grade Project 2012

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A study on the effect of weatherOn the operation of Aircraft

at Kenneth Kaunda International Airport

© 2013

NAME:

Exam No

GRADE TWELVE

CHELSTONE SECOND RY SCHOOL



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Table of Contents

Preface…………….……………………………………………………. 2

Dedications. ……………………………………………………………. 3

Introduction ……………………………………… ………………… .. 4

Overview……………………………………………………………………. 4

Aim of Study ………………………………………………………..... 5

Study Area……………...………………………………………………. 6

Methodology…………………………………………………………… 7

Term of Reference……………………………………………………. 7

Discussions and Results….………………………………………….. 9

Major Challenges and Constraints……………………………………11

Recommendations and onclusions..………………………….…… .12

References……………………………………………………………… . 12

Table 1…………………………………………………………………….. 13

Beaufort Scale

List of Figures…………………………………………………………….14

Figure 1: Stevenson ScreenFigure 2: Wind vaneFigure 3: AnemometerFigure 4: Aneroid Barometer

Figure 5: Cloud coverFigure 6: Standard and Automatic rain gaugesFigure 7: Evaporation Pan



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Preface

The purpose and scope having been outlined in this project remains for me here to

record my gratitude to all those who have helped in the preparation of this paper.

My grateful thanks are due to my Geography Teacher Mr………………

and otherpeople, the list would too numerous to mention, for their kind assistance which greatly

facilitated my project.

Throughout the work I have been fortunate to have the opportunity of being part of thegroup that visited the Kenneth Kaunda International Airport andIam much debt to …………….. who had been helpful and encouraged me to write thisProject as well as offering me many useful comments and suggestions

Iam especially indebted to …………….for supplying me with the materials and

diagrams and the advice on the contents of chapters

Warm thanks go to the staff members of the Kenneth Kaunda International Airport {KKI A} Meteorological Office and especially to …………..for preparing much of the materialand diagrams, and to Ms NGWIRA for the wonderful job of taking me around the officesand Meteorological enclosure ( a place where instruments are kept} and I thank her forher patience.

Name,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,



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Dedication and Declaration

This project is dedicated to the almighty God for making it a success and to all themembers of my family.

I declare that this project was produced through my hardworking; hence it is not animitation.

1.0 Introduction

Meteorological Services throughout the world have largely grown up with, andin support of aviation industry. In many countries, aviation is still the largestcustomer of weather services which, in form of information, forecast and

advice, contribute to airline economy by:

Increasing the safety factor and reducing the risks of loss or damage toaircraft, passenger and equipment through adverse weather.

In-flight economies, through flight planning based on forecast winds andother parameters that allow the aircraft to follow the most economical

route and minimize delays due to unfavourable weather.

Helping to maintain regular schedules. Without flight planning based on

weather – forecasting service it would be impossible to maintain regularflight and maintenance schedules, to give firm arrival times atdestinations and check-points enroute, and to operate air-traffic controleffectively. Without continuously up-date information on terminalweather conditions, many more flights would have to be cancelled inmarginal conditions and others diverted unnecessarily.

Providing climatological data for the planning of new route and technicaladvise for the design of new aircraft.

1.2 Overview of the Literature

The Aviation industry requires that high standards of services be maintained inthe interest of flight safety, and that that they meet the standards and

recommendations practices of the International Civil Aviation Organisation(ICAO) and the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO).These include the

qualifications and experience of staff, quality control of instruments andequipment, infrastructure and service provision as contained in the ICAO andWMO documents.



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2.0 Objective of Study

The study was undertaken to three folds:-

Find out the principles of weather instruments as given in the term of

reference.

The effects of weather information on the operation of the aircraft.

To provided some solutions to the problems as faced by the station

3.0 Study Area

Kenneth Kaunda International Airport



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3.1 Historical Background:

The Kenneth Kaunda International Airport { formerly Lusaka InternationalAirport } Meteorological Station was established in December 1966. Its mainobjective is to provide the operational meteorological (weather) information that

is required for safe, regular and efficient air navigation as well asmeteorological support to the near-real time activities of the aviation industry.

3.2 Location:

The Meteorological station is located at Lusaka International Airport. It issituated about 25 km east of the Lusaka City Centre with geographical settingof latitude 15 19’ south and longitude of 28 27’ west and a height of 1154metres (3,700 feet) above mean sea level.

4.0 Methodology

A questionnaire was prepared in advance; therefore, Mr E. SIKANA (ProvincialMeteorological Officer) took me around the office and the meteorologicalenclosure. The interviewing method was used as a way of acquiring of weatherinformation from him and members of his staff.

5.0 Term of Reference

The Principles of various weather instruments were discussed in details

5.1 Stevenson Screen

The Stevenson screen- a wooded box painted white with double louveredsides and mounted at a height between 1.25 and 2 metres above theground- is used to standardize the air temperature.

The Stevenson screen contains the following thermometers:

Dry- bulb thermometer

Wet -bulb thermometer

Maximum thermometer Minimum thermometer.

These thermometers are used to measure temperatures in degreescentigrades.



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5.2 Wind-vane:

Wind is defined as air in horizontal motion.To specifies the wind

completely; the direction from which it blow and speed must be stated. Inorder to obtain comparable observations from the network of stations, it

has been specified that the surface wind should refer to the wind at thestandard height of 10 metres above ground in an open situation.

A wind vane- is used for indicating or recording surface wind direction.In the absence of the wind vane, the wind direction may be estimatedwithin the following aids:

Windsock at the airport

Drift of smoke

Flags

Movement of leaves.

5.3 Cup Counter Anemometer:

An anemometer- is used for measuring wind speed. The wind speed ismeasured in knots normally averaged over a period of 10 minutes.

Cup Counter anemometer operates on the principle of three cups,mounted symmetrically about a vertical axis so that the diametrical

plane of each cup is vertical and rotate as the force of the wind on theconvex side of any cup is greater than on the convex side. The rotationdepends solely on the wind speed provided that the latter is steady and

greater that the minimum speed needed to set the cups in motion, andnot on the wind direction nor on the density of the air.

5.4 Barometer:

The Barometer is used to measure pressure. Pressure is the weight of acolumn of air per unit area. It is measured as the height of a column ofmercury in inches or hector pascals (hpa).

There are two common types of barometers:

Mercury Barometer- It is heavy and expensive. The instrument is verydelicate and its transportation requires great care.

Aneroid Barometer (no liquid) - is becoming very popular and is alreadyin use in many operations. It is can be carried around easily.



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5.5 Cloud Cover:

Clouds are visible manifestation of the physical processes taking placein the atmosphere, some of which tend to form the clouds, while othersdisperse them. Two factors determine the appearance of the clouds:

Stability of the atmosphere in which the cloud forms and growth ofprecipitation in it.

Clouds are dispersed in two ways:

By evaporation and

By falling out as precipitation.

6.0 Discussions and Results

Meteorological conditions are observed at aerodromes by means of instrumentsand visual estimation. Meteorological data are used by pilots and others

concerned with landing and take – off, en-route navigation and flightperformance.

The Meteorological Aerodrome Reports (METARs) which are usually in plainlanguage observed and disseminated via local circuits at the aerodrome;

contain the following elements which can affect aircraft operations:

6.1 Surface Wind:

The effect of surface wind on takeoff and landing performance varies withdifferent aircraft types. All other factors being equal, surface head winds will

allow a greater weight to be lifted on take-off. In contrast, a tail wind results inreduction of the maximum permissible take-off weight. Aircrafts also subjectedto crosswind limits for landing and take-off which vary depending on theaircraft type and runway state.

6.2 Cloud Cover:

Low cloud limits the usable airspace where visual navigation with reference tothe ground may take place. When cumulonimbus is present, there is always

the possibility of convective turbulence, windshear, hail and lightning.



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6.3 Air & Dew Point Temperatures:

Temperature is important in relation to aircraft performance, because airdensity depends on temperature, higher temperatures cause a decrease indensity, which reduces lift and thus reduce maximum take-off weight and also

impairs engine performance while both high and very low temperatures makelimitations necessary on take-off power.

6.4 Pressure:

It also affects the air density, the lower the surface pressure the lower the air

density and the poorer the lift and engine performance (and vice versa). Thisfactor is especially important at high-altitude aerodrome.

6.7 Visibility:

Restricted visibility will always hamper operations in the terminal are and in

the extreme may prevent landing and take-off. When visibility is below 1,500metres runway range (RVR) becomes the most important parameter. Lowvisibility may reduce the acceptance landing aircraft. Some restrictions tovisibility can be caused by fog, stratus clouds, haze and smoke, blowing dustsand and snow, drizzle and rain.

6.7.1 Other Meteorological Elements

Other meteorological elements affect aircraft operations particularly in the

climb-out and approach phases. These include the following:-,

6.7.2 Wind shear:

This is a sustained change (i.e.) lasting more than a few seconds asexperienced by aircraft) in wind direction and/or speed, resulting in a change

in aircraft lift. A decrease in lift will cause the aircraft to descend below theintended flight path. A change in 15 knots or more in head-or tail-wind isconsidered significant wind shear, which may require timely and appropriatecorrective action by the pilot.

6.7.3 Turbulence:

Turbulence is caused by rapid, irregular motion of the air. It brings aboutbumps or jolts, but does not normally influence the intended flight path of anaircraft to a large extent. However, in severe turbulence, abrupt changes in thealtitude and attitude of an aircraft may occur and the pilot may momentarily



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lose control of the aircraft. For reporting and alerting purposes, moderate orsevere turbulence is considered significant.

7.0 Major Challenges and Constraints

The problems listed below have been experienced at this station over many years:

Lack of Automatic Meteorological instruments

Non – availability of modern instruments and equipment.hence un=rel;iable weather data is given at this station posing a risk to ayrtravelers,.

Poor maintenance and calibration of weather instruments andequipment.

Lack of future prospects/training

Lack of station vehicle

Lack of proper cleaning office equipment.

Most of the weather instruments are un-serviceable e.g. barometer,

barograph, thermograph to mention a few.

Low staffing levels in all cadres.

Lack of funding

Insufficient technical stationery.

Poor salaries and conditions of service.

Lack of Photocopier machine.

Inadequate Communication facilities.

Inadequate human resources programmes.

8.0 Recommendations and Conclusions

The following were tentative conclusions and recommendations suggested :

Replace all obsolete weather instruments at the station.

Do some maintenance and calibration on all the weather instrumentsespecially the wind vane, barometer etc.

Purchase of modern instrument and equipment that are not available atthe station.

Do some renovations of the office.

Purchase of proper furniture. .

Provide office internet for easy communication.

Provide more computers for the station

Recruit and train Meteorological personnel.

Purchase vehicles and provide funding for the station.



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9.0 References

1. Atmospheric Science – John Wallace and Peter Hobbs 2003.

University of Washington.

2. 25 years of Meteorological Services in Zambia (1967-1992)-M.R.Muchinda.

3. World Meteorological Organisation Bulletin Vol 53. No54 October 2004.

4. A course in Elementary Meteorology London- Her Majesty’s Stationery Office 1962.

5. Essentials of Meteorology- D.H.McIntosh and A.S. Thom.

6. Meteorology and Climatology- E.S.Gates.

7. Numerical Weather Prediction- G.J.Hastener, Naval Postgraduate School1971 Monterey. California.

8. Reflections- Air Malawi, Central African Limited 1999 Blantyre.

9. The Economic Benefits of National Meteorological Services.1968 World Weather Watch Planning Report No.27.



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Table: 1

Beaufort scale

This is a scale that was derived by Capt Beaufort to estimate the wind speed in

the absence the equipment (Anemometer)

NOTE:

This scale is used when the Anemomter is not working

BeaufortNumber

Description Wind Speed(knots)

Specifications for EstimatingSpeed over land

0 Calm 1 Smoke rises vertically

1 Light Air 1-3 Direction, shown by smoke but not

by wind vane.

2 Light Breeze 4-6 Wind felt on face, leaves rustle vanemoved.

3 Gentle Breeze 7-10 Leaves and twigs in constantmotion.

4 Moderate

Breeze

11-16 Raises dust and paper, small

branches moved.

5 Fresh Breeze 17-21 Small trees begin to sway.

6 Strong Breeze 22-27 Large branches in motion, whistlingin telephone -wires.

7 Near Gale 28-33 Whole trees in motion.

8Gale

34-40 Breaks twigs in motion.

9 Strong Gale 41-47 Slight structure damage to roofs etc.

10 Storm 48-55 Trees uprooted considerablestructure damage.

11 Violet Storm 56-63 Wide spread damage.

12 Hurricane 64 and Over Damage to buildings, power and Telephone lines and vegetation,sweep over low-lying coastal areas

causing extensive flooding.



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List of Figures

1.0 Stevenson Screen

1.1 Wnd-vane

Wndvane



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1.2: Anemometer

1.3 : Aneroid Barometer



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1: 4 Sunshine Recorder

1.5 Cloud Cover

1.6 Standard and Automatic rain gauges



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1.5 Evaporation Pan

1.7 Evaporation Pan

grade Project 2012

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