. &8C C. P. Iones,#oman -orldE% n. &E.

G8H 4or te follo-in# t-o !ara#ra!s, see Pilostor#.*!$.1D, -it Part 22 no. 1E7.

G9H Arc:


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+rban society, bet-een te fa*ily and te co**+nity, or bet-een te t-o c+lt+res of !resti#e, classicaland Cristian. B+t +nlike oter i*!ortant *iddle*en -it -o* -e are fa*iliarretoricians andbiso!s, for e(a*!lete #ra**arian fo+nd tat is distinctive role -as also is #reatest -eakness:te *an -ose f+nction set i* a*id *any vital s!eres of activity *ost often -as -ito+t a !lace atte center of any of te*.

Jany st+dents of anti/+ity today are only !eri!erally a-are of te #ra**arian. 2n tis tey are like

te ancients te*selves. )o is conte*!oraries, te #ra**arian -as co**only a sa!e s!ied o+t ofte corner of te eye, a rec+rrent fi#+re in te *ar#ins of a series of #reat *+rals: alto+# te centrals+b3ects of te tablea+( *i#t can#e, te *ar#inal fi#+re !ersisted, in different attit+des servin#different str+ct+ral ends in te co*!ositions. )o +nderstand te attit+des and te ends, -e *+st firstco*e to ter*s -it teir varied conte(ts.

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L!TT!RS IN T/! 0#RL1

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.

ord, #ive *e te #race of #ood +nderstandin#, tat 2 *i#t learn letters and #ain te +!!erand over *y fello-s.A cild;s !rayer at ba!tis*. >+strati+s, @ita >+tycii 8

2f te #ra**arian often sli!!ed beyond is conte*!oraries; notice, tat -as no do+bt in !art beca+seis contrib+tion to teir -ay of life -as so fa*iliar. 4or te classes tat eld te +!!er and in lateanti/+ity, entry into te #ra**arian;s scool -as te first ste! beyond te confines of te fa*ily. Acild;s identity as a *e*ber of te elite and so is f+t+re !o-er and !resti#e -ere to a #reat e(tentdeter*ined by tat !assa#e and by te scoolin# tat follo-ed.

)y!ically tat scoolin# -as !+rely literary. 4ro* abo+t a#e seven or ei#t 5alto+# te a#e -asvariable6, te st+dent;s e(!erience -as #overned by tree #oals, !+rs+ed first in te #ra**arian;sscool, ten in te retorician;s: *astery of correct lan#+a#e, co**and of a fairly s*all n+*ber ofclassical te(ts, and an ability to t+rn te kno-led#e of lan#+a#e and literat+re to a facility inco*!osition and s!eec. ?et in a for* already cent+ries old, te #ra**arian;s *ain contrib+tion totose ends consisted of te kno-led#e of s!eakin# correctly and te e(!lication of te !oets.G1H

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Kno-led#e of correct s!eec te #ra**arian conveyed as a set of r+les #overnin# !onolo#y,*or!olo#y, and te beavior of te individ+al !arts of s!eec to+# synta( ad been bro+#t intote a*bit of #ra**ar in (!lication of te!oets co*bined st+dy of te lan#+a#e, as its lar#er !art, -it istorical and etical instr+ction. 2n linebyline and -ordby-ord !ro#ress tro+# te te(t, te !oet;s lan#+a#e -as e(!lained and +sed as a

tool to confir* te #ra**arian;s r+les. Persons, events, and oter #ealienand te s-atces of!iloso!ical or reli#io+s doctrine -it -ic te a+tor -as s+!!osed to ave dra!ed is verse -ere#lossed as tey occ+rred. )e actions of *en and #ods -ere e(!lained and 3+d#ed in ter*s of acce!tedmoresand so -ere +sed to confir* te*.G&H

)e #ra**arian;s instr+ction and te effects of te literary ed+cation are to *odern eyes a!!allin#.2ndict*ents are co**on. )e sco!e -as intolerably narro-, e(cl+din# *ost st+dies no- associated-it a liberal ed+cation. 0itin its o-n do*ain, *oreover, te ed+cation -as s+ffocatin#. Jerely!edantic 5it is said6 -ere not s+!erficial, it first coked te s!irit of literat+re -it its r+les, ten idte body +nder a ri#id for*alis*. 0orst of all, it fra#*ented te st+dent;s +nderstandin# -ile doin#little to !rovide te #overnin# classes -it te s!ecific skills or conce!t+al abits tey needed to#overn co*!etently.

4ar fro* +nderstandin# is c+lt+re, te *an e*er#in# fro* te scools of #ra**ar and retoric -o+ldave no overall vie- of istory, only a *e*ory of dis3ointed b+t edifyin# vi#nettes no syste*atickno-led#e of !iloso!y or of any !iloso!ic scool, b+t a collection of etical co**on!laces noor#anic sense even of te lan#+a#e e ad so !ainstakin#ly ac/+ired, b+t r+les and cate#ories, dividedand s+bdivided, or rare le(ical tidbits to dis!lay like !recio+s 3e-els. )e ite*s a*assed over years ofscoolin#, like sli!s filed a-ay in a vast rank of !i#eonoles, co+ld be s+**oned +! individ+ally andco*bined to *eet te needs of te *o*ent, b+t no +nifyin# relationsi! a*on# te* -as !erceived.G$H

G&H 4or te best and *ost recent acco+nts of #ra**atical instr+ction, see Jarro+, *istoire&$ff.,%%ff. Clarke,*igher !ducation11ff. Bonner,!ducation189ff. and cf. Bar-ick,#emmius&1Dff.Y+ac/+arelli, Scuola%ff. Ln etical +tility as an ai* of te #ra**arian;s enarratio, see es!.

al*ann,Fleine Schriften&D7ff., and, e.#., A+#.0e catech. rud. E.1%,


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tecnolo#ical and de*ocratic society, are all te *ore !iercin# beca+se tey co*e fro* te o+tside.)eir acc+racy is rater confir*ed tan ne#ated by te likeliood tat *ost ed+cated *en of lateanti/+ity -o+ld ave sr+##ed off s+c criticis*s, if tey co+ld ave +nderstood te* at all one *i#tadd only tat te c+lt+ral sit+ation t+s described -as not !ec+liar to late anti/+ity, or to anti/+ity in#eneral.GDH B+t tose vie-s also offer +s a startin# !oint for to+# te fo( kno-s *any tin#s, teed#eo# kno-s one bi# tin#. )o !lace te #ra**arian;s scool in its conte(t, it is necessary to be#in

-it a feat+re of te scool tat e(!lains bot te criticis*s and te reason -y tey -o+ld ave beeno!a/+e to te ancients. )e #ra**arian;s instr+ction -as sa!ed at least as *+c by social as byintellect+al considerations, and te #ra**arian i*self -as e*bedded in a social syste* -ere -at*attered -ere -ealt, distinction, and elo/+ence a*id a !o!+lation vastly !oor, anony*o+s, andilliterate -ere a*on# te -ealty, distin#+ised, and elo/+ent, fine ierarcical discri*inations ca*eas

GH Ln te #eneral /+estion of co*!etence and te +sef+lness of teir ed+cation to te elite of#overn*ent, see JacJ+llen, Crisis8ff. on te caracter of Ro*an b+rea+cratese, see is sotitledst+dy in Traditio18 519E&6 $Eff. Ln te blindness of te ed+cated classes, see AlfSldi, Conflict9Eff., es!. 1%Eff. b+t AlfSldi;s tesis leads i* serio+sly to overstate o- !ec+liar te attit+desdescribed -ere to te fo+rt cent+ry and to te Ro*an senatorial aristocracy. 4or a less car#ed

3+d#*ent of te literary ed+cation in te fo+rt cent+ry, see o-ney, >d+cation.GDH ?ee es!. 4inley, se19$ff. and te Retractationes in Jarro+, Saint AugustinE7&ff.

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nat+rally as breatin# and -ere every bit as i*!ortant -ere co*!etence -as defined lar#ely by!ersonal and social, not tecnical, criteria, and one;s conce!tion of humanitas-as so circ+*scribed asto e*brace only tose -o sared one;s o-n attain*ents. 0atever its oter sortco*in#s, te#ra**arian;s scool did one tin# s+!erbly, !rovidin# te lan#+a#e and morestro+# -ic a socialand !olitical elite reco#nied its *e*bers.

)e first t-o ca!ters, ten, -ill s+rvey te social conte(t in -ic te #ra**arian *+st be set teirb+rden can be described si*!ly. +rin# te first five cent+ries of o+r era, te #ra**arian;s scool -aste sin#le *ost i*!ortant instit+tion, o+tside te fa*ily, tro+# -ic te #overnin# classes of tee*!ire !er!et+ated and e(tended te*selves. Lfferin# tose classes te one tin# tat a!!roaced aco**on e(!erience, it only increased in i*!ortance as oter, co*!etin# instit+tionsfor e(a*!le, teold ast, it -as +nder*ined only #rad+ally in te 0est by tecontraction of te i*!erial #overn*ent and te C+rc;s conco*itant develo!*ent of ne- !ats ofleadersi! for te elite to follo-. )e ca!ters belo- -ill elaborate tese !oints and so -ill considerte different an#les fro* -ic te #ra**arian;s !rofession *+st be vie-ed.

GEH >nd of te #y*nasia: Cla+de,/y>antinische Stadt7E iebesc+et,Antioch1DEff. and note?i3!estei3n,Liste, -it te s+!!le*ent atP(ulTheon. a!!endi( Aa total of DD individ+al#y*nasiarcs kno-n fro* fo+rtcent+ry >#y!t, -it all b+t 7 of te datable e(a*!les fallin# before$D%, te latest 5Listenos. E97&6 occ+rrin# in $7% at L(yrync+s.

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%ha2ter (

The Guardian and /is -urden

Lne of o+r earliest -itnesses to te #ra**arian;s role is an inscri!tion fro* te 2onian city of Prieneonorin# a local benefactor, datin# to so*eti*e after 8 B.C. A*on# te *an;s services is noted is

s+bsidy for a #ra**arian to instr+ct te yo+t of Priene in lan#+a#e and literat+re 5 6,

tro+# -ic so+ls !ro#ress to-ard e(cellence G H and te condition !ro!er to +*anity G

H.G1H 2tself a co**on!lace, a token of sared ass+*!tions, te state*ent reflects te belieftat e(cellence and +*anity not only co+ld be derived fro* te literary ed+cation b+t co+ld even bedefined by it. 2f te so+l t+s t+tored kne- te condition !ro!er to +*anity, one not so ed+cated -as

less tan +*an, like +ned+cated 4ort+ne 5 6irrational, br+te, and cr+el.G&H =avin# *adei*self +*an, te ed+cated *an belon#ed to a breed a!art.G$H

)is end+rin# belief in te se!arateness belon#in# to and created by te literary c+lt+re fo+nde(!ression in several !ersistent *eta!ors. Jost notably, an idea of sacredness attaced to teinstr+ction and to its te(ts. 2n te late first cent+ry A.. one #ra**arian clai*ed on is e!ita!, 2

be#an te oly instr+ction G H of -ellborn cildrenGH anoter not lon# after !raised is!rofession as te st+dy of sacred letters:GDH te senti*ents reeco do-n to te fift cent+ry, and

G1HPriene11&.7$ff.

G&H CG&7&&..

G$H Cf. ?nell0isco$ery&7ff. Jarro+, JLS2KLS&%9ff.

GDH 4lor+s 7erg. or. $.8,praecipientem %onos mores et sacrarum studia litterarum, -it al*ann,Fleine Schriften&DEf., e*!asiin# te connection bet-een te ai*s of etical instr+ction 5%onimores6and so, #ood orderand te sacredness attrib+ted to te litterae. 2n addition to te a+torscited by al*ann, ibid. &D7 n. E ad fin., conte*!orary -it 4lor+s and s!eakin# of te sacredness ofliterary !+rs+its, see also Y+intil.nst. 1..E, interiora $elut sacri huius adeunti%us appare%it multarerum su%tilitas, in is enco*iastic defense of #ra**ar.

' 1E '

te !raise of @er#il;s -ork as a sacred !oe*.GEH ?+c voices s!oke -it te kno-led#e tat tey

!ossessed so*etin# set a!art and end+rin#, so*etin# f+nda*ental to te sce*e of ri#t order: tesacred e(ercised a !o-erf+l centri!etal !+ll on a select #ro+! of *en, to -o* it afforded a s!ecial,sared, coerent -ay of life.

Conse/+ently, te /+estion of o- one co+ld #ain access to te sacred also arose, to be elaborated int-o co**on b+t antitetical *eta!ors. 2n one, te literary c+lt+re -as a *ystery, of te J+ses or teancients its ac/+isition -as an initiation, by -ic te tin#s not to be s!oken -ere revealed.G7H )e*eta!or -ell conveys te sense of distinction sared by an elect. B+t insofar as initiation in a *ysteryi*!lies a transfi#+rin# revelation, a !assive e(!erience, an irreversible can#e, te rec+rrent cast ofto+#t does little to convey te reality of te literary ed+cationG8H its tr+e caracter is *ore acc+rately


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ca!t+red by te second *eta!or, at once *ore co**on and *ore conse/+ential. )e scool ofliterat+re is te #y*nasi+* of -isdo*, -ere is so-n te !at to te blessed life.G9H )e literaryed+cation is te #y*nastic of te so+lG1%H te

GEH Pocas 7. 7erg. !raef. &: carmen sacrum. Jacrob. Sat. 1.&.1$:sacrum poema.

G9H Pocas GLD.11.&ff.

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literary c+lt+re, a *atter of trainin# 5 6, acieved tro+# te s-eat of te J+ses.G11H

)e !rocess -as #rad+al, !ainstakin#and !ainf+l. ike te atlete trained in te old #y*nasi+*, test+dent of literat+re slo-ly ac/+ired is kno-led#e and skills by re!lacin# +nrefined abits -it #oodabits +ntil tese 5ideally6 beca*e second nat+re la!ses into te bad, old abits -ere re!aid -it abeatin#.G1&H Unlike te initiate, te #y*nast -as not se!arated decisively fro* is !ast b+t ad tostr+##le constantly a#ainst it, +sin# is virt+es*e*ory, dili#ence, disci!lineto fi#t free of te old-ays and so rise above i*self. Unre*ittin# and a+stere, te effort offered corres!ondin#ly #reatre-ards. )ro+# tenacio+s *e*ory and toil, te #ra**arian io*edes -rites, -e acieve tes/+areset so+ndness of s!eec and its !olised brilliance !rod+ced by skill. 0e are ten as s+!erior tote +ned+cated as tey are to cattle.G1$H )e co*!arison -as te oldest article of fait in te literaryc+lt+re, e(tendin# back to 2socrates, re!eated later tro+# te Renaissance and beyond. )e elo/+ent*an -as notin# less tan a distinct and artificial s!ecies: e ad created i*self, and -as for tatreason enor*o+sly !ro+d of is acieve*ent.

At te tresold of tat acieve*ent stood te #ra**arian, controllin# te access to elo/+ence -it iste(ts in one and and is cane in te oter. )e #ra**arian;s !osition ere is ca!t+red in anoterrec+rrent *eta!or, tat of te custos, or #+ardian.G1H )e #ra**arian -as, first, te #+ardian of telan#+a#e, custos Latini sermonis, in a !rase of ?eneca, or #+ardian of artic+late +tterance, in te

descri!tion of A+#+stine.G1DH =e -as to !rotect te lan#+a#e a#ainst corr+!tion, to !reserve itscoerence, and to act as an a#ent of control: t+s, early in is

G1&H Lverco*in# bad abits te f+nction of te scool: see es!. Ion Crysost.Ad pop. Ant. o*. 8.D5PG9.976 and cf. Ca!. D !!. 18789.

G1$H io*edes GL1.&99.18ff. cf.


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kno-led#e of s!eakin# correctly and te e(!lication of te !oets, and te task i*!osed a for*idableb+rden +!on i*. As #+ardian of lan#+a#e and tradition, te #ra**arian 3oined tose -o !reservedte bo+ndaries bet-een order and caos. )e -ei#t of te b+rden can be #a+#ed by co*!arin# te#ra**arian -it oter custodes: te *ilitary co**ander on te frontier 5limes6 of te e*!ire,G18H orte !rovincial #overnor in is role as 3+d#e, te #+ardian of te la-s.G19H >ac -as a !ivotal fi#+re.)e soldier !reserved te #eo#ra!ic distinction bet-een te insider and te o+tsider te #overnor,

!laced bet-een te local !o!+lation and te central #overn*ent, *aintained te ierarcicaldistinctions tat sa!ed te e*!ire;s !olitical str+ct+re and its syste* of la-s, -erein le#al stat+sde!ended on social stat+s. )e #ra**arian -as si*ilarly !ivotal in is o-n s!ere, standin# -erelin#+istic, #eo#ra!ic, and social distinctions conver#ed. Alto+# tose distinctions are essentiallyinse!arable, it is +sef+l to consider te* one by one.

)e #ra**arian;s lin#+istic #+ardiansi!, te *ost i*!ortant and *ost co*!le( ele*ent of is!rofession, -ill be disc+ssed in later ca!

G17H A+#.0e mus. &.1.1.

G18H CL$.EEE% ZLC7798 ZGLSD.&7%, on ?ilvin+s, limitis . . . fortissime custos. 4or is rank,comes et du Phoenices56, cf.PL#!2 s.v., !. 8&.

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ters for te *o*ent it is s+fficient to sketc its salient feat+res. 2n essence, te #ra**arian !resentedi*self as an arbiter of te clai*s of tree co*!etin# forces:G&%H te abit of conte*!orary +sa#e5consuetudoO usus6, te a+tority 5auctoritas6 of te classical literary *odels, and nat+re 5natura6,tat is, te nat+ral !ro!erties of te lan#+a#e, deter*ined by reasoned or syste*atic analysis 5 ratio6and set do-n as r+les 5regulae6 in te #ra**arian;s andbook 5ars6. 2n !ractice, te #ra**arian s!ent*+c of is ti*e !rotectin# te nat+re of te lan#+a#e 5and so is o-n ars6 a#ainst te infl+ences ofabit and a+tority.

)e conse/+ences -ere t-ofold. 4irst, te #ra**arian, as a *an of re#+lar s!eec, -as f+nda*entallya *an of distinctions.


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G&H ?ee, e.#., actant.nst. D.1 Arnob.Ad$. nat. 1.D9 Ier. Comm. s. proph. !rol., Comm. on. $Cyril. Ale(. C. ulian. D5PG7E.8D$6 2sid. Pel.!p. .&8, E7, 91.

G&DH @ernac+lar lan#+a#es: see Bardy, uestion Iones,L#!991ff. JacJ+llen, Provincialan#+a#es Jillar, ocal C+lt+re Br+nt, Ro*aniation l7%ff. =iss: cf. Iero*e;s re#+lar +se ofstridorandstridulusto caracterie te so+nd of te vario+s ?e*itic lan#+a#es 5!p. 1$%.D, 1&D.1&Comm. Galat. $ !rol. 7. *ilarion. && Comm. s. proph. .11 Comm. Tit. $6, and Ja(i*. )a+rin.

Serm. D% 5PLD7.E$D6. 4or one;s s!eec to can#e s+ddenly fro* te vernac+lar to a lan#+a#e ofc+lt+re -as te si#n of a *iracle: Jark te eacon, 7ie de Saint PorphyreEEE7 nterin# te #ra**arian;s scool *eant tat one -as safely !ast an i*!ortant #eo#ra!ic +rdle, tatone ad 3oined te s*all *inority of te !o!+lation -o sared te life of te to-ns. 2t also *eant tatone -o+ld be dra-n -illynilly into a to-nbo+nd vision of te -orld, a

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vision so fi(ed tat te nat+ral i#norance of te r+stic *i#t cas+ally be +sed to e(!lain a verse of@er#ilG&7H and so !o-erf+l tat te Cristian !reacer -o+ld need to e*!asie tat te #race of


23/461

2t is necessary to i*a#ine te ed+cational #eo#ra!y of te e*!ire, not in ter*s of te #reat land*asses rin#in# te Jediterranean b+t as an arci!ela#o of cities -ere scools of liberal letters -ere tobe fo+nd. )is distrib+tion enco+ra#ed a #ood deal of island o!!in#. )o an o+tsider, like te desertfater ?t. Antony, te s!ectacle of te -o+ldbe

G&7H,aturalis inperitia: )i. Cla+di+s onat+snterp. 7ergil. ad Aen. 7.8& 5&.7&.Dff.


24/461

)e state*ent tat one;s co+sins ad s+ffered not even a #ra**arianG$9H revealed as *+c abo+tteir social standin# as it did abo+t teir lin#+istic and literary attain*ents. )o *ake s+c a state*ent-ito+t bl+s or re!roac, as A+#+stine did, si#naled tat one -as ste!!in# o+tside te c+lt+re ofsec+lar !resti#e. 2t -as a ste! fe- of is ed+cated conte*!oraries -ere -oleeartedly !re!ared totake. Anyone -o reaced te a#e at -ic A+#+stine -rote tose -ords -o+ld ave ad a /+artercent+ry of conditionin#, for*in# ass+*!tions of !resti#e and !rivile#e tat -o+ld ave beco*e second

nat+re. ?+c ass+*!tions are fo+nd every-ere, fro* letters of reco**endationa central doc+*entof te a#e, to -ic -e -ill ret+rn re!eatedlyto *ore +ne(!ected or obli/+e for*s: te kno-led#etat one co+ld a!!ro!riately refer to is ed+cation as #ro+nds for s!ecial consideration in a le#ala!!eal,G%H or te cas+al ass+*!tion tat even !a#an literary *en co+ld by virt+e of teir c+lt+rala+tority and social standin# co*!etently 3+d#e a reli#io+s debate bet-een Jani and a Cristianbiso!,G1H or even te distinctions tat !rod+ced -at can be called a socially stratified sense of+*or. 0alkin# alon# te streets of Cyrene, a *an co+ld see te #raffito, Y+estion: 0o -as tefater of Pria*;s cildren and s*ile, reco#niin# a scoolboy;s !arody of te #ra**arian;scatecis*, !era!s recallin# te 3okes of is o-n scool days.G&H I+st so, te reci!ient of one of?y**ac+s;s letters -o+ld ave s*iled kno-in#ly to see i* a!!ly te obli/+ely obscene @er#ilianta# huic aliud mercedis eritto an ene*y.G$H

G$8H ?ee es!. Petit,Jtudiants11&ff., 1&&ff., on ibani+s;s recr+itin# st+dents fro* te !rovinces onteacers; *ove*ent, see Ca!s. $ and E.

G$9H A+#.0e %eat. $it. 1.E.

G%H Cf.PS1$.1$$7.&1&$ 5s. 222, !rov. +nkno-n: a !etition to te !refect6, -it a like note str+ck insi*ilar doc+*ents of te fo+rt cent+ry 5PFlninv. D$$ DED7 and D$$ 91% Gan. $8, Pano!olisH,/+oted by Bro-ne, =ar!ocration 19&f.6 and te fift 5PCair+asp. $.E7&9D, -it Part 22 no. 786.

G1H ?eeActa Archelai1& Z >!i!an.Panar. haeres. EE.1%ff., -it Part 22 nos. 179, &$E. )e do+btf+listoricity of te acco+nt does not detract fro* te !oint *ade ere.

G&HASA19E1E&, &19ff. no. 19&, -it Kaster, ?coolboy;s B+rles/+e.

G$H ?y**.!p. E.&&.1 and @er#.!cl. E.&E, -it Kaster, >co.

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)ese co*fortin# ass+*!tions -ere !rod+ced by scools not only s!arse in #eo#ra!ic distrib+tion b+t*arkedly e(cl+sive in social or#aniation. 2t is necessary ere to tink not of a sin#le, inte#rated trackof !ri*ary and secondary scools, like te syste* kno-n to 5and !rod+ced in6 te t-entiet cent+ry,b+t of different ty!es of scools servin# different se#*ents of te !o!+lation.GH )e !o!+lation at

lar#e, *assively illiterate, -as served 5o-ever ill6 by te scools of letters 5 ,

ludi litterarii6, instit+tions of lo- !resti#e tat !rovided #eneral, +tilitarian literacy. B+t oters, tose-o ad access to te liberal scools of #ra**ar and retoric, -o+ld receive te r+di*ents ofinstr+ction at o*e or fro* teacers assi#ned to i*!art te first ele*ents in te #ra**arian;s scooltey t+s -o+ld *eet te #ra**arian as teir first teacer. )e ty!ical !rod+ct of te scool of liberalletters -as terefore ins+lated fro* te lo-er orders, 3+st as te teacers of liberal letters -eredistin#+ised by teir i#er fees and teir le#al !rivile#es fro* te co**on teacer of letters.

)-o !oints so+ld be stressed concernin# tis arran#e*ent. 4irst, it is not in itself !ec+liar to lateanti/+ity, te !rod+ct of a s+dden aristocratiation of te literary c+lt+re, b+t stands revealed in so+rcesran#in# fro* te first tro+# te si(t cent+ries. 2f any can#e is visible, it is not in o- te scools


25/461

-ere str+ct+red b+t in o- te str+ct+re -as *aintained and in te clientele it served: te a+tority andte b+rden -ere !era!s increasin#ly sared by te i*!erial #overn*ent,GDH and sons of so*ei*!erial f+nctionaries !era!s took !laces tat sons of te de!ressed se#*ent of te c+rial order advacated. ?econd, tere -as so*e *ove*ent fro* one ty!e of scool to te oter, es!ecially -en ast+dent -as fort+nate eno+# to *ove fro* an o+tlyin# to-n tat ad no #ra**arian to a lar#er centertat did. B+t !assa#e fro* a scool of letters to a liberal scool -as irre#+lar, a trickle, not a steady

strea*. Lf te tree *en noted above=ilarion, Iero*e, and A+#+stineonly te last clearly be#an ina scool of letters.GEH 0ile tere -ere s+rely oter

GH 4or te follo-in# -ic differs so*e-at fro* te +s+al acco+nt of te instit+tionalconfi#+ration of te scools, see Kaster, Fotes Boot, ?coolin# and >le*entary >d+cation cf.also Iones,L#!997f. 4or f+rter n+ance, see Ca!. & ?o*e @ariable efinitions.

GDH ?ee Ca!. E !!. &1Eff.

GEH A+#+stine: cf. Kaster, Fotes $&E, $1. 4or =ilarion, Iero*e 57. *ilarion. &6 *entions no!reli*inary scoolin# before e -as sent to te #ra**arian;s scool at Ale(andria e -as !robablya*on# tose -o ad te #ra**arian as teir first teacer 5see Kaster, Fotes $&9ff.6. Iero*e: Boot5ate, es!. $D1ff.6 as ar#+ed !la+sibly tat Iero*e be#an is ed+cation +nder a #ra**arian 5te

"r%ilius sae$iensof C. #ufin. 1.$%6 at Ro*e. Fote tat even if is ar#+*ents are re3ected in favor ofte standard vie-, tat Iero*e received so*e ed+cation at ?tridon before #oin# to Ro*e, te nat+re oftat ed+cation is not i**ediately clear cf. Kaster, Fotes $&ff.

' &D '

s+c instances,G7H s!ecific e(a*!les do not tr+st te*selves for-ard: one *+st not #eneralie fro*te fa*iliar b+t !era!s e(ce!tionally brilliant 5and fort+nate6 case of A+#+stine.

)e i#er fees te teacers of #ra**ar and retoric car#ed, te additional lar#esse tey traditionallyreceived on s!ecial occasions, and te allo-ances yo+n# *en -o+ld need if tey traveled to *a3or

centers of st+dy all re/+ired s+r!l+s -ealt.G8H As actanti+s re*arked, instead of #ivin# tanks forbein# born +*an, *ale,


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on livin# conditions #enerally, see Petit,Jtudiants1ff.

GD%H Petit,Jtudiants17&,19f.

GD1H Ier. Comm. !phes. $.E 5PL&E.D7A6.

GD&H Ln social ori#ins and access to scools in te 0est, see also Fellen, 7iri98ff.

GD$H iebesc+et,Antioch8E.

GDH Comm. Galat. $.E 5PL&E.D9B6. Iero*e;s ed+cation 0as !robably *ade !ossible by is fa*ily;slandoldin#s, for -ic see!p. EE.1.

GDDH Conf. &.$.D!p. 1&E.7.

GDEH ?ee Part 22 no. &%.

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)e o+tlook for te lo-er orders -as still less !ro*isin#. 4e- st+dents fro* lo-er levels of societytan tose already *entioned are kno-n to ave entered te #ra**arian;s scool: Aeti+s, !atronied

by te anony*o+s #ra**arian of Anaarb+sGD7H or >+stati+s, te son of a clotes factor, ed+cated5accordin# to te a#io#ra!ic tradition6 by a #ra**arian at Fico*ediaGD8H or te tree freed*en;ssons -o ta+#t as #ra**arians at Bordea+(.GD9H 2n addition, tere -as !robably a si#nificant dro!o+trate. Lf fiftyseven st+dents -ose len#t of st+dy in ibani+s;s scool is kno-n, tirtyfive follo-edte co+rse of retoric for only one or t-o years, t-elve for only tree or fo+r years, and te oter tenfor five or si( years.GE%H >vidence s+##ests tat te !yra*id of enroll*ents so+ld be !ro3ected farterdo-n-ard,GE1H tat tere -as also attrition bet-een te scools of #ra**ar and retoric and -itin te#ra**arian;s scoolence te earlier state*ent tat te #ra**arian;s scool -o+ld be te only tin#a!!roacin# a co**on e(!erience for te elite. et in so*e res!ects it -as eno+#: in lan#+a#e and*anners, te *an -o ad never attended te #ra**arian;s scool -as *ore *arked tan te *an-o ad attended te #ra**arian;s scool b+t ad not #one on to retoric te latter, *oreover, -as not

necessarily s+t off fro* a career o!en to a *an of liberal ed+cation.GE&H 2f notin# else, eGD7H Pilostor#.*!$.1D, -it Prolo#+e above.

GD8H ?ee Part 22 no. &$ for co**ent also on te istoricity of te acco+nt.

GD9H ?ee Part 22 nos. %, 1E, 1ED. Fote tat tese are te only #ra**arians of tis social standin#kno-n in te !eriod: see Ca!. $. A*on# oter liberally ed+cated *en of +*ble ori#ins -o acievedso*e e*inence, one *i#t *ention, e.#., 4est+s of )rident+* 5ZPL#!2 s.v. 4est+s $, !!. $$f.6,described as ultimi sanguinis et ignotiat A**. Jarc. &9.&.&& Pa*!re!i+s te #ra**arian and!olitical advent+rer, said to ave be#+n life as a !oor *an 5Part 22 no. 116 and !era!s 4l. Jalli+s)eodor+s, -ose antecedents are !assed over in Cla+dian;s !ane#yric 5cf.PL#!2 s.v. )eodor+s &7,!. 9%&6. B+t lo- birt and !overty are notably relative ter*s tere is no reason to s+!!ose tat

4est+s, for instance, -as in is ori#ins te social inferior of, say, Iero*e: see Jatte-s, -esternAristocracies7 cf. Part 22 no. E ad fin. 2t is +nlikely tat any of tese *en -as co*!arable in isori#ins to te fi#+res *entioned in tis and te !recedin# t-o notes.

GE%H Petit,JtudiantsE&ff., -it !!. 9D9E, 1DDf., 17%ff. Fote te *ost co**on reasons for -itdra-alafter one or t-o years: fa*ily circ+*stances, e.#., re!lace*ent of a deceased fater in te local curia5cf. Ko!acek, C+rial is!lace*ents $&7ff., for te career of 4ir*in+s6 or te !+rs+it of careers inadvocacy and te la-. 4or tree years as te indis!ensable *ini*+* for a toro+# #ro+ndin# inretoric, at least in te o!inion of ibani+s, see Petit,JtudiantsED.


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GE1H ?ee es!. 7ie d'Aleandre l'AcmteD 5P"E.EE%f.6: Ale(ander !roceeds to serve aspraefectianusdirectly fro* ed+cation in #ra**ar. Cf. also te career i*a#ined by ?y*eon of Jeso!ota*ia 5above n.76 and, e.#., te case of >+stati+s 5above n. D86.

GE&H Cf. 7ie d'Aleandre5!recedin# note6 and ?y*eon of Jeso!ota*ia 5above n. 76.

' &7 'co+ld clai* te letters 5tat is, liberal letters6 or te #ifts of te J+ses s+fficient for !+rely !ersonaldistinction.

)e e(cl+siveness of te literary c+lt+re ad t-o evident conse/+ences. 4irst, letters or te likerec+rred as one of te tree or fo+r *ost i*!ortant *arks of stat+s-at Pa+lin+s of Fola *eant-en e referred to honos litterae domusas te tokens of !resti#e in te -orld, or -at Iero*e adin *ind -en e s!oke of te noble *an, fl+ent of s!eec, -ealty, a vivid fi#+re flanked by anacco*!ani*ent of te !o-erf+l, set off a#ainst te backdro! of te *ob.GE$H At one e(tre*e,literary attain*ents -o+ld !rovide e*inence at te to*b, if no-ere else, a fact tat acco+nts for tefre/+ent *ention of s+c attain*ents on te e!ita!s of cildren or yo+ts, !atetic re*inders of

di#nity acieved and !ro*ise c+t sort.GEH At te oter e(tre*e, literary c+lt+re follo-ed one tro+#life, to be noted re#+larly, for e(a*!le, a*on# te virt+es of *en -o ad #one on to old te i#estoffices of state.GEDH )e !rase a*on# te virt+es is +sed advisedly ere: te literary c+lt+re in itself#+aranteed virt+e its ac/+isition si#naled tat one !ossessed disci!line, an a!!etite for toil, and teoter etical /+alities tat *arked a *an fit to sare te b+rden of #overn*ent.GEEH0octrina!res+*edmores to be a scolar !res+*ed tat one -as te ri#t sort, a #entle*an. )at fact *+st en#ross teattention, o-ever irrelevant to co*!etent r+le te literary ed+cation *i#t see* to *odern eyes.GE7H

GE$H Pa+lin. Fol. Carm. &.81f. Ier.!p. EE.E cf. id. Comm. on. $ 5PL&D.11$B6.

GEDH >.#., eloquentia5litterarum lumen, etc.6 incl+ded -it iustitia integritas auctoritas no%ilitas5$el sim.6 in onorific inscri!tions dedicated to . A+reli+s Aviani+s ?y**ac+ssignoPos!ori+s

5CLE.1E986, l+li+s A#ri+s )arr+teni+s Jarcian+s 5CLE.17$D6, Petroni+s Prob+s 5CLE.17D16, .)+rci+s ?ec+nd+ssignoAsteri+s 5CLE.177&6. Cf. CLD.7917 ZA,ice)Cimie>!. 9, e!ita! of C.?+bri+s ?ec+ndin+s,flamen et patronus pro$inciae pietatis eloquentiae morum magister.

GEEH 4or te learned Z te #ood, and te +ned+cated Z te cr+de and slotf+l 5 inertes6, cf. A+r. @ict.0eCaes. 9.1&. 4or te !lace of s+c virt+es as disci!line and dili#ence in te ideolo#y of letters, seeabove on te #y*nastic of te so+l and belo-, Ca!. & 2nde!endence and Constraint.

GE7H Cf. Jarro+,*istoiref.

' &8 '

etters validated clai*s to stat+s, bot *oral and socialalto+# te t-o -ere ardly se!arate to teliberally ed+cated *an.

)e f+sion el!s to e(!lain te second conse/+ence of te literary c+lt+re;s e(cl+siveness, tei*!ortance of liberal st+dies in +!-ard social *obility. 2f in teory te *an of letters co+ld be!res+*ed to be te ri#t sort, in !ractice te !res+*!tion !rovided entry into te net-ork of !ersonalrelationsi!s and !atrona#e tat co+ld lead to -ealt, offices, and #ood *arria#es. )e #eneralobservation of A+#+stine and Ion Crysosto*, tat liberal letters f+rtered te*!oral a*bitions,GE8H isa*!ly borne o+t by s!ecific cases: A+#+stine i*self, A+soni+s and oter teacers at Bordea+(,GE9Hibani+s;s st+dents,G7%H retoricians and advocates -o beca*e #overnors,G71H -anderin# !ane#yrists,


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G7&H and even a fe- fairly obsc+re #ra**arians.G7$H

0en -e face tis !ict+re, it is i*!ortant to re*e*ber several !oints. 4irst, te *an t+s !ried for ised+cation f+nda*entally e*bodied contin+ity. )is is tr+e in te obvio+s sense tat literary attain*entsfor*ed !art of te fo+ndation for s+ccess in te i*!erial service already in te i# e*!ire.G7H 2t is,o-ever, also tr+e in anoter sense, -ic to+ces *ore directly on te coe(istence of contin+ity andcan#e. )e literary *enfor e(a*!le, te so!ists of te ast-o -ere dra-n into te

i*!erial +!!er class fro* te local elites of teir to-ns in te second and early tird cent+ries saredte res!onsibility for

GE8H A+#.0e discipl. Christ. 1& Ion Crysost.Ad$. oppugn. $it. monast. $.D.

GE9H =o!kins, ?ocial Jobility and belo-, Ca!. $.

G7%H Petit,Jtudiants1EE, 18D.

G71H ?ee Ca!. $ nn. 1$$, 178.

G7&H >.#., A+r. =ar!ocration of Pano!olis 5above n. $D6 te sinec+re as tri%unus et notarius#ained byCla+dian, CLE.171% ZLS&99 ZG7#1.E$, -it Alan Ca*eron, Claudian$9%ff.

G7$H Ln te social *obility of te #ra**arians, see Ca!. $. Ln te #eneral !eno*enon of#ebildetes Bea*tent+* in te 0est in s.2@, see te *aterial collected by Fellen, 7iri.

G7H ?ee JacJ+llen, Ro*an B+rea+cratese $E8 n. 1E Bo-ersock, Gree Sophists$ff. 5-it te/+alifications of Bo-ie, 2*!ortance6 Jillar,!mperor8$ff., 1%1ff. 5cf. also 91ff.6 Ca*!lin,@ronto passim. 4or contin+ity -itin a sin#le fa*ily, see te case of J. Post+*i+s 4est+s, an Africanorator, ac/+aintance of 4ronto 5cf.Ad am. &.11.1 van den =o+t6, !artici!ant in a vi#nette of


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te increased o!!ort+nity for -ealt it bro+#t to so*e of its *e*bersall -ere ele*ents of te tirdcent+ry;s loosenin# of society.G8%H )e scools tereafter ad to consolidate te effects of tatloosenin# by contin+in# teir old 3ob of sortin# o+t and identifyin# te elite.G81H )ey -o+ld not only!rovide te basis of a career b+t also add te traditional adorn*ent to a #entle*an;s life.G8&H )ey-o+ld confir* stat+s already eld *ore fre/+ently tan tey -o+ld serve as te s!rin#board to i#erstat+s. And tey -o+ld contrib+te to *obility,

G7DH ?ee Bo-ersock, Gree: Sophists&8f.G7EH >.#.,GD.EE, DE$, 11E8, 1$E9 "lympiaD.7% S!G11.$&1 5Ar#os6nschr. !ph. $ 5GSF1$671% Jiltner and Jiltner, >!i#ra!isce Faclese 1%ff. no. & 5Ancyra6 S!GE.D7 5Ancyra6A!1971, $%D 5assare Gal*atiaH6.

G78H ?ee 0i#t*an, Peasants 111.

G79H ?ee


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+nder te Lstro#otic kin#do*.G8DH

G8H Gu%. 0ei7.1E.E7E8.

G8DH >nnod. Carm. &.9%.1 cf.0ict. 9.D, li%ertatis inde %oni testimonium sanguinis all a!!lied toe+teri+s, for -o* see Part 22 no. .

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et o+r sketc, s!are and selective as it is, is also artificially distinct. ra-n lar#ely fro* te !oint ofvie- of te literary c+lt+re, te !ict+re tends to credit te classical elite;s vie- of itself as livin# teonly coerent and -orty life. )at -as, of co+rse, a del+sion. Joreover, te sketc c+*+lativelyattrib+tes to te #ra**arian a *ore i*!ortant !lace tan *any of is conte*!oraries -itin and-ito+t te literary c+lt+re -o+ld ave been -illin# to #rant i*. As a #+ardian te #ra**arian -asalso a tresold fi#+re, e(!osed and a*bi#+o+s is !osition of stren#t -as v+lnerable, ca!able ofbein# ci!!ed a-ay on several sides. )e ne(t ca!ter accordin#ly is intended to bl+r so*e of tedistinctions and #ive f+rter n+ance to te !ict+re above by dra-in# in so*e of te forces tati*!in#ed +!on te #ra**arian and is !rofession.

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%ha2ter 3

&rofessio Litterarum

Ln 1$ ece*ber $&% te #ra**arian @ictor of Cirta " Constantina -as bro+#t before eno!il+s,#overnor of F+*idia, for /+estionin#. )e interro#ation be#an as follo-s:

eno!il+s . . . said, 0at is yo+r na*e =e ans-ered, @ictor. eno!il+s . . . said,

0at is yo+r !ersonal condition GcondicioH @ictor said, 2 a* a !rofessor of Ro*anletters Gprofessor sum #omanarum litterarumH, a atin #ra**arian. eno!il+s . . . said,0at is yo+r social stat+s GdignitasH @ictor said, Jy fater -as a dec+rion of te!eo!le of Constantina *y #randfater, a soldier. =e ad served in te comitatus, for o+rori#in derives fro* Jooris blood.G1H

?everal !oints in te e(can#e so+ld be noted. 4irst, -en asked is condition, @ictor s!ecifies isliveliood, is !rofession of letters.G&H Joreover, in te conte(t of te e(can#e, !ersonal conditioni*!lies 5or effectively *eans6 dignitassocial stat+s and !resti#e.G$H 4inally, condition and socialstat+s are ine(tricably associated -it le#al stat+s: as a *e*ber of a liberal !rofession and te son of acurialis, @ictor -o+ld ave !ossessed a fairly lofty !osition 5honestas, te state of bein# a #entle*an6GH

G1H Gesta apud Nenophilum CS!L&E.18D.7ff. 5cf. Ca!. 1 n. 8$6.

G&H Cf. ibid. 19$.Df.,Nenophilus . . . diit: cuius condicionis esR Saturninus respondit: fossor ibid.11f.,Nenophilus . . . diit: cuius condicionis esR 7ictorGanoter *an of te sa*e na*e, not te#ra**arianH diit: artife sum.

G$H Fote tat -en ?at+rnin+s and @ictor 5n. &6 ave stated teir condiciones, no f+rter in/+iry is*ade concernin# teir dignitas. Cf. also ibid. 19D.1f.,Nenophilus . . . diit: cuius condicionis esRCastus diit: nullam dignitatem ha%eo and


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GH Cf. ibid. 18D.1, eno!il+s to @ictor: memor fidei et honestatis tuae simpliciter designa.

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and so certain le#al !rivile#esfor e(a*!le, e(e*!tion fro* tort+retat tose of lo-lier stat+s5humiliores6 did not ave.

)ese !oints to+c on t-o of te te*es of tis ca!ter. 4irst, te conce!t of a !rofession in @ictor;s-orld evidently involved so*e attrib+tes different fro* tose of *odern !rofessions: for e(a*!le, te!rofessional *ana !ysician, say, or an arcitect-o #ives testi*ony before an A*erican benccannot e(!ect is !rofessional standin# to affect is treat*ent +nder te la- so+ld e so- conte*!tof co+rt, or to distin#+is i* 3+ridically fro* a day laborer or trades*an in si*ilar circ+*stances.?econd, teory and !ractice do not al-ays coincide: t+s @ictor, -en rel+ctant to testify, fo+ndi*self treatened -it tort+re, fro* -ic is honestass+!!osedly !rotected i*.GDH

0e can better +nderstand te #ra**arians; !osition by co*!arin# teir !rofession -it te *odernconce!t of a !rofession. )e co*!arison is s+##ested not only by te ety*olo#ical link professiolitterarum!rovidesGEH b+t also by i*!ortant s+bstantive si*ilarities.

4or te conte*!orary notion of a !rofession, consider te !ysician or attorney.G7H 4irst, and *ostobvio+s, te !rofession of eac is based on a conce!t+ally distinct syste* of kno-led#e and !racticetat is reco#nied as s+c by society and is reflected in te str+ct+ral differentiation of society;sinstit+tions. 4or instance, te lain te United ?tates today is a syste* of to+#t se!arate fro*, say,reli#ion: te attorney does not tink of i*self 5or, of co+rse, erself6 as a !riest, nor do is fello-citiens and te instit+tions of te la- ave teir o-n -elldefined !lace in te str+ct+re of A*ericanlife. Beca+se of tis differentiation, te -o+ldbe !ysician or attorney e(!ects to #ain is e(!ertise ina s!ecialied instit+tiona !rofessional scool, -ere e is trained by *e*bers of te !rofessionande e(!ects is trainin# to be s+b3ect to testin# and certification, -ic -ill be deter*ined, a#ain, by*e*bers of te !rofession. =e ass+*es tat is s+ccess at tis and later sta#es -ill de!end above all onob3ective eval+ation of is skills. 5=o- often tis *eritocratic ass+*!tion -ill !rove false is a different

*atter -e are concerned ere -it !rofessional ideolo#y.6 2n is !ractice e is e(!ected to acta+tono*o+sly and i*!ersonally te !roced+res e follo-s so+ld be tose defined by is e(!ertiseand its tecni/+es and so+ld be +naffected by !ersonal relations or o+tside a+tority. )e !ysician

GDH 2bid. 18E.1$ff.:Nenophilus . . . 7ictori diit: simpliciter confitere ne strictius interrogeris.

GEH Ln te !rase, cf. al*ann,Fleine Schriften&DDff.

G7H Ln te definition of a !rofession sketced in tis and te follo-in# !ara#ra!, see Parsons,Professions D$E Bledstein, Culture, ca!. $, es!. !!. 8E87 and te literat+re tere cited in n. 1&.

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so+ld in eac case !rescribe te treat*ent dictated by is best !rofessional 3+d#*ent, irres!ective ofdifferences in te social stat+s of is !atients or is !ersonal ties to te* te attorney so+ld andle acase accordin# to te *etods laid do-n by is trainin#, -ito+t re#ard for te cli*ate of o!inion, is!ersonal feelin#s to-ard is client, or e(ternal !ress+res. 2f eiter *an acts oter-ise, e beaves+n!rofessionally, in te *ost co**on sense of te -ord. )e !ysician or attorney is also e(!ected to!+t is e(!ertise to socially res!onsible +se and is s!ecifically enco+ra#ed to do so by instit+tionsfore(a*!le, boards of eticstat is !rofession as develo!ed.

Conte*!orary !rofessionalis* as several oter i*!ortant caracteristics. ?ince te !rofession is


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co**only a f+llti*e occ+!ation tat !rovides a liveliood, it #ives its !ractitioner a distinct !lace inte econo*ic syste* of is society te !rofession +s+ally as a s!ecialied or tecnical lan#+a#e53ar#on6, a restricted code tat allo-s sortand co**+nication a*on# its *e*bers -ile e(cl+din#lay*en and te !rofession confers 5de facto, if not de Bure6 a distinct and +s+ally res!ected socialstat+s. 2n #eneral, te e*!asis falls on te !rofessionals; individ+al and collective a+tority,ob3ectivity, selfdeter*ination, and selfre#+lation, -it tose caracteristics contrib+tin# +lti*ately to

te -ellbein# of society.)e #ra**arian;s !rofession rese*bled te *odern notion in several obvio+s -ays. =is e(!ertise -asconce!t+ally distinct, -it a c+lt+ral tradition of its o-ne*bodied, for e(a*!le, in te tecnical

andbook 5ars, 6, -ic is is *ost caracteristic doc+*ent. )e #ra**arian -as at o*ein te str+ct+rally differentiated instit+tion of is scool, -ic -as distin#+ised oriontally fro*oter instit+tions 5for e(a*!le, te fa*ily6 in te society aro+nd it and vertically fro* oter instit+tions5for e(a*!le, te scool of retoric6 in te literary c+lt+re.G8H 2n addition, is e(!ertise and isinstit+tional nice #ave te #ra**arian a sense of a+tono*y and a+tority, -ic fo+nd vario+s for*s

of e(!ression: te Ro*an #ra**arian derived te -ord arsitself fro* eiter 5e(cellence6or artus5close, fir*, ti#t6 te #ra**arian treated lan#+a#e ob3ectively and i*!ersonally, as a!eno*enon s+b3ect to te analytical *etods of is tradition, and e i*a#ined i*self te arbiter oflan#+a#e.G9H 4inally, fro* tis !osition of !rofessional co*!etence and a+tority e co+ld be to+#tto contrib+te to te ordered -ellbein# of society in is role as #+ardian.

G8H 4or te conce!t of str+ct+ral differentiation a!!lied to instit+tions in te Ro*an -orld, see es!.=o!kins, ?tr+ct+ral ifferentiation, >lite Jobility 1%8ff., and Conquerors7ff.

G9H Ln tese and oter conse/+ences of te #ra**arian;s !rofessional nice, see Ca!s. and D.

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et in oter, e/+ally i*!ortant -ays te #ra**arian;s ancient !rofession stands a!art fro* te *odern.Jost obvio+s, tere did not e(ist any s!ecialied trainin# co*!arable to *odern !rofessionaled+cation and in its absence te #ra**arian -as !er*anently linked to a tradition*inded, aristocratica*ate+ris*, -it conse/+ences diffic+lt to overstate. L+r !+r!ose in tis ca!ter, ten, is to s+rveyo- te #ra**arian;s !osition corres!onds to or differs fro* a *odern !rofessional;s, in order to vie-tat !osition and its inerent tensions *ore closely. 0e -ill consider, in t+rn, o- te distinctiveness ofte #ra**arian;s !rofessionits conce!t+al and instit+tional differentiation-as affected by its !laceon te bo+ndary bet-een *ere letters and liberal letters, o- te !rofession;s differentiation anda+tono*y -ere infl+enced by te social *ilie+ of te i# literary c+lt+re, and o- te #ra**arian;scontrib+tion to te co**on #ood -as re#arded by te second #reat tradition of late anti/+ity,

Cristianity.

Some ariab,e 1efinitions: Literacy4 Letters4 and the Grammarian5s &rofession

0e can be#in -it t-o !ro!ositions. 4irst, #ra**ar;s intellect+al and social distinction o-ed *+c toits role in a se#*ent of society tat ad a fairly fi(ed idea of -at literacy involveda kno-led#e ofletters #ained in tescholae li%eralesand tat !laced a i# !re*i+* on ac/+irin# and +sin# tisliteracy. ?econd, tat se#*ent of society -as at all ti*es and on any esti*ation very s*all: for te *assof te !o!+lation, letters of any kind -ere *ar#inal in daily life. 2n te follo-in# fe- !a#es 2 -o+ldlike to consider tese !ro!ositions and teir conse/+ences. ?!ecifically, 2 -ant to s+##est tat te


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Y+estions nat+rally arise abo+t tis li*ited literacy: 0en 0ere A*on# -o* )e first is *+cte *ost diffic+lt to ans-er. Are -e, for e(a*!le, to tink of a #eneral decline in literacy, a##ravated ifnot bro+#t on by te !olitical caos of te &%%;s and si*!ly linear in its direction, -it fe-er everyyear Gkno-in#H o- to read and -riteG18H

G17H +ncanIones, A#eRo+ndin#, 2lliteracy $$D, referrin# to Ci!olla,Literacy, and to Jarro+,*istoire5si*., e.#., Picard, ;A+t+n W Jactar 1Df. Ric,!ducation&1f.6. ?ee no- also =arris,

iteracy, for varied and !o-erf+l ar#+*ents a#ainst o!ti*istic esti*ates of literacy;s diff+sion +nderte !rinci!ate: +na!!ily, tis val+able !a!er ca*e to *y attention only as te final to+ces -ere bein#!+t to tis book.

G18H ?o recently JacJ+llen, CrisisD8ff. and cf. )+rner, Gree Papyri8$.

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)at is te co**on o!inion, and it is !robably correctin !art, and for so*e areas *ore tan foroters.G19H B+t it is also s+rely tr+e tatin a *anner and to a de#ree tat te c+rrent state of o+rkno-led#e !revents +s fro* s!ecifyin#te co**on o!inion *+st be *odified to take acco+nt of

likely re#ional differentiation, of varyin# !eriods of resilience and de!ression -itin a #iven re#ion,and es!ecially of te *odest benc*ark a#ainst -ic any decline *+st be *eas+red. 4or +nless teevidence is co*!letely *isleadin#, te #eneral level of literacy at even te best of ti*es *+st avebeen very lo-.G&%H

)e case of L(yrync+s is instr+ctive ere.G&1H Lver te co+rse of te tird cent+ry te city #ivesevidence of alternatin# de!ression and !ros!erity in !artic+lar, co*!laints of r+in in te cent+ry;ssecond /+arter are re!laced by si#ns of econo*ic e(+berance in te tird /+arter, -en one finds!+blic -orks in !ro#ress, a*bitio+s #a*es, an e(!ensive corn dole, and *+nici!al concern fored+cation, in te !erson of a !+blicly a!!ointed #ra**arian. et to-ard te end of te tird /+arter,over t-otirds of te kno-n a!!licants for te corn dolete*selves *e*bers of a !rivile#edse#*ent of te to-n;s citienryare illiterate. Allo- for te !ossibility tat so*e of tese -ere

illiterate beca+se of an earlier econo*ic de!ression and decline: te !ro!ortion fo+nd a*on# a select#ro+! of citiens to-ard te end of a !eriod of !ros!erity *+st still !oint to f+nda*ental illiteracy inte !o!+lation at lar#e, end+rin# tro+# #ood ti*es and bad.

G19H Fote, e.#., JacJ+llen;s #eneral state*ent 5CrisisD9, based on JVcsy, Unkenntnis6 tat a#ea-areness in te -estern !rovinces decreases fro* te earlier to te later !rinci!ate and tat in telatter !eriod cities #rad+ally sink to-ard te level of te r+ral areas. 2n fact, te cronolo#icaldistinctions in JVcsy;s -orkbased in t+rn on te tab+lations of I. ?il\#yi 5see JVcsy, !. $88 n. $on te li*ited validity of tese distinctions and tab+lations, see +ncanIones, A#eRo+ndin#,2lliteracy $D%f.6yield very *i(ed res+lts: of te ED to-ns and cities s+rveyed, &% so- a#ea-areness re*ainin# at ro+#ly te sa*e level, i.e., fl+ct+atin# by less tan D[, bet-een te earlier

5s.2s.226 and later 5s.222s.@226 !eriods && so- a rise in a#e a-areness of D[ or *ore bet-een te t-o!eriods and &$ so- a fall of D[ or *ore. Lf te !rovinces overall, E so- a#e a-areness re*ainin#at ro+#ly te sa*e level 5al*atia stays te sa*e Africa, -ic contrib+tes %[ of te data, so-s arise of $[


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revie- of Rea, in C#&E 5197E6 111, dra-in# attention to illiteracy a*on# te a!!licants for te dole.

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)e oter /+estions !er*it *ore strai#tfor-ard ans-ers. As co+ld be e(!ected, te tendency to-arda#e ro+ndin#and so, !robably, illiteracyincreases te farter one #oes fro* a *a3or cityG&&H and

te farter do-n one #oes on te econo*ic ladder. )+s te inde( of ro+ndin# for to-n co+ncilors in2taly and Africa is only onetird tat for te citiens at lar#e in tose t-o areas,G&$H and illiterates inte !a!yri tend to belon# to te lo-er econo*ic levels of society.G&H

B+t it -o+ld be -ron# to tink tat i#er econo*ic stat+s #+aranteed literacy at all ti*es and in everyarea. )e inde( of ro+ndin# for 2talian and African curialesin te first tree cent+ries A.. , to+#*+c lo-er tan tat for te +*bler orders, is not insi#nificant !ossibly -e find ere a int tatiocletian;s r+lin# of &9$, tat illiteracy -as no bar to c+rial stat+s, did not so *+c *ark a s+ddensift as clarify and le#iti*ie a sit+ation tat ad e(isted for so*e ti*e, es!ecially in s*aller to-ns,-ere te c+rial order -as a etero#eneo+s *i(t+re of occ+!ations and back#ro+nds.G&DH ?i*ilarly, te*e*bers of te #y*nasial class in >#y!t *i#t !redictably be literate, b+t tey -ere not +nifor*ly so:letters -ere as a r+le ta+#t o+tside te #y*nasi+*, -ere learned des+ltorily, and if learned -ereso*eti*es for#otten.G&EH Conversely, literacy co+ld reac do-n to +*ble levels, to slaves trained assecretaries.G&7H

0at #eneral for*+lation is !ossible, ten 4irst, -e *+st i*a#ine a state of very s!arse literacy atbest, s+b3ect to fl+ct+ation fro* ti*e to ti*e and !lace to !lace. )o+# -e *ay s+!!ose tat literacydeclined in te later e*!ire 5-it te erosion affectin# te *ar#ins of te +!!er classes *ost6,!erce!tions of a broad decline so+ld !robably be te*!ered by a *ore sober vie- of literacy in teearly e*!ire.G&8H ?econd, -e so+ld i*a#ine tat literacy ran#ed across te s!ectr+* of classes in a-ay tat

G&&H +ncanIones, A#eRo+ndin#, 2lliteracy $1ff., on te evidence of Africa.

G&$H 2bid. $$8: te sar!ness of te cleava#e is es!ecially note-orty, s+##estin# a ra!id dro! in terate of literacy belo- te c+rial order.

G&DH C(1%.$1.E on te evidence concernin# illiteracy and c+rial stat+s in >#y!t, see o+tie, AGPAJJA)LS 17D 5Z Scriptiunculae&.E&D6 n. 9.

G&7H >.#., te notary *an+*itted in te -ill of


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econo*ic !yra*id, startin# near te botto* and incl+din# #reater !ro!ortions of eac class as ita!!roaces te to!:

Anoter c+rve -it si*ilar !ro!erties co+ld be added i#er on te !yra*id to *ark off tose -o-ere literate in liberal st+dies:

)e caracteristics of tese c+rves are of co+rse !+rely y!otetical. )e !ict+re *i#t nonetelessserve cr+dely to re!resent te distrib+tion of literacy and its relation to te different ty!es of scools:G$%H above te second c+rve are tose ta+#t in te scholae li%erales bet-een te t-o c+rves are toseed+cated only in te scool of letters. )e b+lk of te !yra*id re!resents tose innocent of for*alscoolin#.

?+c a !ict+re as social and !olitical i*!lications tat ave only be#+n to be e(!lored, !ro*!tin#different, e/+ally valid res!onses -en vie-ed

G&9H )e cler#y in te one case te liberal !rofessions, te #entry, i# civil servants, and officers inte oter. Cf.


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c+lt+re, or, si*!ly, c+lt+red. =avin# so *any !ossible a!!lications of te ter* is a sy*!to* ofsit+ational literacy: te *eanin# and connotation of literacy de!end on s+c variables as #eo#ra!icor social conte(t and te +ser;s vie- of is o-n literacy.

Fot s+r!risin#ly, si*ilar fl+idity -as a!!arent in anti/+ity.G$$H At one e(tre*e -ere te illiterates -oa!!ear in te contracts, deeds, loans,

G$1H Cf. te trencant co**ents of JacJ+llen, CrisisD8ff.

G$&H o+tie, PLGPA@>S es!. &19ff., on te relations a*on# literate and illiterate *e*bers ofte sa*e o+seold and on illiteracy as a centri!etal force in te fa*ily.

G$$H 4or a +sef+l s+rvey of litteratusand illiteratusin atin literary +sa#e, see (a*!les can be collected and located bet-een te t-o e(tre*es. )ere is A+relia )aiso+s, -oasserts in !etitionin# for te ius trium li%erorum5te la-s tat #ive -o*en adorned -it te ;ri#t oftree cildren; te ability to act as teir o-n #+ardian and cond+ct all teir b+siness -ito+t a#+ardian6 tat te la-s #ave tis ability es!ecially to -o*en -o kno- letters, and -o describes

erself as literate G H and able to -rite -it te #reatest of ease.G$7H =er clai* of literacy iss+bstantively fairly *odest, te si*!le ability to -rite fl+ently. B+t by #ildin# te basic !rovisions ofte la- 5es!ecially . . . 6 se so-s se is, if not boastin# of er attain*ent,G$8H at least a-are se!ossesses a distinction tat -o+ld b+ttress er clai* to !rivile#e and !rovide a !ractical advanta#e iner dealin#s -ito+t a #+ardian once te !rivile#e -as #ranted.

G$H Cf. o+tie, AGPAJJA)LS 1E8ff. 5Z Scriptiunculae&.E18ff.6, PLGPA@>S and cf. n.$E belo-.

G$EH Fote in #eneral tat illiteratusa!!ears to ave !e3orative connotations in atin only -en 5if notal-ays -en6 te i#er sense of litteratusis te i*!lied or e(!ressed antitesis cf. S &%1, /+oted above6 -o+ld *ost co**only be tr+e of telo-er for*s of literacy.

G$7HP"y. 1&.1E7 5A.. &E$6.


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G$8H o+tie, AGPAJJA)LS 1EEf. 5Z Scriptiunculae&.E1Ef.6, and te second to+#ts at PLGPA@>S &&1 n. E&.

' $ '

Lr a#ain, tere is te fo+rteenyearold boy -ose a!!lication for *e*bersi! in te #y*nasi+*

incl+des te state*ent tat e is learnin# letters 5 6.G$9H =ere letters !robably *eansliterat+re rater tan te si*!le ability to read and -rite, and te attain*ent is *entioned since itserves to enance te boy;s stat+s.G%H et since s+c an attain*ent -as certainly not re/+ired for*e*bersi!, its absence by itself -o+ld scarcely ave involved a disability or sti#*a for oter*e*bers of te #y*nasial class. 2n tese e(a*!les te sense of 5il6literacy and 5not6 kno-in#letters de!ends not only +!on absol+te or s+bstantive criteria b+t also +!on *ore fl+id and lesstan#ible considerationste conte(t in -ic te ter*s are +sed, te e(!ectations of te circles -it-ic one is fa*iliar, and 5clearly in Iero*e;s case6 o- far selfestee* and one;s clai*s on te res!ectof oters de!end on literary so!istication.G1H

)e c+rves in *y second fi#+re above are dra-n in dotted lines beca+se te conce!ts of letters andliteracy -ere so fl+id and so *+c a !rod+ct of circ+*stantiales!ecially socialdefinition. )ebo+ndary bet-een literacy and illiteracy *arked by te lo-er c+rve -as at once real and va#+e. )eslo- -riters and !ersons of fe- letters, -o co+ld !ainstakin#ly si#n le#al doc+*ents b+t -ereoter-ise illiterate,G&H or te *an -o co+ld only read block letters,G$H -o+ld all ave called

te*selves literate tey -ere clearly not -ito+t letters 5 , illiterati6, even if tey co+ldnot clai* s+c fl+ency as A+relia )aiso+s. ?tandin# on te bo+ndary of literacy, tey co+ld re#ardte*selves, and act, as literate for a set !+r!ose or +nder certain conditions. ?o te villa#e secretaryPeta+s co+ld state tat 2scyrion, te secretary of anoter villa#e, -as not illiterate, beca+se e co+ldadd te a!!ro!riate brief s+bscri!tion to te doc+*ents tat ca*e before i*.GH 2n tis case, even

G$9HP"y. &&.&$D 5A.. &&6, -it oter, si*ilar doc+*ents disc+ssed by Bin#en, Fote, and by?i3!estei3n, ?o*e Re*arks.

G1H )+s, for e(a*!le, te /+estion -eter or not te illiterate villa#e secretaries Peta+s and2scyrion atte*!ted to *ask teir illiteracy in order to avoid its sti#*a 5so )+rner, Gree Papyri8$contra, o+tie, AGPAJJA)LS 17& GZ Scriptiunculae&.E&&H6 co+ld be settled finally only -it*ore e(!licit testi*ony fro* Peta+s and 2scyrion te*selves. 2 s+s!ect, o-ever, tat )+rner as tebetter !art of te ar#+*ent ere see 3+st belo- and n. .

G$H Petron. Sat. D8.7, lapidarias litteras scio, -it aniel, iberal >d+cation 1D7ff.

' 'te *ost *ar#inal literacy as evident social re!erc+ssions, ac/+ittin# 2scyrion of a car#e tat e -as+nfit for is !osition.

2t is !lain eno+# tat at te lo-er bo+ndary literacy is often !erceivedvariably and individ+ally, tat itis defined bot by ob3ective or s+bstantive criteria 5o- -ell and o- *+c one can read and -rite6and by conte(t. )e i*!ortant !oint is, te +!!er bo+ndarybet-een *ere letters and liberal letters,bet-een scools of letters and liberal scools, bet-een teacers of letters and #ra**arians-as alsobot real and !oro+s its de*arcation -as si*ilarly infl+enced by circ+*stance and s+bstantive


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considerations. B+t -ereas at its lo-er ran#es te circ+*stantial definition of literacy can bea!!roaced tro+# variations in individ+al !erce!tion, at its +!!er ran#e it can be *ore +sef+llydisc+ssed in ter*s of lar#er cate#ories: instit+tions, class, and #eo#ra!y.

As -e sa- above, Iero*e;s idea of kno-in# letters and is !lay -it te idea of R+fin+s;s illiteracybear te sta*! of is o-n +!!erclass liberal ed+cation. I+st so, te ven if tat sense -ere not clear fro* te conte(t, ?idoni+s co+ld be s+retat is a+dience, *en of back#ro+nd and e(!ectations si*ilar to is o-n, -o+ld ass+*e as *+c forte*selves.GDH ?+c *en ad a fairly fi(ed idea of -at in s+bstance literacy *eant, or at least of te*ini*+* attain*ents !ro!er to a *an -o co+ld be called literate: contact -it te *ain classical te(tsand te correctness and adorn*ent of lan#+a#e to so- for it.

)is conce!tion of literacy -as -idely diff+sed #eo#ra!ically and ancient in its tradition, !rovidin#te liberally ed+cated classes -it *+c of teir *ental f+rnisin#s and 5o-ever *+c a Iero*e*i#t str+##le -it it6 a sense of teir o-n stat+s and -ort.GEH )e i*!ortance of letters in tisre#ard reinforced te traditional definition of kno-in# letters. )e #ra**arian -as of co+rse a fi(t+reof tis tradition, is !rofession bot distin#+ised and bo+nd by its anti/+ity and diff+sion. =isinstr+ction -as standardied, b+t by sared conventions, not by stat+te. Beca+se of te tradition of is!rofession and, ence, beca+se of is clientele;s e(!ectations, a #ra**arian;s classroo* in Bordea+(-o+ld !robably ave looked *+c like its co+nter!art in Ro*e or Carta#e, and a #ra**arian;sclassroo* in Ale(andria -o+ld !robably ave looked *+c like one in Antioc or Fico*edia.

GDH ?idon. A!oll. Carm. &$.&%ff.

GEH ?ee Ca!. 1 above on Iero*e, see !!. 81f. belo-.

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)e sa*e is not, o-ever, obvio+sly tr+e of te local teacers of letters, boys; *asters, or te like,

-o -ere scattered tro+#o+t te e*!ire, teacin# beneat te level of #ra**arians, in less!resti#io+s instit+tions.G7H >ven -ito+t any evidence -e *i#t !redict tat s+c teacers, es!eciallyin areas a-ay fro* te #reat ed+cational centers, -o+ld not be tied to a +nifor* tradition as broad orstron# as te #ra**arian;s and -o+ld offer *ore varied instr+ction. 0e *i#t e(!ect to see a *orefl+id +nderstandin# of literacy, de!endin# *+c *ore on local needs and te local notion of -atconstit+ted letters as -ell as on te teacers; o-n attain*ents and inclinations. B+t tere is no need forcon3ect+re. 4or e(a*!le, te teacer of letters Cassian+s -as evidently res!ondin# to one notion ofletters and e(!loitin# a !artic+lar attain*ent of is o-n -en e incl+ded te +sef+l skill of sortandin is instr+ction at 2*ola, in nortern 2taly.G8H B+t te scool of letters in ?!ain -ere Lrosi+s adteAeneidb+rned into is *e*ory -as evidently r+n accordin# to a different idea of letters, one tatoverla!!ed -it te #ra**arians;.G9H

)e !resence of @er#ilte !oetpar ecellenceof te atin #ra**arianin te ludus litterarius-ells+##ests o- !er*eable -as te bo+ndary bet-een te t-o s!eres and o- broad, traditionaldistinctions co+ld be bl+rred accordin# to circ+*stances. )is is not to say tat Lrosi+s;s e(!erience-as +niversal, tat classical te(ts -ere ta+#t in every scool of letters: neiter te ar#+*ent nor teevidence i*!lies tis, alto+# tere is at te sa*e ti*e no need to tink Lrosi+s;s e(!erience -as+ni/+e.GD%H For -as te bo+ndary less real for bein# !oro+s, any *ore tan te a*bi#+ity of literacy atits lo-er levels *eant tere -as no real distinction bet-een kno-in# and not kno-in# letters. )e!oint, rater, is tat te bo+ndary -as *arked by s+c intan#ibles as individ+al !redis!osition, locality,or class, as -ell as by ob3ective criteria. 2n so*e cases *ere letters and liberal letters, te scool of


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letters and te #ra**arian;s scool, *i#t overla! beca+se of a local variation tat

G7H Ln te s+b3ect of local variation tat follo-s, see Kaster, Fotes $&ff.

G9H Lros.Ad$. pagan. 1.18.1, te tale of Aeneas;s labors ludi litterarii disciplina nostrae quoquememoriae inustum est. Readin# @er#il -o+ld necessarily also involve, at least incidentally, a fairlyso!isticated level of lin#+istic instr+ction. 4or co**on #ro+nd bet-een te ludus litterariusand te#ra**arian;s scool in lin#+istic instr+ction, see Y+intil.nst. 1..&7, -it te disc+ssion by Kaster,Fotes $$9.

GD%H 4or *ore evidence, see Kaster, Fotes $&ff. and note es!. te boys; *aster 5magisterpuerorum6 Cla*os+s and is son of te sa*e na*e and !rofession, bot at Parenti+*: Part 22 nos. &9,$%.

' E '

-o+ld raise te s+bstance of *ere letters to a!!roac liberal letters. 2n oter cases, !era!s *oreco**only, a si*ilar overla! -o+ld res+lt fro* factors, !ri*arily social, tat -o+ld brin# te s+bstanceof te #ra**arian;s scool do-n to a!!roac *ere letters.

U!!erclass st+dents -o ai*ed at an ed+cation in liberal letters -o+ld nor*ally ave te #ra**arianas teir first teacer.GD1H ?o*e st+dents *i#t ave received !rivate t+ition in te ele*ents beforeenterin# te #ra**arian;s scool so*e -o+ld be#in as yo+n# as seven. )is *i(t+re of a#es andback#ro+nds co+ld be served by a *i(ed cor!s of teacers, as -e find a*on# te #ra**arians ofBordea+(, -o* -e kno- es!ecially -ell.GD&H ?o*e of tese #ra**ariansincl+din#, at one !oint,A+soni+s, -o be#an as a teacer of te yo+n#est st+dents#ave ele*entary instr+ction 5called primaelementaor te like6 oters ta+#t at a *ore advanced level. )e classroo*s of te for*er, in te a#eand attain*ents of teir st+dents and te level of teir instr+ction, -o+ld not ave looked very differentfro* te classroo* of a teacer of letters. et tey -ere allgrammatici, by definition teacin# liberalletters, o-ever +*ble te early sta#es *i#t be:GD$H tey -ere defined by teir conte(t, as teacers

in an i*!ortant center of literary st+dies, ed+catin# cildren -o belon#ed for te *ost !art to te bestfa*ilies of Bordea+(, A/+itaine, and


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social differentiation of te -orld aro+nd i*-it conse/+ences tat a *odern eye, acc+sto*ed toseein# a !rofession in ter*s of its tecnical attrib+tes, *i#t overlook or *is3+d#e.GDDH )e#ra**arian -as -o e -as not only beca+se e !ossessed te traditional skills of is craft b+t also

beca+se e ta+#t in circ+*stances and served a clientele defined by a traditional str+ct+re of !resti#eand !rivile#e. 2t is as to+# a !ysician;s !rofession today -ere !artly defined by is traditionallyservin# !atients of a certain social stat+s.

et, anoter !oint of vie- is !ossible. Beca+se e stood at te bo+ndary of liberal letters, te#ra**arian -as in an a*bi#+o+s !osition. Alto+# e -as easily distin#+ised fro* te ne(t fi#+rein te se/+ence of liberal ed+cation, te teacer of retorictere -o+ld ordinarily be littleo!!ort+nity to conf+se teir classroo*ste sa*e state*ent cannot be *ade so flatly concernin# te#ra**arian and te teacers of letters o+tside te liberal scools. 0it so*e #ra**arians; instr+ctiondescendin# to te level of te latter and te instr+ction of so*e of te latter risin# to te level of te#ra**arian, and in vie- of te fl+idity of letters, it is little -onder tat te sa*e #eneral stylea#ent

of letters 5i.e., teacer: , litterator6is often +sed of bot.GDEH2n a -orld of li*ited and varied literacy, te #ra**arian;sprofessio litterarum-as only one a*on# an+*ber of co*!etin# ed+cational for*s, eac offerin# its o-n co*!etence and stat+s, even !o-er.)ose -o stood o+tside te literary c+lt+re of !resti#e not only -ere able to live !rod+ctive lives b+t*i#t ave a freedo* of *ove*ent e(traordinary in itself and re!+#nant, if not treatenin#, to toseloyal to traditional str+ct+res of !rivile#e.

A*on# te *ore fa*iliar e(a*!les of s+c freedo* are te steno#ra!ers 5 notarii, notaries6 -o!rovide so*e of te *ore s!ectac+lar instances of social *obility in te fo+rt cent+ry.GD7H Practicin# afor* of literacy distinct fro* liberal letters and traditionally reserved for *en of +*ble ori#ins, tenotaries -ere increasin#ly dra-n into te i*!erial service in te first alf of te fo+rt cent+ry, *eetin#

te b+rea+cracy;s need for *ore and *ore clerks. )ey t+s *er#ed -it te ne- aristocracy ofservice and in !artic+lar tose -o -orked dose to te e*!eror

GDDH 4or e(a*!le, Io+ai,+agistraat$&ff., correctly reco#nied te different f+nctions of tegrammaticiof Bordea+( b+t ad to *ake te distinction intelli#ible by sin#lin# o+t one set as de;ecte; #ra**atici, a#ainst te evidence. )e sit+ation is dearly and fir*ly described by Boot,>le*entary >d+cation Eff.

GDEH ?ee A!!endi( &.

GD7H 4or te follo-in#, on te notaries, teir stat+s, and teir relation to liberal c+lt+re, see Jarro+,*istoire8ff., Christiana temporaDDff. 0olf, SchulesenD$ff. Petit,Li%anius$E$ff.,Jtudiants8%A. =. J. Iones, ?ocial Back#ro+nd &8f.,L#!D7&ff. iebesc+et,Antioch&&f. =o!kins, >lite

Jobility 11.

' 8 '

te notaries of te sacred consistory, for e(a*!ledre- !o-er fro* te contact, !rofitin# fro* anaccess fe- co+ld *atc, bein# entr+sted -it e(traordinary co**issions, and en3oyin# acorres!ondin# *obility as tey rose to i#er office and -ealt. A *an like ibani+s-o to+#t ofaccess to !o-er as a co**odity reserved for is st+dents or *en *+c like te*, e*er#in# fro* te


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+rban +!!er classes and !assin# tro+# te scools into a net-ork of friendsco+ld find te!eno*enal rise of s+c !arven+ clerks re!ellent on several levels. 2t -as, for one tin#, a victory oftechnicitover humanismeand te traditional c+lt+re of letters.GD8H )o a *an -ose life -as ancoredby is daily contact -it te ancients, te notary;s craft co+ld re!resent te +lti*ate !l+n#e of literacyinto sa!elessness and transience. Jore #allin# still -as te di*in+tion of is o-n !rivile#e, -ic e!erceived as follo-in# fro* te notary;s circ+*ventin# te traditional str+ct+re of !resti#e.GD9H ?+c

dis#r+ntle*ent ad a !redictable o+tco*e: te +!!er classes coo!ted te notary;s !osition.GE%H After te*idfo+rt cent+ry, te elite *ana#ed to -in for itself te access to te e*!eror tat notaries of +*bleori#ins ad !revio+sly en3oyed. )e stat+s steno#ra!y co+ld !rovide *ade learnin# notarial skillsalon# -it liberal letters in an +!!erclass ed+cation not only desirable b+t even res!ectable.GE1H By tefirst alf of te fift cent+ry, te title of notary beca*e virt+ally onorary.GE&H

A fi#+re co*!arable to te notary, if less -ell kno-n, is te a+todidact.GE$H ike te notary in iseyday, te s+ccessf+l a+todidact a!!eared to !ros!er inde!endently of traditional str+ct+res and -ass+b3ect to te dis#r+ntled attacks of *en -o identified -it tose str+ct+res: talkin# abo+t a *an of+*ble ori#ins -o beca*e an advocate by a+ntin# te trib+nals and -ent on to #ain -ealt andoffice, ibani+s so+nded *+c te sa*e as e did -en ea!in# conte*!t on arri$istesteno#ra!ers.GEH

GD8H Cf. Jarro+ and Petit as cited in te !recedin# note.

GD9H Perceived is +sed ere advisedly: since -e kno- tat ibani+s;s co*!laints are e(a##erated 5iso-n st+dents contin+ed to !ros!er cf. te re*arks of Petit, Li%anius$E8ff.,Jtudiants8$6, it -asevidently te *ere to+#t of s+c circ+*vention tat st+n#, as *+c as its effects.

GE%H Cf. =o!kins, >lite Jobility 11, co*!arin# te dis!lace*ent of freed*en by equitesin teservice of te e*!eror in te early e*!ire.

GE1H ?ee, e.#., A**. Jarc. &9.1.8, on )eodor+s in te 0est =a+serJe+ry,Prosopographie1$1, onte ed+cation of te sons of Ficob+l+s in te >ast. A si*ilar *i(t+re is i*!lied at te be#innin# of tesi(t cent+ry by te early career of 2oannes yd+s see Part 22 no. 9&.

GE&H )e real -ork of te notaries -as done by a s*aller n+*ber tan bore te title, or by oterf+nctionaries in te b+rea+cracy: see Iones,L#!D7.

GE$H 2 kno- of no co*!reensive st+dy of tis interestin# ty!e.

GEH "r. E&.Eff. on =eliodor+s directly co*!arable -it "r. &.&$&, te ro#+es; #allery of *en-o rose tro+# steno#ra!y.

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2n te eyes of te e(!ert -o ad !ainstakin#ly ac/+ired is skill -itin te confines of is c+lt+raltradition, te a+todidact -as an intr+der,GEDH an eccentric talent s+cceedin# tro+# *oter -it alone,GEEH dist+rbin#ly +nenc+*bered by te for*s tro+# -ic e(!ertise -as c+sto*arily attained.

)o be t+s +nenc+*bered *eant one;s acieve*ent -as intensely !ersonal at te sa*e ti*e itnecessarily *eant one;s !osition -as isolated and e(!osed. 2n tis lonely distinction te a+todidact -as+nlike te notary. 2n !lace of a !resti#io+s tradition, te notary ad is instit+tional nice and te !o-erit co+ld !rovide b+t fro* is first a!!earance, te a+todidact co**only fo+nd validation in anoter

so+rce. )e clai* of te bard Pe*i+s, 2 a* selfta+#t G H, and te #od as i*!lanted in*y -its son#s of all kinds,GE7H is ecoed in te e!ita! of a literary *an -ose life -as all!+re,


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-o* te J+se *ade selfta+#tGE8H and even in te e!ita! of a -o*an e(cellin# in er devotionto er +sband, for Atena erself *ade er selfta+#t in er acco*!lis*ents.GE9H )e caris*aticclai* at once asserts a s!lendid sin#+larity and dra-s back fro* affir*in# a !+rely !ersonal

acieve*ent, revealin# te tendency inerent in for te *eanin# selfta+#t to fallto#eter -it +nta+#to-in# notin# to +*an *ediatorsand ence -it #odta+#t. )e

a+todidact, in tis sense, e*bodies te clai* of nat+ral kno-led#e, standin# o+tside or above ordinary+*an c+lt+re, like te *an -o, *astered by no constraint of +*ankind, b+t ed+cated by te

!rovidence of te #ods, ac/+ired an inco*!arable, nat+ral Glit., self#enerated: H-isdo*.G7%H ?+c a fi#+re

GE7H =o*er "d. &&.$7f.

GE8H/ull. p. 197$, 7D no. 1 5Cre*na GPisidiaH6, lines Df.

GE9H G7791 5s.222 " s.2@, ?yrac+se6, lines 7f. te s+b3ect of te verses -as, interestin#ly, a Cristian.

' D% '

a!!ro(i*ates te #od -o is nat+ral, +nta+#tG71H e as kno-led#e directly and i**ediately, likeA!olloni+s of )yana, -o kne- all lan#+a#es, avin# learned not a one.G7&H

)e socially *obile notary ad 3oined is skill -it an +ndeniable instit+tional so+rce of !o-er and!resti#e and ad t+s circ+*vented te traditional ro+te to elite stat+s. )e caris*atic a+todidactva+lted over +*an instit+tions and traditions in a tri+*!ant dis!lay of s!irit+al *obility. )e onetro+bled te literary c+lt+re of !resti#e +ntil e -as ta*ed by it te oter -as *ost evidentlyassociated -it Cristianity, -ic e*er#ed in te fo+rt cent+ry as te second c+lt+re of !resti#e.0en -e t+rn to te t-o #reat traditions, -e -ill see o- te istory of te #ra**arian;s !rofession inte classical literary c+lt+re -as *arked by tensions and coo!tation *+c like te e(!erience of te

notary, and o- te caris*atic selfta+#t 5+nta+#t, #odta+#t6 *an stood near te center of terelations bet-een te #ra**arian and te Cristian c+lt+re of te fo+rt and fift cent+ries.

Inde2endence and %onstraint: Good and -ad Grammarians and The &o6er of

%on+ention

2n Book 1, Ca!ter D of isAttic ,ights, A+l+s


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#ra**arians, eac -it is !rofessional a+tority invested in is o-n ratio. B+t


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life, tro+# -ic te !ros!ective *an of affairs attaced i*self as a yo+t to an establised fi#+re,learnin# o- to act and s!eak as e follo-ed is *odel and -atced i* #o abo+t is b+siness. By itsnat+re te tirocinium-as !art of a closed and ri#id syste* tat *ono!olied entry to a civic career.Access de!ended eavily on te ascribed stat+s of te !artici!ants and te connections of fa*ily andfriendsi!, and its *etods -ere infor*al, based +!on te !ersonal relationsi! bet-een te yo+n#erand te older *an. )e scools of retoric, offerin# -ider access to an i*!ortant skill, treatened te

*ono!oly and !rovoked te 5fr+itless6 atte*!t at re!ression.Probably beca+se te #ra**arian;s connection -it !+blic life -as al-ays less direct tan teretorician;s, si*ilar tensions involvin# te #ra**arian;s scool -ere less dra*atic in teir a!!earanceand lon#er in co*in#. 2n fact, te *ost overt and s+stained reactions did not be#in +ntil te first cent+ryA.. , -en te #ra**arian ad already settled into is instit+tional nice and ad be#+n e(!licitly tostake o+t lan#+a#e

G7EH Ln te freed*en and slaves as #ra**arians, see no- Cristes, Sla$en. 4or de!endence anddisen#a#e*ent, see es!. te cases of Antoni+s


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)is co**on #rant of validity and !resti#e ad several res+lts. 2f t-o #ra**arians battlin# over tefine !oints of *or!olo#y are b+rles/+e fi#+res, te co*edy noneteless as a tr+t at its core: te rival#ra**arians clin# as if for life eac to is o-n r+le beca+se teir livesinsofar as tese -ereidentified -it !rofessional and c+lt+ral stat+sdid indeed de!end on te r+les. At te sa*e ti*e, forliterary *en -o -o+ld stand a!art fro* te co**on r+n, te grammaticibeca*e fi#+res -it -o*tey *+st reckon and fro* -o* tey *i#t distin#+is te*

G79H ?ee Ca!. 1 n. 1E cf. n. 11$ belo-.G8%H!p. 9D.ED. ?ee also!p. 1%8.$%ff., ?eneca;s conte*!t for te #ra**arians, as fi#+res concernedonly -it lin#+istic detail and cf.!p. D8.1ff., on -astin# one;s ti*e -it a #ra**arian.

G81H Ln te infl+ence of Palae*on;s acieve*ent, see Bar-ick, #emmius1Eff., &$Eff. Ln !revio+sartesat Ro*e as early as te ?+llan a#e, and so -itin a #eneration of te introd+ction of te#ra**arian;s scool, see Bar-ick, ibid. 1%9ff., &&9ff., -it, e.#., Bonner,!ducationDD.

G8&H,A17.&.1D. Fote also


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G87H Y+intil.nst. 1..Dff.

G88H Ln te distinction, see te recent s+rvey of Cristes, /ildung1Dff., 19Eff. )e narro-ness is !artof, e.#.,


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tendency of a tradition to *ove in te direction of clic and to resolve a-k-ard inconsistencies byi*!osin# a sin#le i*a#e. An ill+stration can be fo+nd close to and. Lne can #ater references toteacers of letters in te i# literary tradition fro* e*ostenes to ibani+s and e*er#e -it teconsistent !ict+re of a toro+#ly +*ble fi#+re -it no clai*s to stat+s in any for*, a #a#ne!etit+niverselle*ent *!ris.G9H Fotin# learned fro* tese so+rces -ill !re!are one to find, fore(a*!le, a teacer of letters offerin# a s+bstantial dedication to te #oddess eto in te na*e of te

e*!eror, on e/+al footin# -it a retorician.G9DH )is does not *ean tat te tradition is -olly -ron#,still less tat te literary references are si*!ly a *indless co**on!lace. Ln te contrary, te e(a*!le!oints to an i*!ortant need te co**on!lace *eets, offerin# te reass+rin# i*a#e of a -orld -erete !eo!le one des!ises are really no better tan tey o+#t to be. 2n Palae*on;s case, tat reass+rin#i*a#e is !reserved, at very least, by te !ro!ortions in te tradition ?+etoni+s retails and by te sa!e ittakes in te tellin#. 2n te lon# entry on Palae*on, only tree terse cla+ses are devoted to is c+lt+ralacieve*entsG9EH all else is #iven over to is re#rettable mores. =is *ain clai* to acieved stat+s ist+s s+b*er#ed is oter !otential clai*, is

G9&H Ln inconsistencies in stat+s and teir conse/+ences for te i*!erial freed*en, see 0eaver, ?ocialJobility. Ln te notarii, see above ?o*e @ariable efinitions ad fin.

G9$H Fote tat ?+etoni+s;s !rasin# at te start of te entry 5Gramm. &$.1: . #emmius Palaemon7icetinus mulieris $erna primo ut ferunt tetrinum deinde . . . litteras didicit cf.feruntat ibid. $Gbelo-, n. 98H6 so+ld s+##est tat te acco+nt bears te sta*! of #ossi!, and so+ld tereforereco**end #reater ca+tion tan is +s+ally a!!arent in its andlin#.

G9H Jarro+,*istoire8. 4or references to teacers of letters, see te collections of Jarro+, ibid. &&$Boot, 2*a#e &, ?o*e ?+s!ect ?cool*asters and cf. Part 22 no. &1.

G9EH ?+et. Gramm. &$.1f.:sed capie%at homines cum memoria rerum tum facilitate sermonis: nec nonetiam poemata facie%at e tempore. scripsit $ero $ariis nec $ulgari%us metris. Fote tat even te!rasin# ere see*s not entirely ne+tral: capie%atZ car*ed, -on over, al*ost sed+ced. 0itte brevity ere, contrast te sketc of @aleri+s Prob+s, Gramm. &, a *+c lar#er !ro!ortion of -icis devoted to te *an;s scolarly activity.

' D7 '

-ealt, is tainted by association -it is inerent vices.G97H 2n s+*, e e*er#es as a *an -ito+t-ei#t or s+bstance, +lti*ately la+#able.G98H

0e co+ld never #a+#e Palae*on;s contrib+tion to #ra**ar fro* te tradition tat ?e+toni+s !assesalon# to +s te *ain lines of tat tradition ai* to !+t te +!start in is !lace. =e is a bad #ra**arian,and not in te sense tat e is a bad scolar 5as -e -o+ld +se te !rase, to *ean tat e is bad at -ate does6 b+t beca+se e is a bad !erson*orally defective, +n-orty of te tr+st !laced in i* 5recallte -arnin#s of )iberi+s and Cla+di+s6 and s+rely +n-orty of is s!ectac+lar s+ccess. Fot for te last

ti*e, as -e sall see, !ersonal and etical 3+d#*ents !lay a si#nificant !art in deter*inin# o- one isto re#ard te #ra**arian insofar as te tale of Palae*on is re*arkable, it is so beca+se etical3+d#*ent see*s to !lay te only !art. )e *atter is tereby si*!lified considerably.

)in#s -o+ld not, o-ever, al-ays be so si*!le, as teAttic ,ightsso-s. )e co*!etition infor*in#so *+c of tat -ork is, to be s+re, !redictably resolved by te revelation tat one;s co*!etitorsincl+din# *any bad #ra**ariansare la+#able and +n-orty. B+t for


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teir la!ses in learnin# are dra-n in to co*!le*ent and i#li#t teir la!ses in mores.

)is co*!le(ity as *+c to do -it o- te social co*!osition of te !rofession can#ed, and tatcan#e in t+rn is a *eas+re of o- !resti#io+s te #ra**arian;s role ad beco*e. 4ro* te late firstand early second cent+ry on-ard, te !rofession be#an to attract *e*bers of te res!ectable classes.)is -as a fa*iliar !rocess: te elite abit+ally clai*ed !ositions tat -ere -ort oldin#, !+llin# teladder +! after te*selves.G99H )egrammatici-o a!!ear in


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tey

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