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Girolamo Cardano and the Tradition of Classical Astrology the Rothschild Lecture, 1995

Author(s): Anthony GraftonSource: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 142, No. 3 (Sep., 1998), pp.323-354Published by: American Philosophical SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3152240 .

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Girolamo ardano ndtheTraditionfClassical strologyTheRothschildecture,995ANTHONY GRAFTONDodgeProfessorfHistory,rincetonniversity

I. CONTINUITIES OF IDEOLOGY AND TECHNIQUEFr wo nd halfmillennia,strologersave crutinizedhe kies norder opredicthecareers f ndividuals,heresultsfcommercialventures,hefortunesf ndividualountries,nd hehistoryf he ntireworld.The oldest survivingndividualhoroscopes re the work ofMesopotamian strologers,reparednthefifthentury .C., andafterThemost ecent nes hat ould till laim cientifictatus eredrawn pby some of the most technicallydvancednaturalphilosophersnseventeenth-centuryome andLondon.2No modern niversityas adepartmentfastrology,ut tstill lourishescross hewesternworld,in elegantoccult bookshopsfromGeneva to Pasadenaas well as insupermarketsndthebackpagesoftabloidnewspapers.o judgefromtheexpensive arsthatregularly arkoutside hehouseofone ofmyneighbors,nastrologerhodidpioneeringork nthedevelopmentfcomputer rogramsorrapid nd accurate ompositionfhoroscopes,membersfthemodern ocial nd ntellectuallite till ind his ncientart f considerablenterest.Anyhistorian hoattemptsostudyn ndividualegment fthislonghistory ust epeatedlyiskmistakingraditional,nd even ncient,ideas and methods ornewones.For thehistorian f classical strologyconfronts tradition hat astedmanycenturies,ne thatcombined

1Onthe rigins f astrologyee the lassic tudy fA. Sachs, Babylonian oroscopes,"Journal fCuneiformtudies (1952), 49-75, ndthemore ecent ork f F. Rochberg-Halton, .g."NewEvidence or heHistoryfAstrology,"ournal fNear Eastern tudies43 (1984): 115-40 nd Babylonian oroscopes ndtheir ources," rientalia 8 (1989):102-23. For surveys f thehistory f astrologyn the ncientworld, ee S. J.Tester,History f Western strologyWoodbridge, 987), and T. Barton,AncientAstrology(London ndNew York, 994),which ave hemerit fexistingven f hey o notfill llneeds.2 See respectively. Ernst, eligione,agione naturaMilan,1991),chaps. 10-11, ndP.Curry, rophecyndPower Princeton,989).PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, VOL. 142,NO. 3, SEPTEMBER, 1998

323

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324 ANTHONY GRAFTONremarkablelexibilitynapplicationith durable ommitmento arecognizablyniformetof deas ndtechniques.he astrologersfRome nthe ime f Cicero, he strologersf Baghdadn theageofHarun rRashid, nd he strologersfNiirnbergnthegenerationfAlbrechtiirer orked romhe ame osmologicalremises,rojectedthe ame eneficentnd hreateningmagesnto heheavens,ndused orthemost art he amemathematicalechniques.ut heyworked orradically ifferentocietiesnd clients,nd in radically ifferentinstitutionalnd professionalettings.he historianf astrology,hen,must somehow manage o do justiceto boththedurabilitynd theflexibilityf he radition:o combine sense f he cientificongueure'ethat strologychievedwith neyefor hecontinualransformationfthe social worlds t served nd thetechniques nd ideasof which tconsisted.Thecontinuityf he strologicalraditions,perhaps, nmatchedinthe ntellectualistoryf hewest.All astrologers-whethernancientBabylonor Hitler'sMunich-assumehat hey nderstandhe anguageof the stars. heybelieve hat hey ossess setofhermeneuticalules,whichenable hem o decipherhebook of the heavens.This analogymay soundverymodern, ven modish.Currentntellectualashiondictateshecomparisonfevents o texts. ffortsotreat llsystemsfsymbolss anguageslourish ildly: riginalecent ookshave hednewlight n the anguagesfpolitics,fflowers,ndofclothing.3ut nthecase of astrology,he analogy tself orms artof a long-establishedtradition. iovanniGioviano ontano,whopublished treatisee rebuscoelestibusslongagoas 1512, rgued xplicitlyhat he anguage fthestars onformedn all essentialwaysto the anguage f humans.Thetwenty-sixetters f the Roman alphabet,he pointedout, could becombinedntens fthousandsfways oform ew words.Very implealterationsnspellingausedmajor hangesnsense. headjectivevidus,for xample, eadily ecomes hemore ntensevidior,vidior ecomesthestillmore ntensivevidissimus,ndavidissimus,n itsturn, inksdown o become vidulus fternlyminorurgery.very ransformationofthe ign ransformstsmeaning.'Stars ndplanets, ontano rgued, ormed he ettersf a cosmicalphabet.Clear, imple ttributes-color,xternalppearance, peedof3A. Pagden,d.,The anguages fPoliticalTheorynEarlyModern urope Cambridge,1987);J.Goody,TheCulturefFlowersCambridge,993);A. Hollander,ex andSuits(NewYork,1994).4 G. G. Pontano, e rebuscoelestibusibri14 (Basel, 1530); cf. C. Trinkaus,TheAstrologicalosmos ndRhetorical ulturefGiovanniGioviano ontano," enaissanceQuarterly8 (1985): 446-72.



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GIROLAMO CARDANO 325motion-expressedhe haracterf he ndividuallanets.hered olorthat upposedlyharacterizedars, or xample,evealedtshot,dry,warlikeature.very lanetadnot nlyts wn ualities,oreover,utalso ts llies ndopponentsmonghe ther lanets,he tars,nd hedegreesnd ignsf he odiac.Ataxonomicridhatook oth ualitiesandrelationshipsnto ccountnabledhe strologeroestablishfull etofqualitiesor ach celestialody ndplace.Venus, sMars's hiefopponent,ecessarilyad he pposedualities,old ndwetness.Everylanet,nother ords,layedhe ole f letter ith efinedqualities.verystrologicallyignificantonfigurationf woormoreplanets-a onjunction,or xample-resembledword r aphrase,hesense fwhich he strologerould etermine.heconjunctionfMarsandVenus fferssimplexample:hat appenedhen beneficentndamaleficentlanetmet nthe odiac. verystrologernewhatnthiscaseVenuswould vercome er rother,s ove sstrongerhan nger.This pparentlyimplerinciplenspiredoth he hilosopherarsilioFicino,who devoted o it a splendidetpiece nhiscommentarynPlato's ymposium,nd he rtistandro otticelli,ho mbodiedt, na spectacularlyroticorm,nhispanel aintingfMarsndVenus,owintheNational allery,ondon.'Europeanastrologers ade use not only of this celestialhermeneutics,hich ame riginallyromMesopotamia,ut lso ofacosmology,hich ame riginallyrom reece. ccordingothe chemefirstaid outbyPlato ndthenmuchmore laboratelyevelopedyAristotlend thers,he niverseas womain arts:he pper ealmfthe elestialpheres,hichevolveroundhe arth,nd heower ealmof hefour lements.ntheupper ealm,tout 'est u'ordretbeaute,luxe, alme tvolupte."he tarsnd he lanets,mbeddedncrystallinespheres,reatehe nchangingusic f ternity.ntheower ealm, ycontrast,hingsnd reaturesomposedf he ourlements,arth,ir,firendwater,re orn ndgrow,ecome ld nd ie.Downhere,hingschangencessantly:he lementslay nunendingrama, hicheemsohave o clearcript.ut hatwhichscompletenddoesnot hange,ndmovesn a uniformay, shigherhan hatwhich hanges. ndthehigherightlyuleshe ower. ccordingly,hemusic f he pheresnthe pper ealm xtendstsnfluenceo the iving reaturesnthe owerrealm.hey ollowt-to he imitedndmperfectxtentllowedy hemessy ndchangeable atter f which hey onsist. he cosmologyjustifiedhehermeneutics:texplained,sdozens fmanualsnd ecturecourses atiently ade lear,why he strologerould nferrom hesmooth ndperpetual ovementsf heplanetshe erkyndunevenS See E. H. Gombrich,ymbolicmages Oxford, 972;repr. 978),66-69.



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326 ANTHONY GRAFTONfuture ovementsfplants,nimalsndhumansnearth.6The astrologer,inally,elied na setof mathematicalata ndtechniques,which combined he methods nd discoveries fMesopotamianndGreekstronomersnd strologers-andhosef omeof their uccessors. stronomicalablesenabled stronomersndastrologersopredicthefuture ovementsf theplanetsndtheirastrologicallyignificantositions ith easonableccuracy.strologersused heseechniqueso ayout he ositionsf he ignsf heZodiacand he lanetst significantoment:hat f he irthrconceptionfaclient,orxample.hey lso sed hemodividehe odiac p nto hetwelve egments,alledhouses,hatdefinedhe effectsfplanetaryinfluence.hepresencefplanetsn heseetermined,n uccession,owlong lients ould ive,what alentsheywould ossess,ndhowmuchtheywould rosper. ost requentlyf ll, hey sed simplifiedet fcomputationsodeterminehat nfluencehe lanets ould xercisetaparticularlymportantomentn client'sife. hort-termredictionsaboutmarriage,nvestment,rescriptionsfdrugsnd roscriptionsrompoliticsould llbegiven sound uantitativeasis.7Astrologers'asksaried idely.hemostntellectuallymbitiousofthem sed strologicalrinciplesoinvestigateorld istory.hesimpleulehat aturnndJupitereachonjunctionverywentyears,for xample,ould ecome sort fgroundass orworld istorysawhole,sPersian, rabic,ndEuropeanstrologersnturn sedt o fixand ccountor he reaturningointsnworld istory,ike he ise fnew eligions,nd opredictistory'snd.8ierre'Ailly, Frenchman,set hisuiteorrectly-inspecial,renchense-in .D. 1789.9 rdinaryastrologersnvestigatedpecificonfigurationsy he housands,orkingout he rospectsor cure ornythingromovesicknessohousemaid'sknee.10he centralask fthe killedstrologeremainedhe ame,however,verhe enturiesndmillennia:odraw pthe oroscopeshatwould xplainow elestialnfluencesormedhe haracterf ndividualpeople,ities,nd ountries,as hehot eal tampshewax."6For a good ntroductionothis osmologicalraditions itwasknownnd llustratednearlymodem urope,eeS. K.Heninger,ouches f weetHarmonySan Marino, 974).7 J.C. Eade, The Forgottenky Oxford, 984),describesstrologicalerminologyndtechniques.ora more echnicaltudyftheways f aying uthoroscopes,eeJ.North,Horoscopes nd HistoryLondon, 986).8J.North,AstrologyndtheFortunesfChurches,"entaurus4 (1980): 181-211.9 L. Smoller,History,rophecynd theStars Princeton,994). Smoller rovides nexcellenteneralntroductionomedievalndearlymodem strology.10M. MacDonald,Mystical edlamCambridge,981).



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GIROLAMO CARDANO 327II. CONTINUITIES FFUNCTION

The long-termimilaritiesetween ncient ndearlymodernastrologyxtend eyond he realm ftheory ndtechnique. nyhistorian howants o studyhesocialhistoryfastrologyn theRenaissancehouldegin ith marvelousook bout he ocial istoryof strologynHellenisticgypt:ranz umont's'Egyptees strologues.Here, strippedf llastrology,"ppearsworld f lientsppealingotheastrologeror dvice ndhelp n a range fpersonalndpublicsituationshatmatches,ithurprisingrecision,he angef ituationsinwhich enaissancestrologerslso arriedut heirobs."1nEgypt sin taly,strologersounseledllordersf ociety.mperorsndprinces,merchantsndhousewivesook dvice romhem.nEgypts n taly,cosmic eligionecamentermingledith heolder fficialult.TheproudLeonora fAragon efusedo prayuntil heFerrareseourtastrologerellegrinoriscianixplainedoher hat he houldmitatehekings f Greecewhomhe didnot dentifyurther).hey prayed,Priscianiold er,whenhemoon eachedonjunctionith upiterndothernecessaryonditionserefulfilled,hich xplained hy heyalways btainedheir ishes.12nEgypts n taly,inally,he strologerdeterminedodes fconduct,rom reat ublic vents otiny rivatedecisions.heFlorentineepublic,bastionf arly oliticalationality,gave tsgeneralsheir atons fcommandtastrologicallyanctionedmoments.eonello 'Este,tastefulnd ruditerince,he rize upil fGuarinofVerona, ade iswardrobeecisionsstrologically.very ayhe woreclothes f a colorchosen o drawdownfavorableelestialinfluences."3InRenaissanceuropes nHellenisticgypt,he mnipresencefastrologyefutesny ffortsodraw irm istinctionsetweenighndlow, litendpopularulture.onsider,or xample,he ase fDiirer.He drewon astrologicalmagesnd deas n hissubtle nderuditeMelancolia,amysteriousngravinghat eaimedta coterieublic fhumanists.uthe lsodid o nhis impleroadsides,hich eproducedfor he rdinaryen ndwomennthemarketplacewhere,ndeed,iswife old hem)."4hepreservedoroscopesnd extbooksf strology

F. Cumont, 'Egypte esastrologuesBrussels, 937), s described y 0. Neugebauer,TheExactSciences nAntiquity,d ed. Providence,957; repr. ewYork,1969),56.' E. Garin, Magic ndAstrology,"cience ndCivic ifen the talianRenaissance, r. .Munz Gloucester, ass.,1978).13AngeloDecembrio, e politia itteraria, S Vat. at.1794,fol.6 verso.14 See, e.g. the famous strological oodcut hatDtilrerrovided or he 1496 syphilisFlugblattfTheodoricus lsenius.



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328 ANTHONY GRAFTONmirror hehopes ndexpectations,nxietiesndterrorsf a wholesociety.Almost hundred ears go,AbyWarburghowed hat heseresemblancesidnot ome bout y hance.hehumanisticallyducatedastrologersf theRenaissanceeadandusedclassical stronomicaltexts-notablyheAstrologicafManiliusnd heMathesisfFirmicusMaternus.hesedescribedn detail otonly hegeneraloctrinesfastrology,ut lso he gyptianecans,uriousivinitiesach fwhichruleden egreesf he odiac,nd theroctrinesfNear asternrigintransmittedo the West in the Hellenistic eriod.Workingncollaborationith oll nd axl,Warburgevealedhat he strologyhatcameto richlyoloredife n thewalls fthePalazzoSchifanoianFerrarand lsewhereepresentedrevivalf his ncientynthesis,owntominuteetailsf mageryndpractice."5Atthehighestevel, strologersncientnd arlymodernarriedout he askshatwentieth-centuryocietyssignsothe conomist.ikethe conomist,he strologerried obringhe haotic henomenafeverydayife nto rder yfittinghem osharplyefineduantitativemodels. ikethe conomist,he strologernsisted,hen eachingrwritingor rofessionaleers,hatstrologyadonly limitedbilityopredicthe uture.ormallypeaking,fterll, strologyoncernedtself,at tsmostcientificevel, ithhenterplayfgeneralorcesatherhantheoutcomef singleonfigurationf hem. ike he conomist,heastrologerroved illingnpractice,hen owerfullientsemandedt,to predictndividualutcomesnyhow. ike the economist,heastrologerenerallyoundhathe ventsidnotmatch he rediction:and ike he conomist,he strologerormallyeceivedsa rewardorthis onfirmationfhis rt's owers betteroband higheralary.

Likethe conomist,he strologerecamehebutt f universalcriticism-andtill rovedndispensable.venthe harpestriticsfastrologyidnotreallyscapehe nfluencef his biquitouscience.Thepragmaticistorianrancescouicciardiniidiculedstrologersshedidhisfriend achiavelli,rguinghat hehumanntellectouldnotpossiblyredicthe angledutureoursef ocial ndpoliticalife.Hepointedut,perhapsor hefirstime,hat he steemfastrologersrestednapsychologicalondition,confirmationias, hatheyharedwithheirlients.oth ememberednly he strologers'uccesses,hepredictionshatame ut orrectly.heir armore requentrrors ere15SeeA.Warburg,eidnisch-antikeeissagungnWort ndBild u Lutherseiten1920),inAusgewdhltechriftenndWurdigungen,d.D. Wuttke,ded. Baden-Baden, 980),199-304; . Saxl, TheRevival fLateAntique strology,"ecturesLondon, 957),1:73-84.



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GIROLAMO CARDANO 329simply orgotten.uicciardiniook thepopularityftheastrologerssclearproof f thefallibilityf thehuman ntellectsomethingeneverhesitatedoassert). orcenturies, uicciardini,ikeLuther, njoyed hereputationfhaving eenthroughhe mostwidespreadelusion f hisculture. Recently, however, RaffaellaCastagnola has publishedGuicciardini'swnhoroscope,sing widerange f other ocuments osetit into context. he historian,ike thecontemporariesemocked,consulted specialistnpredictionfter ll. He had hishoroscope rawnup by RambertoMalatesta,formerignore ho retiredoFlorence ftermurdering is wife and losinghis possessions o a popularrevolt.GuicciardinividentlynewMalatestaurprisinglyell, o judgefromthedetailsgiven bouthim n thetext, nd he seems o havestudiedMalatesta'spredictions ith omecare."6 he clear-eyedynicwasnomorerigorousn hisrejection fastrologyhan thefools borneveryminute roundhim.Nowadaysno oneescapes heterrestrialconomy;in the ixteenthentury,sintheHellenisticndRomanworld,no oneescaped hecelestialconomy.III. DisCONTINUITIESNDEXPLANATIONS

For all these imilarities,owever, he strologyftheRenaissancewasmore han simple evivalf ts lassical orerunner.he astrologicaltradition,fterll,doesnot form seamlesswhole. The social contextwithinwhich strologers ork hanged adically etween ntiquityndthe Renaissance, nd theirown activities hangedwith the times,especially s their rtgrew n popularitynd sophisticationrom hetwelfthenturynward. The astrologersf theRenaissancend theirenemies oulduse newmedia, or xample,hatno ancientwriter ouldhave imagined.n 1524 a threateningonjunction ook place in theZodiacal ign fPisces. aolaZambelli as dentifiedeveral ozenprintedtexts, anging rom rimitiveroadsides o sophisticatedreatises,hatpredicted secondFlood for 1524 none happened)."7uther ound tparticularlyellinghat omany strologersoresaw deluge hatdid nottakeplace,whilenone of thempredictedhePeasants'Revolt hatdidoccur n thenextyear.18tallevents,ncient istoryanshownoparallelto thisfirstmedia vent fmodern imes-orfor heelaboratelytagedrituals of humiliation o which some Italiancitiessubjected ocal16See I Guicciardini le scienze cculte,d. R. CastagnolaFlorence, 990).17p. Zambelli,d.,"Astrologiallucinati":tars ndthe ndof heWorldnLuther's ime(Berlin ndNewYork,1986).18Warburg,31-32, 77.



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330 ANTHONY GRAFTONastrologershenhe ains idnot ome."9sastrologyecamehe bjectofnew formsfpublic ebate,s thesenturn eached ew tratafpartlyducatednduneducatedeaders,he ncientrt nteredpublicspherehat idnot xistnantiquity.The content,swell stheform,f astrologynderwent ajorchangesn he ourse f ime. strologyesemblesglacier.tconsistsfseveral ifferenttrata ndforms f material;tmoves onstantly,fimperceptibly;nd it revealsmanyfissuresnd crevassesn closeinspection.entraloctrinesfRenaissancestrology-likehat f heGreat onjunctionsf aturnndJupiter-didothave lassicalrigins.Centralelationshipsetweenstrologynd ther redictiveisciplinestookonnewformsnthe arlymodern orld.nantiquity,strologersanddoctorsompeted,srepresentativesf eparaterts. tolemy,howrote heoneancientystematicandbookfastrologyo survive,comparedhe wo ciences,dmittinghatheyervedomewhatimilarends.But he also emphasizedhe differencesetween he kinds fspecializednowledgehey ad ooffer.20venn ntiquity,sonewouldexpect,strologersnddoctors orroweddeas nd echniquesromneanother nyhowPtolemyimselfraisedheEgyptiansor nifyingmedicineithstrology).ntheMiddle ges,nbothhe slamic nd heEuropean orlds, anyriedo combinehe wo rts.talian niversities"of rts nd medicine"fferedormal oursesnastrology,s one oftheliberal rtsmost ikelyo be usefulo a medicalman.Doctors ftencompetedithstrologerso draw phoroscopes,incehey ad earnedto do so at university.omemedicalmen tried o applytheprecise,quantitativeethods f strologyn medical ractice.2"octorsplayedprominentrole in Symonde Phares's late-fifteenth-centuryist ofastrologerswho had attainedworldly uccess.22 t the same time,however, ebate anged verwhetherarticularllnesses erebestaccounted or nmedical rastrologicalrounds. oth heBlackDeathof1348andthesupposed dvent fsyphilisustbefore 500 timulatedastrologersnddoctorsodirect olemical reatisesgainst neanothers'explanatorylaims.2319 o. Niccoli,ProphecyndPower n Renaissancetaly, r.L. G. CochranePrinceton,1990), hap. . Note,however,hat iccoli's onclusionhaturban opulations erefullyawareof astrology,ut .. gave it ittle redit"167) goesfarbeyond he imits fherevidence.20Ptolemy etrabiblos.3.21N. Siraisi,Medieval ndEarlyRenaissanceMedicineChicago nd London, 990).22A.Murray,eason ndSocietyntheMiddleAges Oxford, 978;repr.with orrections,1985),208.23 For theBlack Death,see thematerialsollectedby H. Pruckner,tudien u den



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GIROLAMOCARDANO 331Sometimeshedevelopmentf astrologicaloctrineolloweddirectionshat ncienthinkersould ever ave xpected.omemedicalmen-like icino ndParacelsus-wentofar s to treatstrologys thecore fmedicaloctrine,centralourcef eliableherapiesnddieteticadvice.24omephilosophers-likeomponazzi-wentofar s to treatastrologys a universalausalxplanationor llphysicalrocessesntheuniverse-includinghe ffectsfprayers.25eanwhile,omeoftheircompetitorsried oexpose strologys a tissue ffraudnd rror. icodellaMirandola,or xample,ramedbrilliant,ystematicritiquefastrology,hich ested na radicallyifferentetofassumptionsnd

methodsromhosef he ldernti-astrologicalolemicsfCicero ndsomeFathers f theChurch. tolemy imself adadmitted,s Picoemphasized,hatstrologyould ffernly pproximateredictions,otprecise nes, ivenhewide ange fothernfluenceshat hapedndaffectedndividuals'haractersnd ates.26iconot nly ppropriatedhissearchingritique f astrologyy an astrologer;e addedto it apenetratinghilologicalxaminationf strology'soundinglaim o bean ancientNearEastern rt.UsingonlythefragmentaryvidenceavailablenGreekndRomanources,icomanagedoexposecientificastrology,n its classical orm,s a relatively odern rt.He showed,contraryowidespreadelief,hat twasnot creationf agepriests holived ongmillennia efore he birth fChrist, ut an application fmathematicallanetaryheoryhatook hape nlynthe econd alf fthe irst illennium.C. 27Sadly, icodied eforeecould ompleteiswork-supposedlyn heyear redictedy he strologers.28uthisworkastrologischenchriftenes Heinrich onLangensteinLeipzig ndBerlin, 933)andG.W. Coopland,Nicole Oresme nd theAstrologersLiverpool, 952);for yphilis ee thetexts ssemblednDie altestenchriftstellerber ie LustseuchenDeutschland, on 1493bis 1510,ed.C. H. Fuchs Gottingen,843) andthe nalysis f P. Zambelli, 'ambiguanatura ella magia Milan, 1991), hap.4.24D. P. Walker, piritualndDemonicMagicfromicino toCampanella London,1958);W.-D. Muller-Jahncke,strologisch-magischeheorie ndPraxis n derHeilkunde erfruhenNeuzeit,udhoffsrchiv, upplementStuttgart,985);seealso M. Ficino,ThreeBooksonLife, d. andtr.C. V. Kaske and J.R. ClarkBinghamton,989). Alchemy, fcourse, layed hemost entralole nParacelsus'system.)25E. Cassirer,he ndividualndtheCosmos n Renaissance hilosophy,r.M. Domandi(New York,1963),chap.3.26SeeA.A.Long, Astrology:rgumentsor ndAgainst,"nScience ndSpeculation,d.J.Barnes t al. (Cambridgend Paris, 982), 165-93.27 G. Pico dellaMirandola, isputationesontra strologiam ivinatricem,d. and tr.E.GarinFlorence, 946-52).28Cf L. Gaurico, ractatusstrologicusVenice,1552),58 recto: etmultos diditibroselegantissimos,tunum olumen ontrastrologosuae aetatisdmodumratus, uoniam



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332 ANTHONY GRAFTONprovokednd timulatedater eaders,romheGermanoctors hodebatedhecauses fsyphilisarlyn the ixteenthenturyown oJoseph caligernd Johannesepler, he atter f whom eriouslyconsideredndertakinglearnedditionfPico's ook.29henaturendlevel f heRenaissanceebateboutstrology,n hort, ere snovel sthe ublictreachednd hemediahat osteredtsdevelopment.Distinguishedultural istoriansavedevised omepowerfulmodels, ithwhichhey roposeo describend xplainhenaturendimpactf arlymodernstrology. arburgaw strologysavital, utalso dangerous,art f he lassicalradition.strologymbodiednhiseyes omethingike perpetualionysiacemptationo throwffheburdenfpersonalesponsibility,oascribeontrolver ne's motionsand actions o superior,malevolentorces. very hinkerf theRenaissancead ostruggleithhis ark orcenorderowin he oomfor ree houghthat reativectivitiesequire.rnst assirerook hislastpoint urther,howinghat he ystematicharacterf strologynfact reatedoom ornnovativehinking.t ided omponazzind therstodevelop radicallyewvisionf he niverse,ne nwhich he amepowerspervadednd ruled he celestialnd thephysicalworlds,continuouslynd without nterference-anbsolutiststrologicalcosmologyuitealiento the astrologicalraditiontself.30ichelFoucault,by contrast,ortrayed enaissance strologys a revealingexample f heways nwhich particularepisteme"-aystemfrules sgrandiose,ark,nd ubterraneansaPiranesiasement-controlledhethoughtndwritingf whole poch.No philosopherrscientistouldescape heweb of ssumptionshat ompelledhem o seethemselves,ndall othernatural eings,scontrolled ya networkfhighernd owerforces,sprisonersna sticky ebof nfluences.3"eithThomas,finally,emphasizedhe ocial ole, atherhan he echnicalontent,f strology.Inhisview, hefragilenvironmentalnd ocial ituationfearlymodernpeopleclearlyxplainedheir ascinationith strologynd othernon-rational orms fpredictivemagic.Fire,flood, nd famine hreatenedeveryone,herich swell s thepoor.No rationalmeans fpredictingrpreventinguchevents xisted.nsurance,whichrested n statistical,tres otissimumaticinabanturimortemnno 3. suaeaetatis ere ompleto,xdirectionehoroscopidMartem,icuti ccidit."9Seethe lassic tudyyP. 0. Kristeller,Giovanni icodellaMirandolandhisSources,"L operae ilpensierodiGiovanni ico dellaMirandolaFlorence, 965),1: 34-133;A.Grafton,osephcaligerOxford,983-93), :chap.7; Zambelli, ambigua atura ellamagia.30 SeeJ.Krois,Cassirer,ymbolicorm nd HistoryNewHaven,1987).31M. Foucault, esmots t eschoses Paris, 966).



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GIROLAMO CARDANO 333rather han celestial,measurements,ame intobeingonlyin theseventeenthentury.nly he strologerould se hebest uantitativemethods f he ime opredicthefuturendoffersefulounsels oravertingisk nd xploitingpportunities.32Each ofthesemodelsmphasizesvital spect fastrology-butnoneof hem scomprehensive.arburgever ealizedhat strologywas, n ts wnway, greatchievementf lassical eason: hatt, ikegeography,epresentedne of thegreataxonomicisciplinesf theHellenisticndearly mperial eriods.33assirer,ho didunderstandRenaissancestrologyn hisway,ook ittlenterestn he racticef hediscipline.oucault everdmitted,houghecertainlynew,hat heastrologyndnaturalhilosophyf he arlymoderneriodontainedbasicassumptionsndproceduresakenoverdirectlyrom arliersources-an dmissionhathas radical onsequencesorhis method.Thomas,whofor he irstimehed eal ightnthe ocial ackgroundofearlymodernstrology,ouldnotdofullusticeo the ichnessndcomplexityf arlymodernstrologysan ntellectualystem,speciallyas this eachedts ullestevelopmentutsidengland.The work fthese cholars-andfmany pecialististoriansfRenaissancestrology,otably ugenioGarin, aola Zambelli,ndGermana rnst-offersssentialid andstimulus.onetheless,havetried o raise ifferentuestions,ogoa differentay. wanted odojustice o boththerationalismndthe rrationalityfRenaissanceastrology,oboth ts raditionalnd tsnovel ontents,obothts ncientsourcesnd tsmodernocial ole. wantedo ask f he strologersf heRenaissance, ho occupied hemselvesn partwithreading ndcommentingnancientexts, ightave omethingocontributeo theinterpretationf ancient strology-ifheymight elpus set theseeminglyryworks f PtolemyndFirmicusnto a morefullyarticulatedocial nd ulturalontext,hichouldhelp o restoreheirhumannterest.bove ll, wantedo besurprised.wantedo developmy pecificnalyticaluestionsot nadvance,ut s workedhroughprimaryources:oput hem orawdata ssembledot n accordancewith modernrchivist'srhistorian'shoices,utby hose f nearlymodernntellectual.IV. GIROLAMO ARDANO1501-1576)

InJuly 572,Hugo Blotius,n ntellectualromheNetherlands32K. V. Thomas, eligionnd theDeclineofMagic New York,1971).33See 0. Murray,eview fR.MacMullen,nemies f heRoman rder, ournal fRomanStudies 9 (1969): 261-65 at262-63.



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334 ANTHONY GRAFTONwhowould oonbecomeourtibrariano theHolyRoman mperorMaximilianI, finishedn account fhis travelsn Italyduringhepreviousearnd half. e meanthe odexo erves both guidenda notebookor youngriend,udwigonHutten. encehecastmanyofhis xperiencesn he ormf nstructions.hough lotiusad sharpeye or llof taly'sleasuresnddangers,rompectacularandscapesobad nns, e tookparticularnterestnBologna, splendiditywithsplendidniversity.ere,he remarked,ostforeignersisited ourscholars:he istorianarlo igonio,heurisconsultngeliusapius,hedoctor ndphilosopherlysseAldrovandind Giovanni-hemeantGirolamo-Cardano,o whomhe prudentlylidnot assign singleprofession.lotiusgavethe addressesf all four men,praisingAldrovandi'sospitalityithpecial armth:Othersre erymiable,and hemostccessiblef ll sVlysse ldrovandi,hohas nhis hargethe ardenf implest he alace f he egaterGovernor.thome ehas spectacularuseum,tuffedithveryind ffloweringerb, ndalltheother aturalhingshat re o be seen."34ldrovandi,notherwords,fferedorthernallerspen ccess ohis antasticuseumf henatural orld, ithts housandsf xhibitsndhundredsfdrawingsfexotic lantsndanimals,ndevidentlyid so withgreat race ndwarmth.35ycontrast,lotius arned,hosewishingovisit ardanomustake xtremeare:Theymust ot raise im o his ace,heymustbebrief,ndtheymust skwhetherhey anexpectnymore fhisbooksto appearn thenearfuture."36therwise,istone uggested,Cardanomightxplode,howing isguestshedoorratherhan hesecretsfnature. etBlotius learlyhoughthisdangerousoyageworthwhile.LikeBlotius, havedecidedo visit hisdifficultut ntriguingfigure:ndeed,have ecidedofocusmy tudyn his strologicalorks,those fhisrivalsndhis eaders,nd heirources.hereasonsrenotfar o seek astheywerenotforBlotius). ardanowrote t fantasticlength,nd n a fantastictyle,bout very opic ntheastrological3 OsterreichischeationalbibliothekS 6070,fol. 5recto-verso:Alii efaciles raebent,omniumqueacillimumeexhibet lyssesAldrovandusui [Ms: cui]hortiimpliciumuiBononiae dPalatiumegati eugubematorisst ncumbit.omietiam icmusaeum abetmaximemirabile,mniherbarumruticum,aeterarumqueerum aturalium,uae suboculos cadunt,genere,refertissimum."n Blotiussee H. Louthan,The QuestforCompromiseCambridge,977),53-84.35Cf.G.Olmi, inventarioelmondoBologna,1992)andP. Findlen,ossessingNature(BerkeleyndLosAngeles, 994).36OsterreichischeationalbibliothekS 6070,fol.25 recto: Cardanumalutaturisautioesse debet, e psumnos laudent,tpaucis embsolvant,ogentqueum uosalios ibrospropediemedendos xpectareossint...."



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GIROLAMO CARDANO 335traditionandmany thers).37isOpera mnia, ublishedong fter isdeath, ill en foliovolumesnd some even housandages. verycolumnffersstrikingbservation,necdote,rreference.hisbrilliantastrologerrewphoroscopesorheivingnd he ead,wroteechnicaltreatises,nd ommentednauniquelyrank ay n hisdiscoveries,isexperiences,nd his relations ithhis clients. he vast size andconsiderable ifficultyf his books have deterredcholars romapproachingim.Though oodmonographsescribe iswork nthemathematicsfgamesf hance,isnaturalhilosophy,ndhismedicine,only ne cholar, ermanarnst, as nalyzedis strologicalorknanydetail.38projectedriticaldition f Cardano'sworks asonlyreached preliminarytage.oryearsocome, ll tudentsfhisworkwill econdemnedoplay he ole f aterpillarsxploringiny ortionsof n enormousloweringarden.iddlesutnumberolutions,nddarkareas urroundveryightne.Evennow,n hort,he oad oCardanohas ts harefdangers.Cardano tudiedn Pavia ndPadua: fter very ifficultarlycareer, etaught ith ome uccess ndconsiderableotorietyt theuniversitiesfPavia ndBologna. e makesppearancesnhistoriesfmathematics,s oneof he reatorsfmodernlgebra;lso nhistoriesftechnology,s oneof he reatorsfwhat uropeansall le ardan"r"dasCardangelenk,"he niversaloint.Hisbooks oldwell, ot nlynItaly, ut hroughouturope; ome,ikehis ncyclopedicesubtilitate,became est-sellershat eceivedhehighestiteraryomplimentsf heperiod, erociousttacknd hamelesslagiarism.he mostmportantnatural hilosophersfthe ixteenthndearly eventeenthenturiesmentionedndcited im egularly.e even eceivedndacceptedninvitationo travel o far-offaris-andhen,odistantndbarbarousEdinburgh-to rovidemedical dviceforJohnHamilton,he astCatholicrchbishopf t.Andrews.ardanoaved he rchbishop'sife,receivingnenormous onorariumndgiving is ucky lient ifteenmore earsoenjoy efore rotestantsxecutedim.Cardano'sife ouldupply aterialor everalinds f maginativewriting.nhisyouth eplayedhe ole f he rotagonistf historicalnovelnthebest urple tylef henineteenthentury.ne day-ashe37Thebest hort ccounts fCardano's ife emainhatn0. Ore,Cardano, heGamblingScholarPrinceton,953), ndDictionaryf cientificiography,.n.Cardano,Girolamo,byM. Gliozzi. ee alsoA. Ingegno,aggio ullafilosofiaiCardano Florence, 980); theimportanttudies ollectednE. Kepler, d.,Girolamo ardano: hilosoph, aturforscher,ArztWiesbaden, 994); nd he omprehensivetudyfhismedical areernd thoughtyN. Siraisi, heClock ndtheMirrorPrinceton,997).38 G. Ernst,'Veritatis mor ulcissimus': spetti ell'astrologianCardano,"nKepler,158-84.



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336 ANTHONY GRAFTONtold he tory, uchater,nhis utobiography-Cardanoambled itha Venetian.ealizinghat is pponent as heating,e forcediswayoutof thehouse, ecoveringismoney. ardano henwanderedhestreetsor ome ours, rightenedfdiscovery.ryingo board ship, estumbledn thegangwayndfellnto canal-in ull rmor.he reliefhe feltwhen he rew fa boatpulled im utof hewaterurnedohorror henhe recognizedhe hip's aptain s his opponentf themorning.ortunately,hecaptain ecided o helphim, incehe toopresumablyanted o troublewith he notoriouslytrict enetianauthorities.39s anoldman, y ontrast,ardano layed he art f hehero f tragedyropera-perhapsLear.He raged ndmournedhenhis older on,a giftedoctorn his ownright, asarrested,ried,convicted,nd xecutedormurderingiswife ith focacciaacedwitharsenic,ndwhen isyoungeron urnedut o beaworthlessharacterandpettyhief.ButCardano layed isbest ole s a middle-agedan,whenhebecamehehero f universityovelnthe tylefDavidLodge.As animportantrofessorardano evised anyf he ustomsndpracticesofmoderncademicife. e drew p,for xample,list f he eventy-threemportantriters hohad citedhim, r mentionedimwithpraise.40 ardano's istbecame n its turn model for ater cholars'autobiographiesndbiographies,hich ollowedimndocumentingtheirubjects'eceptionndetail. e thus eserveshe reditif reditsdue)for devicemost eoplewronglyhink f sa creationfmodernsociologyf cience,he itationndex. ardanoven nticipated anyof henew cientificnd iteraryossibilitiesfferedy he omputer.oreadersfhis On subtlety,or xample,e offeredneasyrecipe orwritingnewbook rrevisingnoldone. implyake wo opies f hewrittenext; ut hem p nto ectionsnd ry hemnnew equencesuntil atisfied;lue he esultsnto stout otebookmade f ardboardandgive t to thepublisher.nyonewho hasread wotexts,r twoversionsfone ext, yCardano nows ow eriouslyetookhis wnadvice-andhowwell he wouldhaveusedthemerge unctionf apersonalomputer.Cardanoegularlyevealedhe anityhatmarksllgreatrofessors.Hewrote ot ne, ut ourersionsfhis utobiography,swell sthreeanalysesfhis wnhoroscope.e interpretedhemythfNarcissusna novelway: heyouthwhofelln ovewith isownreflectionnthe39See the ersionsf his torynCardano, e vita ropria 0 OperaomniaLyons, 663],1: 19);Liber iigeniturarumibid. : 521);cf. he pisodedescribednDe ludo leae liberchap.20 (ibid.1:271).40Cardano, e vita ropria iber 8,Operaomnia, :45-47.



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GIROLAMOCARDANO 337water tood,he thought, or he scholarwho lost himselfn pleasurereading isown work.Cardanoprided imself n the fact hat-at eastinthevirtualorm fhisownbooks-he wasregularlyovedbybeautifulreaders"women ead oo,"hereminded isown,presumably ale, entlereader).41nd ike llgoodheroes f atiricalovels, epaid heprice, ndmore han heprice, or ismisdeeds.n 1557Cardanobecame heobjectof heworst ook reviewnthehistoryfEuropeanetters.ulius aesarScaliger,nother ain nd articulateaturalhilosopherf talian rigins,devotedmore than nine hundred uarto pages to refutingne ofCardano's ooks,Onsubtlety,ndpromisedo. eturnothe ubjectt stillgreater ength.Though Scaliger ied without roducingmore than afragmentfthispromised olemic, isExercitationesecame standardwork in universityurriculums-perhapshe onlybook review verknown oundergoransformationnto textbook.42Cardano ontributedomethingoevery orm f strologyracticedin earlymodernEurope.He also providedhiscustomers ithall theservicesthat astrologers ormallyoffered.His works yield richinformationotonlyabouthisown ideas ndmethods, ut alsoaboutthoseof hiscontemporariesnd hisrelationswith hem.Andthoughsomeforms f evidence hatonewould iketo have aremissingnhiscase-like his correspondence, hich he burned-enoughcollateralmaterialurvivesoth oconfirm uch fwhathesays ndtoprovidecontext ort.For all its difficulties,n short, he investigationf Cardano'sastrologyhas proved remarkably ewarding. is interpretationsfclassicalstrologicalexts-especiallyisfull ndpenetratingommentaryonPtolemy's etrabiblos-shedew ight othonancientstrologyndon modem spectsfhisownpractice. is livelynd detailedortraitsfthe ocialcontextwithinwhichheworked,aken ogether ithfurthercontemporary vidence, hed new lighton the functionshat theastrologerarried ut-andsuggestew andprovocative aysof ookingat ancient,as well as early modern, astrology.What began as amicrohistory, fine-grainednd minute examination f a singleastrologer, as gradually volved into an oblique but large-scaleinvestigationftheclassical raditionnastrologysawhole.IV. THE PoLmCs OF SCIENCEANDTHE SCIENCEOF POLMCS INCARDANO'SASTROLOGY41Cardano, e librispropriis1554), Opera omnia, : 78.42 See thefine nalysis y . Maclean, The nterpretationfNatural igns:Cardano'sDesubtilitate ersusScaliger'sExercitationes,"nOccult ndScientific entalitiesn theRenaissance,d. B. VickersCambridge, 984),231-49.



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338 ANTHONY GRAFTONCardanoaw strologys, t ts ore, politicalrt.He urgedheastrologerhowishedomake careerotrybove ll opredictoliticalandmilitaryventsor rominentlients.y doing o, the strologercouldmake name.Unfortunately,e alsoriskedringingimselfntoeither oliticalr scientificiscredit.uring isgreat oyagehroughnorthern urope,Cardano drew up horoscopes or the FrenchambassadornLondon,hehumanistnd tatesmanohn heke,nd heyoungkingEdwardVI. The lasthoroscope,n particular,rovedpolitically ore han elicate.ardano redictedhat isyoung lientwouldhavea long ife,many hildren,nda successfuleign. uch

positive redictionsere, f ourse,henatural esult f omputationsmade y nambitious,ow-bornstrologeror royal rnoble atron.Cardano'sival ucaGaurico,orxample,old heHabsburgrchdukethat ewould efeatheTurks,ead he ultanntriumphith is rmsboundbehind im, nd becomemore mportanthan heemperorhimself-allhis ta timewhen heHabsburgsereuckyokeep heTurks romaking ienna.43nfortunately,ardano's lient rovedunluckierhanGaurico's.edied,lmosttonce, utwell fter ardanopublishedhe horoscopen question. he poor astrologeraceddilemma:ehad oexplain owhe couldhavemade ogrossnerror,withoutringingitherimselfrhis rt nto iscredit.Cardano xplained,rticulately,hathe had devotedt leasthundredours othe tudyfa few hosenspectsfthehoroscope.Nonethelessehad ailedo earnhe ruth.adder utwiser,enow awthat nemore our f aborwould ave nabledim orectifyis esults.True, e dmitted,ne ould eelemptedoexplainis rrorsthe esultofa clever oliticalecision.fhehadopenlyonfessedhat angersthreatenedheyoung ing, ewouldhavefallen nder uspicionfplottinggainstdward imself.nly uck, rdivine rovidence,avedCardano'sife, y nducingim o make technical istake. therwisehe wouldhave faced political ilemmahatno levelof technicalexpertiseouldsolve.Paradoxically,t became lear hat he courtastrologerould ot,n ome ircumstances,arryuthisprincipalutyof ellingis lienthe xactruth."4 OsterreichischeationalbibliothekS 7433,e.g.2 verso-3 ecto: Immo, imecelestiafallant,rocul ubioMarte uo poteris ex invictissimeegumTurcharumabiemmoxsuperaremalam,psorumqueucemmanibus ostterga evinctumuces.DeinMagnoCaesaremaior ris.NilprofectolandioruaeMaiestati";0rectorevolutionor 534-35):". . .et utireorConstantinopolitanaerbis ceptra t coronam uscipiesutiex illiushoroscopot annuaehuius onversionislicitur."" Cardano, iberxiigeniturarum,pera omnia, : 507-08.Cardano husbothhashiscake-shows thathis artcouldhave predictedheking's mminenteath-and eats ittoo-by insistinghat e is toohonest opretendhathehad carried uttheprediction



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GIROLAMO CARDANO 339When Cardano mphasizedhepolitical roblemshathedgedaroundhe strologer'srawingoard, e elf-consciouslyrew ttentionto a long-establishedeaturef he strologicalraditions a whole. ikemany thermedicalmen f he ime, ardanowas goodhumanistswellas a good strologer,nededicatedoclosephilologicaltudy fancientextsnd he raditionsowhichhey elonged.45ccordingly,edid historicalesearcho drivehomehispoint bout strologyndpolitics.epointedut hat he strologersf heRomanmperialourthadfaced xactlyimilarroblems.hen iberius,nhis xile nCapri,took advice rom isastrologerhrasyllus,slave or the emperor

himself)tood eadyo hurl he eernto he ceanfhe ied.Afterheastrologerredictedhat ecalloRomewould ome oon, iberiusskedwhat eforesawor imself.hefuture,hrasylluseplied,ooked erydark-and ythismelancholynsweraved is ife.OnlyThrasyllus'sabilityopredictis wndeath,nother ords,nabled im o avoid t:the astrologerntered he quicksandsf court ifewith a heavyprofessionalurden, nderwhichhe couldeasily ink.Manyhad.Diocletian'sstrologerscletarion,or xample,aidfor ispredictionof he mperor'seath ith is wnwhichehadforeseen).n nsistingon telling iocletian hetruth onetheless,scletarionisplayedistechnicalbilityndhisprofessionalthicstone nd he ame ime.46Extinction threatenedRoman astrologersmore thanonce-especiallynthe ateryears f theempire, hen heirwayofexplaining oliticsndhistoryame ntoconflict ith hose f theChristianhurchnd he mperors,ince oth laimedominionverheuniverse.irmicus aternus,strologerndChristianishop, roposeda solutionhat ecame opular. mperors,e explained,eing ods,escapedhe ontrol f he lanets.4' anyRenaissancestrologersitedthisaying. aurico,ardano'sival nd major layern he apal uriaof heHighRenaissance,reatedirmicuss aprimeourcenhiswork,eventhough is own technicalmasteryf thesubject ar xceededproperlynd concealed he esults.45 Cf. M. Muccillo,"Luca Gaurico:astrologie 'priscatheologia,"'Nouvellesde laRe'publique es Lettres (1990): 21-44.46 On the ocialhistoryfastrologyt Rome see therecent tudies f M. T. Fogen,DieEnteignung er WahrsagerFrankfurt.M., 1993); D. Potter, rophets nd Emperors(Cambridge, ass., 1994); ndT. S. Barton,ower ndKnowledgeAnnArbor, 994).Onthepolitical ctivities f medieval strologersee H. Carey, ourting isaster:AstrologyattheEnglish ourt ndUniversityntheLaterMiddleAges London,1992).47 FirmicusMaternus, athesis .30.5;for heoriginalontext f this rgument-whichperhaps eflectediocletian's nsistencen hisown ontrolf ll earthlyowers nd vents,hisrefusalo accept, s earliermperorsad, he uperiorityf he kies o hisownwill-seeFogen, 76-84.



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340 ANTHONY GRAFTONFirmicus's.ardano ejectedoth he ncientuthorityndhismessage.Firmicus,e ccuratelynsisted,as grammarian,ot n astrologer:ecollectedits f strologicaloctrineut howed ounderstandingor hetechnicaloreoftheart.48he high-flyingstrologer ight acepoliticallyelicateituation,uthe ould ot scapet implyyduckingresponsibilityor igh olitics.The more iftedhe strologer,n short,hemorehazardous iscareer. ardano rove his oint omemore han nce. t seemsikelythat hehoroscopeedrew pfor esus,houghyno means hefirstone,played major ole nlanding im, sthereligiousndculturalclimatef taly ecamehillier,nder rresty heRomannquisition.49Buthis xperiencefhigh isk asnot nusualn he rade. auricomadethe amepointmore irectly,henhe describedheoutcome ftheaccurate redictione had made in a certainrinted orecast."heastrologerarnedhatGiovannientivoglioould estroyimselfndhis house fhedid nothumble imselfefore uliusI. Bentivogliocondemnedim o"fourorturesf he rms"-theame erribleortureunderwhich ommaso ampanella ouldholdup,many earsater,until is ormentorseclaredim nsane-andwenty-fiveaysnprison.WhenJuliusI soondefeatedheBentivogliond eveledheir alace otheground,ebore utGaurico'srediction,ut hat idnothingomitigatehe strologer'song-rememberedain: Thus he ruth urt hepoor rophet,"aurico rote earsater,astingimselfsCassandra.50Apoliticalstrologerust nderstandolitics,s well sastrology,ina subtlend ophisticateday.AsCardanonterpretedhe ook f heheavens,emanagedofindhere,mongthermessages, any f hepreceptsf henew oliticalciencef he ixteenthentury.hegeneralidea hat ometarsndplanets,nd heir umanhildren,ust ontrolothers,ashardlyew. orenz eheim,orxample,rewn a standardsource, heCentiloquiumongascribedo Ptolemy, henhe usedWillibaldirckheimer'soroscopeoexplainhe trangeelationshipbetweeniirernd irckheimer.51he tarseclaredhat he iftedlientwould rulehispatron.Cardano,however, ead argeportions f thepolitics f theRenaissancentotheclassic onstellations.romthe48 Ptolemy, uadripartitum,d. Cardano, 4,Operaomnia : 118:"cum llepurus ssetgrammaticusxpersquemnino uius rtis, on olum mnia bsque udicio, ona,mala,falsa, era, xtoto texparte eritatemontinentia,oniunctaisiunctaquen unum bsquediscrimineompegit,edquodmulta on ntelligensonfuderittque orruperit.."'9See Siraisi, pilogue.50Gaurico, ractatus,9 verso: Itaquemisello ativeritas ocuit."51L. Beheim o W. Pirckheimer,3May1507, nA. Diirer,chriftlicherachlass, d.H.RupprichBerlin, 956-69), :254.



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GIROLAMO CARDANO 341positions fthezodiacal igns ndplanets, eargued,ne couldexplainwhy ertainndividuals eredestinedoslavery.nparticular,necouldunderstandhy ertain ings ound hemselveseceived ytheir riendsor obedient oevil ounselors.52hepower f he tarsxplained,n otherwords, ot n ndividual ase but generalituation: hy o many agosfoundmorevirtuousistenerseady o accept heir oisonous ounsels.Otherinterpretationsere even moreup-to-date.romthe fact hatrevolutionsakeplace tthe quinoxes, ardanodrew nexplanationorthe pecial rueltyf hePeasants'War of 1525 nd theKingdom fGodatMiinster.hepowerofthe un,he nferred,issolvednhibitionsnd"lit torch n theminds f men." It caused heneglect fmorality,hedisdain oraw, ndthedestructionf hefamilyhat haracterizedarlymodern evolutions.53ardano'spolitical strology,nshort, oth hedsa light nthe strologicalraditionsa wholeandrepresentsomethingcharacteristicfhistime.54Cardano's strology aspoliticalnanother espects well-in thesensebest onveyed ythe German ermWissenschaftspolitik.anyofCardano'sremarks eveal hat heRenaissancestrologer orked n ahighly ublic ituation,dangerouslyxposed neinwhich lients ndcompetitors onstantlyhreatenedo undermine r overthrowhisauthority.hesame lients ho askedCardano's dvice eliberatelyavehimfalse ataabouttheplaces nddates ftheir irthsrathers someclients adgivenmedieval octorsheurine fdogsor horses oanalyzeas their wn).Jealous ompetitorsurroundedhe strologer,nd ostnoopportunityo criticize very spectof hisworkunmercifully.heyattacked ardano, or xample, n thegroundshatheconfined imselftoanalyzinghehoroscopesf ndividuals hohadalready rown p andmadetheir areers-but idnotdare opublish oroscopesheoutcomeofwhichhe couldnot foretell.55thers nsistedhatCardanomusthavefalsifiedisownhoroscope: hispredictionfa series fdisasters,heyargued, howinga nice sense of the paradoxical, ould not be the

52Ptolemy,Quadripartitum,d. G.CardanoBasel,1554),73 (Opera omnia : 148-49)on1.15-16.53 Ptolemy, uadripartitum,d.Cardano, 38-39,Opera omnia, : 199:"faxquaedam nmentibus ominumccensa."54 Cf.also Cardano's nterestingiscussion fanthropophagindothermonstrousaces,again akingff romtolemyopursue period heme: uadripartitum,d.Cardano, 08(Opera omnia : 176-77). See F. Lestringant,a CannibaleParis,1994).55 Cardano, ibelli duo (Nuremberg,543), ep. ded., sig. [A iiij recto]: Addidimus tillustrisueri enituram,tquod nobis biici oletdilueremus,ospublicedepraeteritistantumronunciare."



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342 ANTHONY GRAFTONhoroscopef brilliantlyuccessfulan ikeCardano.56Astrologers ad always onfrontedealouscompetitors.hemembersf hegroupshatworked p predictionsnancient abylonattacked ne another ontinually.he astrologersho drew uphoroscopesn and ablesn he ublicmarketsfmedievalaghdadndDamascus orkednaterrifyinglyxposed osition,ingedy rowds farticulateritics.57venPtolemy'sry extbook,heTetrabiblos,amealiveon the fewoccasionswhenhe felt bliged o abuse he moreprimitive ethodsfhis olleagues.58Cardano, owever,adnewways f stablishingis eputationnddemolishinghose fhisrivals. bove ll,ofcourse, ehad access oprinting. ven quiteordinarystrologers,enwho harbored oambitionsfelaborateiteraryareers,ublishedhort roadsidesndalmanacsntheir ernaculars,hich redictedhenaturalndpoliticalclimate or henext earmonthymonthnddaybyday.They imedtheseextst limited,ocalpublic, opingowinmore lients or heirpractices.ardano egannexactlyhisway,with shortstrologicalpamphlet, rittenn Italian,whichofferedts readers curiouscombinationf echnicalstrology,avonarolanpocalypticrophecy,andweatherredictions.59In the1540s, owever,ardano amento ontact ithGermanintellectuals-notablyndreas sianderndGeorg oachimheticus,who between hemplayed hechief oles nmaking opernicus'sdeaspublic.TheNurembergublisher ohannesetreius roposed o reissueCardano's Latin works n astrology, hich had appeared n a veryunattractive ilanedition nly.60 is collection fhoroscopesnd histreatises n astrologyuddenly ecamepartof the same list,whichincluded he eading cientistsfthetime. n 1543Petreius rought utnotonlyCardano's e revolutionibusativitatum,ut lsoCopernicus'sDe revolutionibusrbiumoelestium.heNurembergdition oon reachedawidepublic: hemedicalwriteranus ornarius,or xample, ought is56Ibid.,horoscope 9, ig. P iiij recto]: Itaque umquidamnonhuius rtis xpertes am[Cardano'sgeniture]idissent, eam sse possenegarunt,rgumentoumpto,uodnecvitae qua hucusquefungor ec ulliusdignitatisestigiumnvenirent."f. Ptolemy,Quadripartitum,d.Cardano, 1 (Operaomnia : 108);76-77 151).57 Onthesepoints eethe plendidynthesisy G. Saliba, The Role oftheAstrologernMedieval slamic ociety," ulletinEtudesOrientales4 (1992): 45-68.58 See e.g. Ptolemy etrabiblos.20.59 G. Cardano, ronostico vero udicio enerale.. dal 1534insino l 1550 Venice,1534): Paris, BibliothequeNationale,Res. V. 1179; cf. Ernst,"'Veritatisamordulcissimus."'60Cardano, ibellus uidiciturupplementumlmanach.. (Milan,1538).



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GIROLAMO CARDANO 343copynMarburgn heyear fpublication.6"ome eadersreathedheircopies fCardano'sookswith laborateotesnwhichhey omparedhis esultso Gauricus's-orecoratedheiropies fGauricus ith oteson Cardano.62he Italian ocalherobecame European avant,ndchieflyhanksothenew ool fferedim yprintingndhis wn enseofhow omanipulatet.No wonderhat lotius,rimingispupil orvisit oBologna,oldhim o assure ardanohat hisworkswere eadwith reat agernessymany ager eadersnGermanyndBelgium."63No wonderitherhat ardano ad opayfor is arlyuccessntheProtestantorld,scensorhipook oldn talyndhis onnectionsithprominent eretics ecame a cause for suspicionrather hancongratulation.64This analysismay ound oomodern, r postmodern,o be true.After ll,few of Cardano's ettersurvive,nd none thatdescribe ismaneuversntheworldof thepublishersndetail.Butportions fthecorrespondencef another strologerwho publishedwithPetreius,Erasmus einhold, o survive,ndthese fferome uggestivevidence.In a long letter o Reinhold, hepublishernvitedhimto writeanastrologicalreatisenwhichhe wouldgivefull ndprecisenstructionson howactuallyo drawup a horoscope: how-to ookfor strology.Petreiuscarefully sked Reinhold to define basic technical erm,"angulus."On the otherhand,he expressly eclared hathe had nointerestnelaborateeriesfworked xamples,ndfor urelyommercialreasons: Sofar sthepredictionshese onstellationsield, heyneedn'tbe ncluded ere, ince ots f hem ave lreadyeenwrittenndprinted,and think textbookike his houldn't eunsaleable."65etreius new61Houghtonibrary, arvard niversity,IC5.C1782.5431,igned n the itle age: "JanusComariusMed.physicus,"nd dated tthebottom fthepage:"Marpurgi, enseOctob.1543."62 See e.g. the copies of the Libelli duo in the HoughtonLibrary,Harvard;theOsterreichischeationalbibliothek,ienna72 J123,Melanchthon'sopy;72 X 5); andthose f his Libelliquinque n theBritish ibrary53 b 7; C 112 c 5), aswell as GabrielHarvey's opyof Gaurico'sTractatus,ited elow.For nterestinglyontrastingccountsof the mpact fprintingnCardano's areer ee W. Eamon, cience nd the ecrets fNature Princeton, 994),andthedetailed, atheressimisticase study y . Maclean,"Cardano nd hisPublishers,534-1663,"nKepler, 09-38.63 OsterreichischeationalbibliothekS 6070,fol.25 recto: ... magna nim upiditateipsius pera nGermaniatBelgio egi."6 See I. Maclean, Cardano ndhisPublishers,534-1663,"nKepler, 09-38.65 Petreius oReinhold,t.Lucy'sday 1549; Geheimes rchiv reu,ischer ulturbesitz,HBA A4 223: "Itemmeinswissens/so hab ich bisherntruck itgesehen inkurtzCompendium,cilicetuomodo rimorigendaeint ativitatest nscribendaenschemaceleste, tquomodo igna, lanetae t stellaentale chema,t n 12domos, t nangulos



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344 ANTHONY GRAFTONwhereofe poke: is ist ad ong ncludedstrologicalorksfdiversekinds.'6isandhis uthors'xpertnterestnthe iffusionf heirointproductsxtendedo allthe etailsfproduction.etreius,or xample,asked einholdo decideinwhich ypet hould eprinted-thats, nthe ig ype,s Copernicusasprinted,r hemedium,ikeCardano enativitatibus,r the mall, s printed,or xample, choner's puscula."He recommendedthemedium,sCardanowas printed.. on ordinarycrown aper."67strologerndprinter orkedwithin heframeworkfa literary arketplace.oth ookresponsibilityor roducing saleableproduct, nd each tried o steer he other n economicallys well asculturallyroductiveirections.he scene eems lltoo familiar-ratherlikea sixteenth-centuryreludeo Linguafranca.V. ECLECTICISM

Astrologers ompetednot only with one another,but withpractitionersf widerange fother rts. nlike hevotariesf modemscience,hey videntlyegardedhis ituation,ndtheir wn nabilityoclaim xclusive alidityor heirrt, squitenatural. ince ate ntiquity,itseems,most lients ad beeneclectics. heychose heirmedicinesormelancholy rom varied epertoire,ncludingacred s wellas secularhealersndcures-asort fMediterraneanedical oine,which asted slongandchangedsgraduallysastrologytself,ndthecomponentsfwhich ested nradicallyivergentremises.68nCardano's ime, sforcenturiesefore,n talianwhofeltoo ethargicocarryna normalifecould onsult doctor,nastrologer,ranexorcist-ormake pilgrimageto a shrine nown o heal the sick. n South talyone couldalsohiredomorumetquidanguli int) ividenda, elchesrbesserwisset, en chs nzeigen an.Was aberdie praedictionesindt x talibus onstitutionibus,as dorftmannicht iereinsetzen/den vonsolchenviel geschriebenndgetrucktst,unddeuchtmichein solchCompendiumoltnicht nkeuflichein."66 See hisprefatoryettero Rheticus,nAntoniuseMontulmo,e iudiciis ativitatumliberpraeclarissimusNuremberg,540), ig.A ijverso.67 GeheimesArchiv reupischerulturbesitz,BA A4 223: .. . undmitwas schrieftsolcher edrucktoltwerden nemlichbsmit ergrossenchrieftwiederCopernicusgedrucktst odermit ermittelwie Cardanuse nativitatibusodermit erkleinenwieich twa choneripuscula etrucktwas rfur in chrieftemhettendiewolt chdieweilzurichtendiemitlerwieCardanusetrucktgefielmirmbestenufgemein ronen apirdanMedien der egal apir shir chwerlichu bekommen."68 Cf.G. Dagron, Le saint,e savant,'astrologue:tudede themes agiographiquestraversuelquesrecueils e Questionstreponses' esVe-Vllesiecles,"Hagiographie,cultures t societes,ve-xiieie'cles Paris,1981), 143-56;P. Brown,Authoritynd theSacred Cambridge,995),69.



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GIROLAMOCARDANO 345specialistsnthis isease:musicians,hoplayedhe o-calledarantellawhile hepatient ancedhimself ackto health.69itteromplaintscirculatedbout he harlatanryf ndividualoctors,strologers,ndexorcists.ometimescritic ent o far s toargue,n a polemicr asatire,hatllpractitionersf strologyr rival rtwere uacks. nthewhole, owever, ost atientseem o have elieved,osome xtent,nthe ompetencef heseractitioners.hey hose o consultparticularone on grounds hatare often nythingut clear-especiallyspractitionersf acred nd cientific,earnedndpopularrts fhealingregularlyorrowedrom ne nother'sepertoiresfprocedures.

Astrologers,or heir art, idnotfind his ituation rong runfair.n the ontrary,ardanondmanyfhisrivals ere xactlyseclecticstheirustomers.ardano,swehave een,mastered ore hanoneart fpredictinguman ates. doctor s well sanastrologer,ewrotemore boutmedicinehanny therubjectndprided imself,sNancy iraisi as hown,n his bilityo read he igns f hehumanbody s well s those f heheavens. ore urprisingly,tfirstight,ealsorelied n formsfpredictionhat eem armore lien hanmedicinefrom he rigorous,ule-bound orld fastrology. ardano ook apassionatenterest,orxample,n henterpretationfdreams.noneofhismost uccessfulooks,he omniaynesia, e recountedlong eriesofhisowndreamsn meticulousetail, onfirmingheprinciplesfinterpretationrom is ownexperience.70e developed theoryfphysiognomics,nd one forreading alms s well though e alsodenouncedhe atterrt sfalse). ndhefound ital lues othe uturena vast angef verydayhenomena:n he mell fhotwax,where herewere no candles;n thebuzzing f a greatwasp; and in whathefrustratinglyalled "theobstinate ehavior f my clock,"withoutexplainingtfurther1-rathers a characternastory yM.R.Jamesellshis wnghosttory,hichonsistsnly f spare ut hillingutline:manocks isbedroomoor, limbsnto is ld-fashioneded, ulls heheavy edcurtainshut,nd hen earsthin oice ay, Nowwe're hutinfor henight."We repermitted,"ardano xplicitlyrguedn hisautobiography,todrawonclusionsromhe mallesthings,f heyastunusuallyong. have hownlsewherehatsanet onsistsf ndividual,uniformoles,oeverythingnhumanife onsistsf iny hings,hicharerepeatedver nd ver gain,ndformed,ike louds,nto variety69 See D. Gentilcore,romBishopto WitchManchesternd New York, 1992); cf. G.Tomlinson, usic n RenaissanceMagic Chicago,1993).70 See A. Browne, Girolamo ardano's omniorumynesiorumibri III," Bibliotheiqued'HumanismetRenaissance 0 (1979): 123-35.71Cardano, e vita ropria iber 3, Operaomnia1:38: "contumacia orologii."



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346 ANTHONY GRAFTONof igures."72ardanolsoheld hat supernaturaleingccompaniedndguidedim hroughost fhis ife. hebulk, hougherhaps ot ll, fhis trangexperienceseexplaineds the esultf his pirit'sffortsocommunicateith im.73Itmay eem aradoxicalhat ardano sednot nly strologyndmedicine,ule-boundnd technicalmethods fprediction,utalsoprodigiesndother orms f directevelation.n theone hand,heinferredhe ast ndfutureromhe egular otionsf he lanets. nthe ther and, ealsoplaced pecial eightneventshat ppearedoviolatethe normal aws of nature.Not only twentieth-centuryintellectuals,ut omeRenaissancenes aw he pplicationf hesewoapproachess contradictionn erms.aspar eucer,orxample,greedinhisCommentaryn herincipalformsfdivination,hichppearedn1553,withthewidelyheld viewthatdivine rovidenceormallyexpressedtselfhroughhe birth fmisshapennimals nd similarportents.he abnormalhape f two-headedalf,or xample,ffereda key hat ouldunlockmuch fthe mmediateuture.ycontrast,Peucer dmittedhat clipses ere egularelestialvents, hichookplace egularlynd orseeably:efoundt ntirelylausiblehat readermightbjecttrenuouslyo his scribinghemportentous"ontent.74Inpractice,owever, anyfCardano'sontemporariesead heworldmuch shedid, ven fdoing o requiredhigh oleranceorinconsistency.eucernsistedhat he tarslayedhe ole fdivineigns,especiallyhenheynderwentclipses.clipsesn he ast,fterll,hadregularlyrecededr ccompaniedreatnd ragicvents. odHimself,moreover,addeclaredsmuch: Eruntobisn igna."ogically,eucercould not explainwhyastrologyhouldwork; theologicallyndempirically,owever,odoubtrose,sempiricalnd cripturalvidence

72Cardano,e vita ropriaiber 1,Operaomnia :35-36, .g.: Nonnumquamx minimiscum mmodiceerseverant,oniecturamacereicet: um x minimis,t lias declaravi,cuniusmodi,elutretiummaculis mnia pudhomines onstent,epetitis,t indiversasfigurastnebulae ormatis:ec solum erminimaugeantur,edet llaminima ensimninfinitasartes,t tadicam, ividereportet:isque olus nartibus,n consiliis,nnegociiscivilibus raestantissimusrit, tad summumulmen erveniet,ui haecintelligett nopere pso observare overit: uamobremn quibuslibetventibusaliaminima runtobservanda."n See esp.De vita ropria iber 7, Operaomnia1:44-45.74C. Peucer, ommentariusepraecipuis ivinationumeneribusWittenberg,553),291recto:Sedfortassebiecerituispiam,urportentosaaciam eliquia, tsingularesasuseventaqueristiaraeireffirmem,umnec contrabservatum,otum,t usitatumaturaecursum, ec secundumnsuetiorem inusque rdinariamationemccidere a luminibusconstet,edexlegeetconsequutione otuumecessaria."



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GIROLAMO CARDANO 347both onfirmed.75heCatholicuristean oclinnterpretedhe ates fcountriesn similarlyclectic ay. rue, erejectedstrologicalistory,attacking ardano ndGauricus like.But he developed laboratenumerologicalulesodeterminehe ates f ands nddynasties,ryingto set bsoluteimitsor he urationf ny iventate. t he ame ime,hedrew ntheHippocraticradition,singhe limatesf heands romwhicheoplesriginallyameoexplainheirharacters.76utBodin lsohad tutelarypirit, hich uided imwith lows nthe houlderndotherigns.Cardano's ellow rofessionalstrologersesembled immostclosely f all.His competitoraurico oasted f hisdivine ift orforetellinghe utures well sofhis uantitativekills sastrologerndastronomer. e devoted onsiderablepace, n his collection fhoroscopes,oexplaininghe strologicalauses f he uccess fnon-astrologicalrophets. henGiovanni e'Medici,usthavingscapedFrenchaptivityfterhebattlefRavenna,ame oMantua, auricotookhim o see "a certainmonkwith woodeneg,named rotherSerafino,n oldman."Hepromisedhat erafino ould raw romhelines nGiovanni'sandspreciseredictionsf he uturevents"f hecardinal'sife. fterhree ays f ilentalmistry,arriedut veryaybeforeunchna little arden,erafinooldGiovannihat heMediciwould oon returno Florencend hatGiovanni imself ould oonbecome ope.These pparentlyudicrousredictionsrovedntirelyaccurate,howing hat Serafinowas, as Gauricohad claimed,"Chyromanticusgregius."77ater strologersikeSimon ormanndJohn ee assumed ithouturtherdo hatstrologyormednly neofthemany olors nthepalettesfpredictiveethodshat hey eftlywielded.78

Numerousxampleshowhathis ormf clecticismasnotnew.RevealingarallelsccurnRomanstrologicaliteraturend ntheNeo-Platonismf ate ntiquity.ensorinus,ritingis trangeittle ookDe75Ibid., 91verso 292recto, sp.291 verso: . . . insistoeliquis uobus riteriois,ruditaeac verae xperientiaec verboDei." On the ensionsnPeucer's houghtee R. Barnes,Prophecy ndGnosis Stanford,988),99, 107-08,148.Barnes lso offers wealth finformationbout he argerontext ithin hich eucerworked,he uxuriantungleofdifferentorms fprophecyhat lourishednLutheran ermanyhroughouthe ixteenthcentury.76 J.Bodin,MethodusdfacilemhistoriarumognitionemParis,1566);De republica(Paris,1576).77Gaurico, ractatus,ol. 19recto-verso.78For furtherxample f clectic seof strologyndmany ther isciplinesfprediction,alsofromngland,eethe ine ditionfAnAstrologicaliary f he eventeenthentury:SamuelJeake fRye, 652-1699byM. Hunter ndA. GregoryOxford, 988).



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348 ANTHONY GRAFTONdienatali nA.D.238, ited otonly hehoroscope fRomedrawn p forVarrobyLuciusTarrutiusfFirmum ut lsothe welve ultureseen tRome's foundingwhenhe tried o determinehe ength f thecity'sfuture.79roclus, hatquintessencefthe divinelynspired age,usedastrologyndtheurgyogethero defendheholycity fAthens.80hebrilliant strologerosipatra sedboththe astrological rincipleshelearned rom womysterioushaldeans nd the mystical owerof herown divine rophetic iftocarry utthewonderful eedsdescribedyEunapius n his ives ftheSophists.8"The eclecticwonder-workersf late antiquityoomed large nRenaissance isions f whatpredictionhouldbe and do. The EnglishhumanistGabriel Harvey,who read both Cardano and Gaurico,compared hemodernpalm-readererafino,whomhe read aboutinGaurico,to the ancienteclecticdivinerSosipatra the comparisonredounded oher,nothis, dvantage):Buthowmuchtruer ndmorecertainwas Sosipatra'sdivination, hichrested, s it seems,on theastrologyndphysiognomyftheChaldeans,nd wasaccomplishedycertain abalistic rinciplesndtrials."82abrielNaude,whowrote hefirst iography fCardano, houghtt obviousthathis superstitious,giftedrotagonisttood n the raditionf ater latonism.83Tradition,n otherwords, equiredheastrologero possessnotonly echnicalules, ut lsosecret ormsfknowledgeccessiblenly othe nitiated.84ithout nowingherules,he strologerouldnotclaimtopracticemathematicalcience.Without nowingecretshatnorulescouldconvey,hanksoa special, ivine ift,he strologerouldemployonly lifelessggregatef echniques. enaissanceheoristsfmany rts,from aintingocourtiership,aised he uestion ftherelation etweenrules nd pontaneity,isciplinend nspiration,ystemndsprezzatura.Evidently strologersound heyhad to raise t too. But n claimingdivine ift,strologersften epartedrom he echnicalasis ftheir rt,followinglues hat acked nymathematicalrastronomicalasis.The7' Censorinuse dienatali 17.15, 1.4-6.80MarinusVita rocli.81 See generallyotter,rophetsnd Emperors.82Gabriel arvey,oten his opy fLucaGaurico, ractatusstrologicusVenice,1552),Bodleian ibrarytoRawl.61,fol.19 verso: Sed quantodhuc erior ertiorqueosipatraedivinatio,Chaldaeorumtvidetur strologiatPhysiognomia:abalisticis escio uibusprincipiistexperimentisirabiliterxpedita."83G.Naude, De Cardanoudicium,"nCardano, e vita ropriaiber, ded. Amsterdam,1654), ig.*6verso-*7 ecto.84Cf. Barton, ower ndKnowledge.



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GIROLAMOCARDANO 349divinelyiftedstrologerecame divinelyiftedpecialistnpredictionof ll orts. ardano asbeen een s eccentricecause e nsistedn hisowndivine elp,riedo fuse rcombinell orts fpredictiveisciplineswith is wn, nd t he ame ime dmittedhat ormsfpredictionhatrelied n nspirationatherhan rt ould each heir esultsexquisitius"than strology.85nfact,n such ases he over f cientificsubtlety"agreed,for once, whole-heartedlyith his predecessorsndcontemporaries.In thisrealm oo Cardanowentfurther-orhowed largertoleranceor ontradiction-thanost.At leastonce,he portrayedhimselfndhiscolleaguessinhabitingnausterelyartesianosmosfilledwithmatternd men nmotion, ropellednlyby mpersonalforcesrpersonalmotions.o occult orcesr ympathiesf nykind,visibleor invisible, ervadedhis cosmos-which ardanohimselfdescribeds naccessibleoany fhis raditionalredictiveisciplines.nhis reatisee ludo leae,Cardanoonsideredhepossibleutcomesfthrowsfdice.He insistedhat simplemathematicalormulaouldpredictheprobabilityf a successfulne.Determinehenumberffavorableutcomeshat throwf wodicemay ave; ividetby hewholenumberfpossibleutcomes;ndyouhave heprobabilityhatanygivenhrowwillwin.Cardano xplicitlyeniedhat nyoutsideforceouldmodifyhis trictuantitativeule.He treatedice srigidpiecesofmatter ancingo themusic fmathematics,heir tepsunaffectedy sympathy,ntipathy,rayer,r ncantation.86Sometimes,ardano's ccounts f hehumanworld eveal he amefundamental,leakmodernitys his discussionsfdice,thesamedespairinglylear ense hatmanyventsappenedotbecausefdivineorderr tellarnfluenceut implyrom lindhance.eaving ilan orBologna, ardanolmostosthis tore funpublishedanuscripts.efoundhem, e tells s,onlybecause e hadbroken isgarter. henclimbingnto is arriageo eave, erealizedhat ehad ourinate. fterurinatingecouldnotdouphishose, ndfound o newgartersor alein the three aberdasheriesntheneighborhood.e turned acktoobtainneof henewpairs fgartersehad eftn a chestnhishouse.And once he hestwasopened e saw,hishair tandingn endwithhorror,hemanuscriptshat ethoughte had akenwith im. omeweeksater,he ousenquestionasbrokennto nd he ontentsf hechestaken.Ifthadnotbeen ormy arter,"ardano rote,Ishouldnothavebeenable togivemy ectures,shouldhave ostmyposition,85See Ptolemy, uadripartitum,d. Cardano, 8 Opera omnia : 105).86See the ranslationf and commentarynDe ludo leae liber,n Ore.



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350 ANTHONY GRAFTONwould ave ecomebeggar,ll hosemonumentsould ave erished,and should ave ied oon fgrief.nd llthis ependedn an nstant!Alas for he condition-or ather hewretchedness-ofankind."87Chance ndfortune,umanwill nd ccident,eem oholddominionover ll. nthis ight,hewhole rojectfrationalredictioneemsmere ream-a uixoticantasyatherhan firm andlen the uture.Cardanonever eems o have taken uch experiences,r hisreactionsothem,sreasonsor ejectingstrology.fheoccasionallyawtheworldn ermshat ejectedeliefnoccultnfluences,econsistentlyresorted o astrology,s a practice, well-usedetof tools,wornandpolished ytheuse ofdecades.No particularailurer setoffailuresopredict n event strologicallyouldremove strologytself rom tsestablishedtatus. stoCardano's bilityouseother, adically ifferenttools atthesametime-this houldoccasion ittle urprisen a societysomeof whosemembers se computerso write nd faxmachines osubmit hepapersn which hey nmask ll ofmoderncience s a socialproduct, game ike nyother.VI. THE ASTROLOGERAS MORALIST

Cardano showedhismoretraditionalide,however,whenheinsistedndescribingstrologys amoraldiscipline.his assertionmaysoundparadoxical. anyancienthinkers-abovell theStoics-insistedthatthewisemandoesnot takeany nterestn the future. inceonecannotcontrol he fate f one's fortune,amily,ndfamiliars,o saynothingfpoliticalnd economic evelopments,ne shouldkeepone'semotions nder ontrol ynoteven ryingopredicthefutureust asone shouldnot continually o overthepast,another ncontrollablerealm). ierreHadothasargued,na brilliantssay, hatmore hanoneancient hilosophicalchoolsawthedutyofthewise manas Goetheencapsulatedt in one verse n Faust: Die Gegenwartllein stunser

87Cardano,e vita ropriaiber 9,Operaomnia :47-48:"Si ligulanonfuisset,rofiterinonpoteram,xciderammunere, endicassem,otmonumentaerierant,x tristitiareviobiissem: tque d exmomentoerpendit,humanamonditionem,utmiseriam."ntheProxeneta,owever,ardanoreatshe ame pisode s an nstanceftheprovidentialarehehasenjoyed: rcana olitica1.4 Amsterdam,635),28-29at 28: "Dicamautem uidmihi ontigeretuper, t ntelligasuamminimiseus servetutperdat uemvelit." orsimilaruminationsnnear-disasters,ith ttemptsospecifyheirstrologicalauses ndthe ole fprovidence,eeAnAstrologicaliary, d.HunterndGregory,76-77, 88-89,226-27, 30-31, 36-37, 40-41, 45 (30 August 694):"About h8'a.m.A TilefromheEvesofmywoodhouse,ell ownustclear fmyhead: onear hathedust ftheMortarthat amedownwitht, lew ponmyHat.ButthemercifulrovidencefGodpreservedme .. [a figureftheheavens ollows] ote hatMarswas ustthen isen: c."



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GIROLAMOCARDANO 351Gliick."88strologyeems o lie at an extremeistance rom uchdisciplinesfpresent-mindedness.Ptolemylreadyriedodefend is rt gainstuch riticisms.eheld hat hewisemanwould,nfact,irect is ttentionegularlyothefuture.ne who oseshis fortuner hischildrennexpectedlyillcertainlyot maintainphilosophicalalm.Buttheclient f a goodastrologer,nowingf hese isastersn dvance,ill eable oth ofendsome fthem ff ndtoprepare imself orallyor hosehecannotavoid.89Cardano iscussedhis assagextensivelynhis wn ommentaryonPtolemy,orrowingurtherrgumentsn he ame ein romeucer.90Hedepartedromrecedent,owever,hen e rguedhat he strologercould est ttainhemoral nds fhis rt y nalyzingis wn haracterand xperiencesnpublic. ardano rew pand ommentedn his wnhoroscope.ere s nhis utobiography,hichegan ith nanalysisfhishoroscopend ollowedhe raditional,isjointedorm fhoroscopicanalysis,ardano escribedishabitsnminuteetail:I ike ospend enhoursnbed.... Fordinnerlike ohave dish fvegetables,ost f llmangold,ometimeslso ice r ndivealad." e recountedis trangestexperiences:[As child,s lay nbed nthemorning,saw] ormsfdifferentinds,ike iry odies, hicheemedoconsistf ittleingsikechainmail, houghptothenhadnevereen hainmail.... Therewerepicturesfcastles, ouses,nimals, orseswithriders, lants,rees,medicalnstruments."'91e even riticizedis wn haracternunsparingdetail. ardano escribedimselfnhis ommentarynhishoroscopes"pious, aithful,lover fwisdom,contemplative.. modest,uriousaboutmedicine,nterestednmiracles,narchitect,ricky,eceptive,bitter,specialistnmysteries,erious,ard-working,aborious,iligent,ingenious,ivingor he ay, rivolous,despiserfreligion."92rom isown ccount,eemergeds afigureffun, wackyrofessorhomadehimselfidiculousven yhis rregularay fwalking.taggeringlongthestreet,esturingildly, ardano ardlymbodiedhedignityor88P. Hadot, xercices pirituelstphilosophie ntiqueParis,1981).89Ptolemy etrabiblos .3.90Ptolemy,uadripartitum,d.Cardano, 4-25 Operaomnia : 110-1 ).91Cardano, e vita ropria iber 7, Operaomnia1:27: "Videbam rgo magines iversasquasi corporum ereorumConstare nimvidebanturx annulisminimis,uales suntloricarum, um tamen oricasnunquam ousquevidissem) b imo lectiangulo dextroascendenteser emicirculum,ente t nsinistrumccidentes,tprorsus on pparerent:Arcium, omorum,nimalium,quorumum quitibus,erbarum,rborum,nstrumentorummedicorum,heatrorum,ominumiversorumabituum,estiumqueariarum....."92Cardano, iberxiigeniturarum,peraomnia : 523.



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352 ANTHONY GRAFTONwhich estroveohardnmuch fhiswriting.93Cardano's onfessionserenot,of course, o frank s theyappeared. e didnotdescribehe exualnclinationshatmadehimpedophile-and rought im legalpenalties. he floodof lesserrevelations-likehebric-a-brachaturroundedhepurloinedetternPoe's tory-distractedttentionromhis nd therraitshatmight ellhavedoneCardanomore iscredithan hose eadmitted.94till,manyreadersoundt bizarrehatCardano evealedomanyweaknessesfcharacteroluntarily.aude,for xample, eproachedardanowithhaving estroyedis wn ocial nd ntellectualosition.n his roxeneta,a manual or uccessfulife t court, ardano dvised hecourtieromaintainilence bove ll.Anyrevelationbout ne'smeans remotionscouldonlyhelpone's competitors.et Cardanographicallyevealed ismistakes ndcharacter laws o readersnd rivals like. n the age ofGracian'scold morality,hephilosophy f thepersonality ard andfeaturelesss a billiardball,Cardano's franknessepresented basicviolation ftherules fprudence.95In fact,however,Cardano broke the rulesdeliberately. heastrologersf he ater enaissanceaw tasabsolutelyital oexploreheflaws n their ustomers'haracters-evenhe worst fthem-sofar sbasicself-preservationllowed. n somecontexts,fcourse, npleasantcharacterraitsould erve racticalnds.When Vienna octor rew phoroscopes or hechildren f MaximilianI, hefeltmpelled o revealthatMaximilian's ldestdaughterwould show a masculine everity,incliningo be both rritablendvengeful.owever,healso commentedthat thesequalities howed thatshe was well equippedforpublicresponsibility.96sually,however, o such ompensationsppeared orthedefects rittennthe tars.WhenCampanella roduced horoscopefor irPhiliberternotentheprison f he nquisitionnNaples,he hadto explain hathisyoung ustomerended oward exualpassivityndcouldevenhavebecome pervert,ad he not beena northerner.heclientbarely scapedbothsterilityndpriapism.97strologyffered9Cardano, De vita ropria iber 1, Operaomnia1: 14-15.9' Cf. Hunter, Introduction,"n Astrological iary,ed. Hunter nd Gregory, 6,emphasizinghat eake-likeCardano-wrotewith is udience erymuchnmind.95Naude, igs.*5 verso-*6 ecto.96 Bartholomeweisacher, oroscope orAnna, rchduchessf Austria, sterreichischeNationalbibliothekS 10754,fol. 40 recto:"Prae se feretgitur irilem uandamseveritatemc authoritatem,ritad iramproclivis t vindictae upida.Erit idoneagubernationic administrationilicuius."97BodleianLibrary S Ashmole 76, ol. 6 recto: Cum una nsignomasculinot ol infemininoeperiantur,aciunt utatisicibus unc irilem,uncmollemnvenereis,oque



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GIROLAMOCARDANO 353means funderstandingne's own character-andotallowingt tobecome ne's estiny.ut nly rankpeechbouthe nspeakableouldserve clientsdeeplyfflictednadvance sVernote-or sCardanohimself.Cardanout heserinciplesnto racticehen e nalyzedis wnstar-hauntedersonality. e seems to have succeeded,moreover,nmakingis strologicalharacterologynto workableorm f herapy.The econdhapterfhis utobiographyffersstrikingxamplefhissuccesst reatingimself.here econfessedhat ehadbeenmpotentas a youngman, or enyears. hepositionf he tarsthisbirth,eargued,ccountedorhiswretchedondition:Becauseupiteras n heascendantndVenuswas he uler f hehoroscope,washarmednlyinmy enitals,othat rom y wenty-firstomy hirty-firstear couldnot leepwithwomen nd ftenmourned y ad ot, nvyingllothersforheirs."98Anyhistorian ust ind ardano'sxplanationemarkable.nhistimempotencendfear f mpotenceere andemic.veryonenew,moreover,hatwitches aused hisdreadedondition. he Germanwoods, o theDominicans ramerndSprengerrguedntheMalleusmaleficarum,warmed ith vilwomenwho tolemen's enisesndhidthemnbirds' ests.Worse et,omeccused itchesf atinghe enisestheytoleconsider,orxample,he ausage-likebjectshatwitchesrillin theworks fthatgifted isogynistansBaldung).99hiswidelydisseminatedantasyontributedreatlyo the ixteenth-centuryitchcraze, ut tdidnot nfect ardano. e firmlyelievednwitchcraft,refusingo write testimonialor woman ccused f t tobesure, einterpretedhe nvitationodo so as atrapet yhis nemies).uthealsorefusedoblame woman or is wnmpotenceven oneof heyoungoneswithwhom e made nergetic,f neffectual,ffortsorelieve iscondition.istherapyorked:nd tworkedgainwhen t nabled imto survivendgoonworkingfterhe erribleeathfhis on.Even nhis astyears fhouse rrestnRome, eemergeds apowerfuligure,activelyarticipatingn themeetingsf heRoman octors' uild ndenlarging,s well smodifying,isearly ooks nthehopeofgainingdeterius uodvenus stmasculina t mars oemininusx natura igni: tpollutiones inaturales, on tamen contranaturamndicant, raesertimn borealiviro, sicuti inAstrologicisocuimus."98Cardano, e vita ropria iber (Operaomnia1:2).99Cf. S. Schade,Schadenzauber nd die MagiedesKorpers Worms, 983),andJ.L.Koemner,heMomentf elf-PortraiturenGerman enaissance rtChicago ndLondon,1994).



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354 ANTHONY GRAFTONapproval ornew editions.1??nly themonstrousondescensionfposterityasmade t mpossibleo seehow ffectiveardano'sherapiesreally ere.Astrology,nshort,rovided otonly he arge-scaleredictions,but lso he ine-grainedharacternalyses,hatixteenth-centurylientsneeded. owonderhatome f hemost enetratingharacternalysesof he ime-like ohn ubrey's onderfullyrash riefLives-beganshoroscopeollectionsnowonderitherhatmodernditors,howingtypical isdainor strology,ave horoughlybscuredhese riginsntheir ealingsith ubrey's anuscripts).101he ate-seventeenth-centuryRyemerchantamuelJeake,whoseastrologicaliaryhas recentlyreceived n exemplarydition romMichaelHunter ndAnnabelGregory,oundnastrology,venmore hann hisPuritaneliefs,heinspirationor ismeticulousxaminationf he imingndmeaningfallthedisastersndnear-disasterse sufferedn an eventfulife.GabrielHarveyhowedealnsight,hen, hen esystematicallyomparedhehoroscopeollectionsfGauricondCardano ith aoloGiovio's logiaofgreatmen. hegood strologer-likehegoodbiographer-promisedto makehisreader Menschenkenner.n this ealm t east, ardano'sastrologynd hat fhis ompetitorslearlyepresentsomethingypicalof heirimend lace: ot nly art f classicalradition,ut lsopartof that ulturef endlessuriosityhathistoriansavetraditionallyidentifiedithheRenaissance.102

100See Siraisi.101SeeAubreysBriefLives,d.0. L. Dick London, 949;repr. nnArbor, 957), iv-lv,c; cf.M. Hunter,ohn ubreynd theWorld fLearningLondon,1975).102 Warm hanks o theWissenschaftskollegu Berlin, he Ecole desHautesEtudes nSciences ociales, aris,nd hentemationalesorschungszentrumulturwissenschaften,Vienna,forresearchupport;ndto Ian Macleanand NancySiraisifordiscussion.remember ith pecialgratitudelong nd helpfulonversationbout strology ith helateThomasKuhn,which ookplaceon themorningfterhis ecture asdelivered.

Grafton. 1998. Cardano

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Transcript of Grafton. 1998. Cardano