Global Governance- Drawing Insights From the Environmental Experience Yazar- Oran R. Young

8/6/2019 Global Governance- Drawing Insights From the Environmental Experience Yazar- Oran R. Young

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Global Governance

Dr,Bwing Ins.ights from tha

E,nvilronlmlenta IIE.x.perie'n'c:e

edited by

~~;s~ ~~ Oran R. Young


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Contents,

Contdbu1tt;QU be

t ,Rigb!1!S~&u1es~andResources illl'WOrldA{furs '~ ,Orn:n R .,Y O ' I I D , g

ICOEt,cep1S1:5:1 Regimes8sGovnan,ce Sy stem s li

O l a vScruam Stokke

,3 GnverDm,ooin : 'Globalc~vnSodety 'b SPa;~dWapner

g OrgaWzadoRs :8S

.. l~~ernariomd Of'I@mb~itt iOlls,a:gdtLe C~do:nQfEft,v]fonmental

Rqimes: ,8 ; '7Hd!iDut 'Bre ttme ic r

5 l1uemationol Oq;ruUmti.oos and the Imp;l,em.eo!tati!onof lE nviro,m ncm ra~R~ Jdm es t,t5M . W ., P e m - e r s o n ,

m kSiQ)G$ 1 . 5 3 ,IS M.aruy;ngm!temDti(JD.Riv~ ISS

noma! Bernauer

1 E oos,Y S1!eB1,ovem an,ce:L essons ffam ,theGrea t lakles '197MarciaVaUao,tB .. Pau lMmddofin,;and Loo 8QJtts

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'fVlinka:g,es ,125

S: Tb,eEovir,otnm em tal Legacy ,ofBlletE:Q,n,'W00ds~:Thg W Qcld Bam ik 2 l . ' Z .David Reed

0 ," 'i i i" '~ ) ' , . l' "h C ' fD " f~ilnstl.trltI,'IlDa~, nteracuons~_._C "1:l'1.lcturc O~R,e . tPmes,~orlladcumd the EovirflOIIl1J,Cm 247,

Konrad von Molrk_e

]0 G lobal(j,O-wnanoe::T ow ard a'Tflrcoryof Dcccnt ra l i.zedJ

Wodd omJer 21'3,Or~n R, y~)iunlg

Notes 30~

References 3119ImaeX'l5J

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T his booki-s a :pIodua: o f ,{;h e resea,rch pro gram .of th e In stitu te onllir,emadonalEnvironm,ental Covemance (IIEGl based at DartmouthCollege.,,BEG, w hiCh iss,ponsoredJoindy by lbeDi.ckey Center forWltematlonalUnde'1'standmg,the EnvironmentalSmaiesP:mgram"andthe RockefeU e.r C enter for the Social Sciences, cam einto' existenceint.9 93. Its.m audare is[0 bdng together the concerns of those ineeresred

in . international issuss, environmenral issues" and issues of gover,nancetbrough the organizationof m ajo r rese arc h p ro Jects"the pubHcadon Q i , fJ :n r, f! t1 Ia ' tio rM 'lBnfliro.nmental Affai~s;a quarterly journa~, ,an,dthem.Olluumgof conferences, like the 1995 Dartmouth Conference onG ovem ance in dl,{:;Tw enty -F irst C entury , w,hlch .p~ oducedthe pa pe,E;SincludedJn t:h is v olu m e , F :in an cia ~ su pp ortf O f t h : ~ Sconference cam e fromth.e .DickeyC'enfer.and.the Jo:tmL. S t e f , F e n s. 21 .st Cen.tury'fond atD.arhUQuthandfromth e R oc ke fe U erBrorhersFund in .N e w '"io,rk.Eacho rn.eau th ors b en efited . fro ,mthe geaeral discussion that ' too.kp],accat'the conference and n o m . the commeats of ether .parriGipantsincluding".Mlada.!'ll~ovansky, Abram. Chayes , Antonia. H an dler C hay es,AngelaC ro p'p er, C arQ lGoldburg, Genady Golul>eY,Y;ol,andaKa.kabadze',PeiderKoel lZ~G enic ' Lyons, F ran .dsM:a.giUlgan,Gall. Osherenko, KHapa.rtiRamakrishna.,. Danie lSabsay,. Adele Sim m ons,.Monica Tennberg, andAlc:X 'and.erWendt. M u ch of "hie credk for m ovingthi,s,vohlme rhrough

the vadous s'ragesof the p ub U c at~ o :n p ro oc ss g o esto the :s !t affo f theU E Gand es:pedaUyto Nicki .MaYDard"w ho serves as the inst:1:tllW'Sofficemanager.

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Contributors

T hom asi :Be:r;nau er ~ sassistant profes.so lt o f ~ i fI ,~emat iona~f~~atiQn5~uihe S w. i ! i sF edem llnsdm te ofT, ' eem.o l :ogy.L ee B o t t s is a n . , e n Y ~ r l J o j li rn e n ta la d:v oc ate a nd in de pe nd ~ nl (:o n$ uh :a :n t:w ho live'$in :d te In d ia n adunes at th , esoom,ead of Lake,Midugan.He&nut Brei.tmei.ft' is a research scbnlar and manager of tbe InternationalJ tegimes DatabaseIDCared~ur theTechnicalUniv,crs(ry ,oifD~:rrnstadt.p . ' a !uJR . M u id L )O Ois a. $ taff l awyerat th e C an ad ia,n ,iE n.v iro om en .m lLaw,Assm :ia tio n .M ..J. " a e r s O D . IS a ss oc ia te p ll ofe ss or0 .poliitical scien.eea E the i U l 11 I l : v c r s , l : t : y o fM assachuse!lt:s~ Amherst.Da.rvidReed, is d ir ec :roro E 'th e M a C fO ( 'o o no m tc s ~ o r :S .Wi ta i,n ab le D ~ v e'l ,o pm e ,n tP --g l:'-'m at' ehe'W i~r l ld ' W j'd ' -F- ," 'd . ~ " ;"N",hlli!'A in W - - td n O li c c nD I,Ge__ .ro.rJ".8_ ,., __ ~,.O~J. ,~~e "D lUI: _ ............' .as_~-D'~O-~~ ~I' .1OLavSchra.m Sl 'Otke is:se.n~otr,eseorch .~eUotwof In re m an O Il:d e D vl:ro nm m t a]goc.mana and :rHear.chdiooaor a.t du.~Frldtjof Na.11i~mlnS"ti tute,

: M a r c l aValiure is pfofessor0 .1la.w:a t t he : U n i,v en ~ ty o f To ro n.t o.

Konrad.V 0 I 1 lMoltke js adjunct proessor ' of,mvironmenf,.dstudies0 1 1 Dar-'' ', -',- h-~ ,+ ' - '' '' ~ I .H }; , . '' ' " .visi~"i , i ) , ' , . 'P , 't... f":i~.... '"~t,t- eIn - ~f"'it"": f;- t Ertvj'lJ ~n'---~ ' .t - 1S~.di-f.u... Un.l, . . . . .v_"'D ""~ ' ._, _'~~HO _ y_", _,.,,,_~~ !h~'H~W ~'Q_ _ _O _ _metI a __~ 1 .< ! _ . _" '" 0_ th e F re e U n i.v etS ,j, ty,,[Amsterdam, a n d seni:()1': r e l lowlIthe 'Incer.nado,nal ..[ n s i d . m & ' J 6 :~Ol' :Sus ta inab le Deve lop .mentand .al:lbe Wo:rld WildHfeF end U S ..Pa1l1W apna'~!!i a.ssociafC[prnfesso.r:11'1b .e :S ch o o l o fIifllet."rt3id.onal.Senieeat theArn .e r. l i canUniVfl[$fty."

O nm R . 'Yo W lgis : p . r o f r e s . 5 0 o f . e n v i r o l ' l _ I H t n . u dsmdiesand d iRCCQ[o f die:hilslimtecm.In te m a.'tlo M 1 E n.v iro om e nta l G o ve .m 3 .n cea,t Dartmout1hCQUegc.

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In t roducbSII .

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1: R . . i g h . t s , R . . u l e s "andResourcesin W o r ld,Affairs

O --I I ,-, I: '. " . _ I , ~ ,_ ,- ~ I - ;, - -:-ranK. Young.

Ev;erytbougbtfulobserverknow s w e have entered a periodof profoundchal l@nge5ito bum ankind~ s: capaclt:y tn solve in tem ationel and transna-tioaalgovem ence p,roblem s,.BuJt' few a ee aw a rethat w e are, at thesam e. , . . ' d - f .,' h . .tu ne;" w I tn esSIn g, astea._YSitream 0_ experim ents: W it _,_promising new

approachest:osolving, p'rob~ em 5.o f govemanoe . i n .these settings. T heresulta_ntirmov:atiunsha:vccem e,rged pieocm eal asresponses to sped6(:

problem s" and..maby of them reflect .dev,e :lopmerrt s rhat do nor-fit easn),lnm o ur (:O H .v C'D t1 on alv ie w o f ~ nt:e.fn ad o.n al s~ iC '.y as a d t(!cn lr.alillcasyrstcmof $o'V'Creign,states, Asa result,w e are muehmore censcious 'O fth e g ro w in g, d em a nd m rgovernance:in.wor ld affa,ifsrban. of eme[,ge.nti nnov.a1 : l , v, eprooedures to :supply g ' , Q v c ' . r : n a , R c eiDuhissociaJ context. Y e rm enBW .approaches are excitingnot only as novel w,aysof address~ngs pe cif ic p .w b le m s a t rh e il 'n e,m a t .io n a~and rransna.tiomall.evelsbut also

9'S,S!)Ul'C'C'So f in s.ig hrs Ill!llo stn iteg ies lo r m e etin g d em a nd s.forgovemancethat have a broader or m oregenedcint1e'[,esr(Young 19914a.).T he D artm ourh C onf,er-ence0 .0 . ln~ eJl 'nationalG ovem anoe in the

'TWeDty",hrstC entury :, w h ich. m etIn H an ov er d ur.iirn gSe ptem b er 1 99 5"a tte m pt:e d toassess thecurrent stat-eof k no w led ge re gard im g ,rn .enewapproaches;togOrvemance In w o rld affa.irsin order to chan: a .course forfu tu re ' .research Inthe ' f ic ldandttl cap tu re m t1 cU c cru alcapica~of value topalicy' .maken deaUns 'wilth 5 ! p m cp.roblems of gov'c;mance as, weptepat,cto embark Q E \tnc nexltmiUcnoium..,T his volum e describes ~ b.eJH::indpalsu !b st.a:n tiv efin din gs, an dan aly tk in sig htsdevelopeddllr.ingdlc(onference.

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[f l l lnv,at iYe.approaches tn g o,v ern an ce h av ehad the gr'ea.test~:mpalct onisseesperta in ing to natura l resources end the env lronm ent.W 1 le~ [,eas theCoO kl.Wat bred ail. inte:illsedesire to. P,[ot-ect andpt,ese:rve ,exIstingjnsdw tionJs in other issue a~ e.a,s]the oO fID(:urt~'.ndyemergingenvironmem--ulagenO a pro .m .p tcd .agrow ing aw areness of the need .[()If' new arrange-m a n e sthat w o uld . fo ste r' su sta in ab lebumanJen .v.ironm.e !l t r el at ions,Anespedal~y nora,ble innovation ~;S [be growth o f (unct io.naUyspedfkreg im es to deal w ith anarray of m atters, suchas en dang ered p lan ts an da n lm a . ~ s) .m . ~ g [ am . ry s p ed e s~ , m a r in eponudon~ uans:bounaa.ry fluxes of

airborne poUU13Uts), hazardeus wasses ozone deplet ion, and climarechange, Mor,oove'r~e:ff,o.tsto solve en.v.ITonmenta1p.roblem s botht 'f;f1OCf[a nd a .ffe ct s :ig n .i:fic an f d ev e~ o p m .e ntsIn the character of in te 'rna tionalsocie ty .. Although sta tes rem ain eenrral p lay ers ~ n n atu ral resource andenvieo nm en ta l .~ ssucs, llo nsta te aC il:ors have m a de pa.rtlcu l,ady sU 'lk lnadv an ces b othin . the creatlQ'l iofen.vi.fonmentalreginres:a:ndin.eHott$ tomakethese regimes function eHecuive~.yonce they 'are inplace {PrinteD

and FInger19:94;,Wapner19~96).E nvironm ental concernsare d ea dy onesi,g nlflcanc ,fo rce beh ind the.rls.tng,in te re -s t imthe idea of gl.obaldvUsociety (,LipschIU;Z,1996),. .

Dealing w .ith envl ronmenea lconcerns has also brougbtm OUI auen.-don theneed to dtrnkmore syste:matfcaUyabout institutiena I l in k a ge sand abou t the w a y s In w h ich ind ividua~ [1eg~ m es areembedded in larg erin stltu tio na I stru ctu re sand im pinge on one another in i.nrternatio .na~society (C ha,rn.ovitt 1 .9 95]. lnt:erest inthe idea of g lo ba l c iv il. so cie ty 'doesn ots :u g g~ s :t : t ha t .in t,e rn a ti,o na J .s oc ie ty.~$ likely roundergo a . se a. c ha ng ein thefOreseeab~cfuturc to some w e ll-d efin ed a ndco herent ah em a.civ eeo the iamiUa,[' s ta t~5.s,Ystem.Bult w e.n.OWrealiae that w e need a.more.s op h is tic at ed ~ n d e :l :s ta nd in g o fm;remational societ:y"one thar e:m .pha.~siizes tbesIgnU ica.nce of n.e,w form s of governance In a settin__ gin w hichSl31teSIcon.tinue to serve as prlma,ryreposimdes o r a.uthofh:y. . Wealsorealize that w e can ga:insom e. insightsby mrning to the idea of g lo :bal

d_v ll sodetyand exploring the interacticns betw~en Inte .rnan(ma.1 socie[)"andglobal dvH 5ocj .Ctylike ly to affec t thefu ru re supp lyo:fgove:mance.inworld affairs.

The 19'95 Dartmouth Conference tackledthe problem of governanoeth ro ug h se ve ra l d istin ctyetrelattd approaches, E acb part o f th isvolume



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l 'O eil lies onone d~stinctapp.roacb. Part I seeks to clarify the kJeyconceptsofg~obal g.ovem.aooc,starting with the now .fa.mlllia,ride.a.o fregJmes and

m o v.m g , o n. tothe emerg~ng. I e ,eaofg[obal civ il society ...Partn exp,loresthe U nksbetw een institu tions andoJtgaIlIza.rion;s;,a . rich topicthat hasb een :sed ou s[y m isu nd ersto odby many commentators on governancelewo:rldaffairs. Part IU examines one substannve issuearea.-freshwater-destined to loom larger and larger in . wocld affairs (Gleick:l993}. .Patt[V move;s beyond the study of indi."idua.l~ssu.e areas to,consider~inb(ges among; em .erg ing a:rrangem eD tst~ deal w ith.spedfic

governanceproiMems.The ~a$ t ,chapre rof the vnlumegafher$toged:lerandassesses the in sig hts ..regarding governance in wo.rMaffalrs develop-ed b y thesefcli1 rapp.roaCJil}es.

In . th e'substantive sections ofthis in troducrory cha.p ter, Isketch outthe main contours of the newperspective on goveenencetbar ~sal'is:ing.among students ofinternanonal relations, particu larly Inreference tonatural resource aAd environm ental issues. T betirst:sectionadd resses theidea of g:ov ,cm ance at the m ost general level, rhe second section m rns tsome c,onceptualissues that .require attention in .m a.k:iirngth e tra ns id (mfrom ge..neJ:i.cdeas about governance to the specific settings of issues(>CrJi:il.lD:lngo, nam ral resourcesand the environment attheinternadona.1and transnatioaal leveb. Thenextthree sections dISCUSSrheiormatiol1o .fenritonm.ental lIegimes,(neir e.ffectIv,eness8rSdererm inants of ,cQ U ecriveouecomes in , wo.ddaffaus, and the precesses tD rougb w b ichthcsearrangem ents change over tim e~ . T w o final sections provide a. brie,o'v~viewo,fth e v Q.iu m etsindividual chapters andse!1: forth. fQ ~ u :gene:ral'q]uC$it.I.QflSprC-Siented'O the partldpnnuat fhe opening o rrhe .D .a r tmOl i l1 :DConlercenoe. 'These questlonsnlso provide a framework for the con-clusions ~et to.nh ~n(he Hnalcha pter,

The Idea ,ofGOVerDamce

Goyem:anc.ea:r:~sesasamatte:ro .fpublic concem w henever the m em bersof a social grOl!Jpnnd t 'hattncy are intie'rdepeJ1dent~ the actions.o feachIndilvldiUalmember.1:mp,~l1Ig,eonthe w eU ave:of the othera.Jnteedepen-deuce Pe8 rise to Qonflktwhen th.e efforts of . lndivi.dualactnfrStoa.,bieve th eir g oo Jsmtedett with or thwanthe effor ts ofi ( > t h e ' I S ,t:oputsue



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4 O'tln R. Young

{.h eir o w n , e nd s,It em erges as, abasis fo r o o op er ad .o n :"how ever, w h enopportunIties arise to enhancesocial w e Jfareby acting to coordinate [heactiv iti!es o fmeindivtdual me.mbe'tsolrne g r ( J , U p .M o r,e gneraU y,in terdependeace leads to in teractive decision m aking and genera tes tw hporenrial fer ,coU ective-action problem s,in the sense that:. individuala c to r s , I e :& :to their ' O w ndevkes : manin :terdependentw o.iM , .f tequen:dys uffe r jo il ]tlosses as a ,result of conflict or {aU to reapjo.intgains due toan inability to cooper,ate (O ls.on 1965;, Schelling1978; H ardin H J,82;,Young 19893.).,The rugber the level of .ln lte rdepcndence am ong the

m em ber,s o fthe group, .mofeovec"memerepervasise and comp~exooUti~v,e-act ion problems:o.rdi.nalil), ' becom e,

Alt' the m ost general lever, gove.m ance:in.volves,the 'f!$roblishmentandopeeanen 0 ,1sodal ..lnstimrlons- In other words" sets of rules, decision-.ma,ldngprooedures,amdprogram.m:a.dca ctiv hle st.h atse rv,e tod.ennesocialP Ja .c t~ .cesandto guide the ' .in tera .c tions: o f those partic ipa ting in these:practlces: (N orth 19 90). SocIal blsnw tions rna.)" address.3 w ide .range of

is su es , fro mp an ero .s, o fspeech to ' th e d efin itio n o f g en de rrc le s,PoHtica .U,sig nU ic3 ru in sdm .ti.o nsnr reg im es bo w ev er:t are arran gem entsdesignedtolL,esolveso cial con flicts, p rom o te su stain edcoope:ru~ on inmixed-mot iver:d a.tjon sbip s~ and~ m o re g eneraU y " alleviare collective-actioo peoblem s ia w odd of In terdependenta.ctors, (Youn,g 119i.94aJ,.Governance"on thisaccount, does not presupposethe need to create mareeial entities or,o.rg aruu tion s. Q :fthesott w enormaU,thio_k ofas goyernmet t t$ toadm in ister 'd lesociaJpr,acri ,ces;dJataJlise to , h an dle the function of,,"',vernanre I'EIBc 1 -on1l99f), The. burden o f . p t o -o fm, a--act 1-1-- ' [ '1 ' - ' - '~-",dle-"'- -------- .. - \-----~-~ -" _'--'- ,_U_,_,_. ----~y A,.. ua.y ,I:.... l. '.wirnthose w ho maintain that theestab~islunent 0 'governm ents ormorel imitedpublkauthodties is n .ecessary to achieve these ends because thecperan on of an yg ov em rnent01' organizedpubUcauthorjtyis cosdy*bothin m a r er ia lte rms (flU exam ph:~ , the funds required to run publicagencies)'and ,in term s of m ore :h :u :a~ g]blevalues (fo r in :Sta nc e" th ebureaucrat icineffidencies and the T,estdction s: onindividuallib ertie s im p o se dby even

th e m ost enligbtened of govem m ents],App.m ach.ed in th is w a.y ~ t'b .e-~ n~ tlaU yc ou n te ,rin tu ic iv e d is tin ctio n

~eengo;verna.nceand governmtmt~as w ~ l1as thegromnginter 'e .5tinthe Ideao.f 'govemance w ithou t gove :r.nmcn .t ,n ,becomec lea r (R osen auand. Czem:pij!~,1992:}.Thekey . I s s u e :in . maldng such a, distinction



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upon principles,. nOi[m:s~rules~ decision-makiegprocedures, and pro-grams thargovem rhe iareracricns of actors in specific issue areas{Levy.,Y~ung, and Z urn . 1 .9 9'5 ).Foerhe most part, the formal or 0[-

fidal members of these regimes are' states, ahhough it isincllcasingiyappsresu not only that a v ad 1ety o fnonstaee actors playtnflue:nda.~roleshI th e fo ,rm ;3 '{:lo na nd o peratio nofintemational regim es butalso dlat"in transnatioaal concerns, there is [m~hing out of the ordinary aboutth e e m erg en ce o f in flu en tialregimeswhcsepnneipal members 3IC nots ta te s {G e r'e ffiandK:orzeniewicz 19941. Thus, state-orgenized regimes

include the ]nlernat~ona,ltraderegim.e that rests on. the General A,gr,ee~menton TaI.~nsaDd Trade (GATf), as wellas the more recent agr-ee-m em that' es~ abnshesthe 'WoddTrad e O r-g an iu l.tlo n(W'TO).;meregime for. Antarctka a,od the southern oceancompnsingthe seve.ra1components '0 e h e Antarctic r reaJty Sy stem " an dthe Q~Qnereg imecons~st~Jlg of the 1985 Vienna Convendon tegesher w,lth the 1987MI,o "n tre a- lP r o ro c o l . .S ." ,m e n d e d inLo u d o ,i1' ~i1' ]'. 9 . 'C! : l ) a 1',;! ~.. ,C . ' . r> ,P" ' J ]Ii-a g e n ]'n,.. ',"' _ ~I ... J " . " " __ , . '\ .A;;o' __ ,I.eII. ...".,. -, J _ ISU ii,,,, -,,-.,", ",1,1, ,1,1,1, '", ' 7'U I II ,I IU, . II ,l ,. , , - V___: ,. 1I ;i ",ILI'~I~,;\;;iI,~' "

].9'92. An example of a nonstare regime.~however? is rhetransnatienalregimethat deals with issues relating to the supply of air tr3"nsportandiaadministered by the nongcvernmental Irnte~mad.ona,~ Ai.r.Tr.ansportAssociation (lA l'A ). A s these ex am p lessuggest,.in tern atio nal an dtrans-national regimes can and often do varry subsmntiaUy in terms ofmembersh~p, . func t iona li S O O P C ~g"cograph~c.aldomain, degreeof formal-izatio n" an d stage of develop raenr,Ye,t m o st regimes r,eston one or m ore(n ot n .e ce ss ad ~ yl egaHy b~nd ing)',~)nstitutiV',edocuments ,and aU s u O O e S S -ful regimes sene to enmesh their members in soci3~pr,a,(; : t icesthat-evolveover time andguide the behavior of avari'lltyof aHc tQ, r- sin s ign ifican t, w ay !s .

.A:pp.roacbeci! in1 ! r u s : 'w a . r,environmenral .regimes dun operateat the:inrerna tionaJ and transnarienal ],ev~]:s,-in contrast'~orh,e arrangementsem e.rgiog , in sm all=scaJe societies and narionalsocietles to gpvembumanlenvironment:reladonshi:ps:~arenot about property f ,~ghts inthe ordi-

nary sense of the term, In the ease of inrernarlonal regimes, whkihconstitute the pdndpalfm:us ofrecenf: research in this field, anessentialdirstiuctjon is m ade betw een imperium; and ,domini:urn. :Srates-likeother c o U e c J t i . v, eO .f co.rporate cntities-can a n d often do become tTwne:rs,of Iandand natura.~.resources ..In some eeuarries, the stare ho M stitle to



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8 Oran It.. Young

In;t:e,rnQ,tiomd commmlsam~ phy sical or b io log ica .l, sy stem sd13t U ewholly 'O rlargely outside the jorisdicuo.ll,of ,anyindlvidualm em ber ofin re rn a t io n aIsocie ty bu t tha taft of in terestto tw o Q ,rm ore, 0 1them - ort lU~i i til athJna15 ,~a ,s , va luedre se urc es ..Exa.m,ples :ofsuch systems 0 . , (carrem m rerese m clude hig h seas fisberles, deep seabedminerals,theelectremagnenc speetrnm, the stratospher,ic ozone layer" the globalclima,tesys,tem,rneglobal,hydroJ.ogicaJsystem,.and. outer space (Brow net at 1,9177).Three broad optionsare availsble to those coacemed wlththe governance ofinrernational c o m m e n s e (1) enclosure through the '

ex tension ofn atio na l ju risd k~ io !ltS " (2)the ,crearjon ofa .snpranarional orw orld governm ent, and ('3)theInrrcductlon . ( ) i fcodes of conduct analog-GUS to common property arrangementsin small-scale stateless societies.Although. studen ts o firnemationallleJ,ati1ons~have.Iung focusedrhei . rattention on the ficst two options, the idea o:f"govemanc:cwitboumgovern.m.ene'~has sdmu' la , teda markedgrowth of ,~ntereslt in the thirdoption.

S h 'a re d n atu :f(l/ re s.o 'u rce s,by contrast, are

p , h y s I . c a lor biologicalsy ste m s t11a :te xte ndinto or across ebejur.19dictionsof rw o or m ore

m e m b e es n fin m m a tio n al so d e ry "They m ay i l l , v 'O lvere ne w a ble reso urc es(e.g., m i g r , a 1 ! o r ystocks ofwid animals:orsuaddJin!gs to c k s o f: f i sh ) ,n on re ne w e hle reso urce s,(e.g., p oo ls; of oJ,dlatunderI ie!areas subjiect toth .e ju risd :i:c do n o ftw o or m ere states), o rc om p le x. e c:o :sy :s ~ cm sthatt ranscend the boundaries of oartion aliudsdictions.(e. .g,. shared rieerbasins and lake basiinsl. As these exam ples :suggest,,ihere m a.y D cs~ign:i6cantasymmetriesamon.gtbesmtes concerned w tth shared nam ralrescurces, The circumstances.o . f .upstream states differ fromd105C ofdo w nsteeam sta tes,fa l : 'exam ple" and,6shstocks th at a :re ec ollo m ic allylm.po,rtant teone state .m aybe of Utd.e in .Derces ttoo tner:s .In all. cases,h ow e ve r', tn etU n d am e o ta l.pr,ob1em,in deal ing with shared na:WraJ

. h btl hi . ..resources:is _ O , Wt o ,e sr ta lI JL: to , lntm anagem enrreg im es or arnutg em en:tsanalogous to uni.dzadon schem es am ongJ:lfopettyowners in domest ic

socie ty I(Bemauer1994;RiChardson19'8:8,.'Transbound'ary e-xterna 'litiesarise when aai.vldes oocurr.ingw. h o U y

wjthin the j U l i . i s d i c t i o n .of one State neve'rmeless:pf1od.uce (nonnaJlyunintended] consequences that affectthe w elfare of thoselocated In'OtherjurisdkmioBsi"C lassic cases invo lve taR gib~ e im pacts; such asthe

. Tclif hakk: a an rnalcrva'


14/77

addifKa.t lon0 , Sw e dish. lakes fromt ransooundaay fluxes:IQ f:airbornepoUUtmrs ,,at' m e loss o.fMologicalcHversity (whic::n Js ' llf actual orpotentia l va lue topeo,l.elocar,ed everywh.erelassodared w,itn 'rhe de-smucdo,nofmeist tropical for-ests ill th e .A m a zo n. b as in .TranstJounaaryexternalit ies .may also im :v o~ .v entangible concerns, h.owever,l3 IS in thedesttlJm on of w o 'rldner.E . t ag1e:sl[('s( fo r insfance,rh e ,cityof D 'ubrovn il ldass. by -product ofdvU w an.As these examplessuggest ,tl 'ansboundaryex_temlaHriescanand often do g i . v. trIse to asy .m m euies betw e enthevimmsandrhe:pe ' fpetrato.n 0 ,1,environwemral.harm s, w hich accoun ts

fo r thew ~ desplead in terest bothin devising Uabm.tyregimes m ar wUl. coverm etransboundary .im pacts ofac,t ions oulr. IRg:w idtinLod i , ' v ldua .1i iw :isdictions andinpromulgadng,genera l rules o.rllrinciplespertlliningto .su clts]tu ad ,o ns (:1 011 xam ple" the'Ipollutet :paysJ'princ,ip.le).Exper i -e n ce :s ug g e sl sm a ta


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lntroduce Tneor~d.ca.Uygrou1!1ded dlstincdons a.m ongty pes of issues, andm s:hQ iwthe links betw een thetype of i s s l !1eunder considerarionand thepm5pectsfof success in effol . r t ;sto form inljemationa~ or transna tioaalregim es, Volker Riuberg :e'r and.Mi.cbad. Zijm~ .for example , claimth at-- fro mthe perspecrlve0 . ,re ,g im .e fo rm ,a tio n-iss:u es :lu nv olv 1.n gvalueconfllcrswi l l be harder 1 0. deal w,ith th an issu es fe aru rin gconflictsofint1ereSlf:saboUl.reJa.dvel.yassessed goods; they alse claim that both ofthese ty pes ofissues m iU be m ore difficu ltto h an dle th an issu esfe aru riagco n:flk ts o f in terestaboutabso.hnely assessed goods (R Juberger and

Zuru 19' 91)'" Turning to game theory others suggest thercoordinatlonp.robl .ems; ( thatis " int~ra.cr~verelationsh~.ps . f e - , a N c i n gat le ast 'O n e e qu ilib -rinm Qu,t;co;ri[uf)wiU.be ,easi,er to dealwlththan ooUa.vOtiiti.onptoblemswh.e.nit eomes to. du~ formation of . regimes{A..St~:in.1982; Marrin 199.2).Al~houghintuit . ively appeahng, this line of analy sis often m a.l!tes~ tdifficult to characterize real-werld problemsin t e rms of d isriacd on s o ftill,S sort, either because actual problems Bihi bit ele :memsof severa Ia ,nalyt icaUydifferent types 0 .1issuesOf because the parneipanrs havenotsufflde:ruly specified. rhe p.rQ blem sm aU owfor clearcategorizaticn,Thus; game theory is a promi_sin,gapp,roach to the stutiy of regimefo rm a tio n" b ut:~t has noty et m a d e ;3 m a j or c on tr ib u tio nt1') our cffo.rtsto c .xp.lains:ucoesses andfailuresin the creation of international. envieon-m e ntal reg im es.

Anothet approa,cb to re,glme forrna.tion.focuses an precesses ra thel~hanpr. ,ob~em.S 1 l 'u (:o o r ea n d fe am r es :a distinction am ong spontaneous orseU-gene.ati~g reg~mes" imposed. .regiimes,.and negodatecl regimesI~YOUl],g 1 .9 '8 .9 a.)I.Ah h.o u,g h m o st reg im es ar-eSOOne!rOI later a.rticulated.intreasies, ~onv,en:tioru;


16/77

ared regimes,by contrast, are products o,f an explicitba,r,gain~l[]g'processin which I. [mmDer of actors who possess significant'? though notnCQcssaril,ye qu al " b arg a in in gstrelJl:gtnreach agreemenron th e c on st iru t-.iveprovisions alan institutional :auang~m.ent foun\g 1989a). Thepro cess ap P"'03C hhas proven.qui. te heUpful ' to . those endeavoring,(0reeenstruer and unde:rsmndrhespeeific precesses inyolved in theforma-rion 0 . regimes, alrhough it Is now apparent that the distinctionsberw,een processes are,analytIcrather than concrete,in,nature because' I:W 'Oor more p!l\ooessesmaypla-y s O i ,m efolie i!l:ll.~hes a m e c a s eQ ,ft ' C g i _ w e

,fbrmali:on.Ienew also$eemS be\~pfulto ' subdividethe O Ve - E ~ I L H ! p i [ o c e s s'o f t 'e g i: m e

, fo rm a ri:o n ,ln t, g a t:leas ' ! ! :thflee s:~nges~: gen.da:fonnad o . nj negotiati .() .n,apdoperadon aU zad o:n (Youn g.f o r t h c o m i n g ) . Recent : 5 1 1 1 1 c U e shave rendedmcrn lcen itlate 0.(1 thenegotiarion stage ofthe plrates." whIch cov,l '!'r,s rne,period.:f ro m . E r n ,e :stan .o f expll idI bargaining OVf.'!"r die terms of an.3areement to.'r,1;. c~ l ! 'n i i ,n 'o' 0 ' r 1h c . .O '[ement 1 t~" '1f ' ln thA C'''' 'S'' ()f ' i ' .fOU~m'e',D'.... ..~~'_.,~, .-,' ~l~l'j. ~ '~.iJ. J It:' ' . I,"I~. "',iI:' J _ - .... r. , ,-". ,1,1,1 , ' . J .~ ,,'.' L _ 'J ' L J'\r _ iQk ....~ ' __ ' l ,Ii,_~!I .. l J ' -,

formatton a v e . : rd im a .tt !: ,c ha ng e , fo rexample, the negodatlon stage bega,n'w irh th ems,tmeeringof the IntergovernmentalNeloot~ar ing Com mit tee 'onC Um alte C hange (IN C) in F ebrua:ry 1 .9 9 '1 .and ended. w ith file signingof the Framework Convention on Climaff C h a : r : l g eduring the: UOlledNa.tions Conference on .E11vironmenral1dDevelopment (UNeED) inJune 1.992 (Bodansky 11.993)..Agendnforma:don and o,pt't3Jtlonalirntionb r:a(ik et th e c en tral. S f a g eo .f negotiation. Agenda formationcoversrhc:steps by whied.~nmoving f!tom the neg ',o t ia t ionof an agreemen1t to tbe establishment of a regime-e-in other words,'m emovemenl from. paperfe pl'3ctiae I{M~b;:heU '19943).. This stag~Inc ludes lDOtonlyratific3:tiOElofthcagrccm ent :but also .iscuin,g upintemational macnin.cJY and the initiation of programmatic acti.v.~[ieswiddn me;jiurisdicti.onsof lndiridualmembers (Spector andKorula1% )2). ,Although thisnile 01 analysis is a reeene devel.opm enr, It: isalready deaJ : :ma.t the djnm:ctiQ[]LamoDg:stag es crosscuts the distinction



17/77

nated by the vIews of rea.lis ism .aneorealists whote- .nd to' v.iewinstitutions as e,p,Ipheno.m.ena. tha.t.reflect deeper .lnrces~such aa the

'distribution. of power in international society (Strang 'e ]9 '8 3). To m eetthis challenge, sw denm ofintematioaal envircnmenealregfmes and moregeneraU y of Im l!m a.tiona.1 or transnatiG Zl;ld institu tions have now ern bar-:kedon a rap id ly .grow ing research progtam[hat deals with the imp:le:-m entatien ofinternarional ,accD[d5~complianoe with the pr()iv.isionso r,reg im es, and thebehavioral im pacts ofintematinnal institutions (Chayesand C hay es 19 9 5; H aas, K eohane, andLevy 19 93; Jacobson and We .iss,

1995; levy, O sherenko, andYoung 1.9'91;'Wettestad ]:9'95]. At this,stage, the debsreabour "glme ,dectiv~ne$s (m lt trson. four chisters ofissues: themeaning of,ef{er:tiveness, causal llnks between h 1 s r 1 t t u t i o u sand(.HltcO,mes:,beba,vi()l'alpa.~hw ,a:yg" andbrO:3lde~conseq,lilenceSi,

Inalir ively,it makes$(!n:s(!: t~ r e g a rd im :e m a d .Q ! na .~r e g i m e sas s U ' C ' e $ S f u lor effective when. tDl; serve ro solve or alleviarethe problems: thatmetivare their ollloder,sto ,cr,earerhem. As it 'turns out ho:wev,er.- - - - - --- . ,-- ._---- ---~ --- - - - -"

........ .-.:1 '-

.c a l~ v d e m'0 , ' o ;o ,so;""a : l !" l in ' !D'

e_R:~"~~I""s""iii 't 'h l s""""1 ''''''''S ' .~~r t rem

. , . :1 .-.~.C~I~

..,nc,,,:,.--.l.J -""-"'""""""'--0' .U~ ~"..a,." ~... 1 . .,... 1 . . e.x :to;" Y UlIU,cu:lt',wh~ch hasledto a variety of otherperspecrives tlla.tem,pha;sb:e

v:ariab~essuch as goal anain.m.enl, implementarion and compliance,be 'ha,vio.ral change,socia l l eami llg"andcheinitiation o :fsocialpractices(You ng 19 '9 4a) .. So m e~ re],atio .nshi.p d early exists .am .on g I:hese d ~ffe.[en tmeasures, ofeHcctiveness. Achi.evingthe goal ofa . .3 0 .percent reducdo:nof sulfur dioxide emiss~onsunder lR'IAP~for exampl .e~ha ;s , someth ing ,to do w ith SQ .hillg the problem scaused bytrnnsboundary f luxes ofairbeene poU u.m nts. As E llis ~ siim p'le 'e,xam ple m akes dear,I 'u)wevcr,diffetent.m easuees ofeffectiveB,esscan by no m eans serve asperfect:SUbstiiltliltesfor one another. Som eanaly.sts:are equaUy,if not mere,inlter(!sted in. evaluadveco :n sid ~rati.o os- s.u iC has the extentto which.theoutcom es p.rodp;::eQbym:stitutions .are ef6.ci.e:nt '; !-6qJuirabte,.or su;s:tai.n~able- than in . tne quesrioa ofwherher or not regimes make' a differencear all, It : is ev td .en t that students, ofregimeeffectiveness h av -e a . s iza bi.e

num ber ofcencepmaland m .ethodol.ogical Issuestoresolve in com ingtoterms with t he conse -q ,uenceso .f international msdtUltio.ns.

'The issue of causal ceanections turns onthe proMem of .separa.tLngspurious ,oon:-dationsfrom fleaI Unkagres .In general, 1 tis:not sufficientto'obse'rvethat after a regim.ewascceated~ the problem that led to irs



18/77

extentto w'hicnrhese models can account fer variance inthe behaviorof regime membersin aetusl cases (Levy,Young"and Ziim 1995).Thus,regimes .may bethought of as U ) utilitym ffi :Hf icrs~ (2 ,) enhancers0 .(cooperation , (3 ) bestow ers ofa.uiliori.ty,(4 )l te arn in g f ad tit at or s,(S)roled.ehners" and (6)agents of lntem al reallgnm eers .. W.hat dJ:ffe .renrla:tesrhesc , mode lsmost dearly ftom oneanodleristhe assumptions ih.eymekeabour tile nature of the relevant actors and about the drivin.gfo rces 'thataffecttheir behavior"

W hether nrn.ot . regjme~p'lioveeff:ectiveinmlving the probl,em s that

m Q t iv a.te m el[ ,a ea tio n, .in tc m atio .rm l an dtta:nsnationaJ.if i5ti tu.rionscanand , o f t e n .doptoduce consequences tna.t extendbey o.nd the issue areas,'I!..'" h ..L I .dl T h 'I!.. .I~ '. k rhIn w m e n tluey are~ tocaee .)_ ese !l.l![oa~ r:censeqnencesm :a yr.a t:e _ _~ ~for.m of demonstration effects.-rhat is, arrangements devised to dea.!wi th one lssue:aresubsec:;ruentlycopt.cd in other issue areas- or ofcognitiye effects -_ that is, effo.rts 10 solve one problem lead to thedeve[opmenit of' new w ay s oft.binking tbar: i n l.uence~he .ana lysesof oeher

problem s . Arrhe sam etime, broader .eonseq uences m ayb e !m o re o vertlypO~lrical Regimescan establish socialpraeaces w : n o s e :operation altersth e o v,e~ andl5tributlon of power among .keyactors over time or fostersd ev,e~ o p:m e nu th at h a.v e im p o.rt.an t im .plicad o:n s fo rin tern atio nal soc ietyasa whole (for exam.ple, . thcgrow.log ro le ofnonstate actors), For themost part, rhe broader effiects areunin tended andunforeseen by thosew .h o la bo rto create jnlte[nadona~regbnes:in thefirst place,which doesDothing"hewever, to dimInish the~r sign~fi{;ance(Levy, Young, landZfun1:995) .

Onee .fo'crme.d~inrernatio:nal and transnarional .regim.es:tntelybec,omestatle, unchangingimdtud.ona~ structures, On the contrary, they giverise to .b i ,g M yd.ynamicsoc~a~prncticestnatcon.tinuaUy change evertime,

As,tlle case of whales and whal!ing suggests , profound changes canfollow :sh~ftsinthesIl.e and ,ompos.~tl,Qn ola reg~me~sm e m b e rs hj:p ..T h ecase of ozone depietion :iUnstra.tesbow institutional chang'C can stem.f[-omalter,e.o.understandings of the natore of the problemto be s olv ed ..or, tatum to the we of Anltarctica,ehangesean [nvohre3 . broadening



19/77

of .fUfU:, tio ;na llsoopewith the additi.nn .o fnew elements that f[darge rherange 0 . substanti.ve issues a regfme covers, These few examples are,merely ;nusuative 0 1 , the wide artay of i u s t i . t u . d o l 1 a ~changes thatregl\dady occur inJT\()$t .regim.es.AI.tnolll,ghreg im e IC han .g e11 m ;rece~vedless aU enrionfrO.m :sm dents of w orkl a.fla irs than I:ssues.reladng toregime etfec ,t i \1 ,e l1les:s.and~e sp e c.ia U y.,to re gim eform arien, Itis a lr-e ad ydear that any systemadc treatment of change in International andtraesnarionalinsritudens must deal wilthat least four concerns: types of'(hange, fo rms .o fchange, processesof chan ge, an dsonrces o .f c lla ng e .

Institu tional changes com e inmany v arie tie s.. A tdIe sim p le st le ve l~regimes .may undergo changesthet aHect their functional scope) g .OO-g rap hical d om ain ,.or m em bership . Many erher types, of change are,comm.on, however, and may oeeur in coniuncdon w.ith tb.ese~~mplechanges. Chang~ can lead to alrerarlens in aecis,lml-.making,procedures,,cQni.p llmce rnec lianism.s " o rteve:nuesources. In . o the.r,cases:,org~niz~adam; ,e:merger,oadm.~niscerthe provisions of regimes, ~dthough noneexisted. in theotigina~ des~i\gnof tbearra;ngemenrs i:m 'C)j,uesdon.

T herecu rren t d eb sbe about w betherto create astanding organizado:n tooperate the Antarctic Tr1la.tySys tem.centers onthis type of c:h_ange.Evenm orefun.dam entaU y )m gim .cs m a,y experiencetrnndormadons: of defin~ing principl,es,orl! l ,Qrms,merge with omerinsdrudona1 arrangements toform newinstitutio,ns, or ceaseto ,ex~ Sta J r n g , e t b e r.Some obse rvers nowask w b etb .e r. ll1I.temadollalenv.lro.nmental ,regimes exnibit an identifiableUfecycl.e,w hi.cb eatu1}e5 a :process 'ofgrowth toward ma.mrit:yandsuJbs'equ .mt: docay. In.real,:wfi,r:l.dSttuatians,of .;;our:5e"a.;number:o lEthesedifferent types ,o f cbl~nge are ,ap:~ 'o 'O IX lIlr$ jm Q I M n etJ lil$ ~ y~O' tb~r'c:haracrerizlng the dynamics of ,an.ygiv,en regime can become a. nickyb usin ess ..

Regat1dless . of type, ins ,t itut iona~c h a n g e .may aSSl . ln l .ea num ber .o fdifferent fo rms .Two ,centra~ d ic bo to m ie s .h e,~ p to o [,g a:n izeour thoughtsabeut the forms o ;f change: change may be conside-red.endogenous

(d ev eJo pm .e ota l) o r'e x : o ; g e n , o U $(environmental), .. E n do g,e n.o us;c ha ng es a rethose that ta.keplace asaresulr of the operati.on. of a regime itself. Deaddition of new ,consuit:atlvcparties to the , A n t a 1 ! C l i cTreaty Sy stem . asal'l tsu lt o f ,e :xplid t act ionson the part of theAntarc ti.c Tr,eatyCOnsu]ltaove,Mee1tingsis a casein, point.,.bOgeD,ous:clianges"en the!other hand, are

Telilhakkl 0 an male va'


20/77

m eresuks of forces cxte.mal to the , regimt~iueJf (,f~)i.rexamp~etm,aJorahera.tions inlhe (hara't~[ of a .mar.ine t I(;osy :stem.dueto dl:aIlg~ inw~u:errempemtu:res) .Atthe~merime:l,institlJltianal . ;, g a m g c : :m ay b eincremental (g r- : ad l i l a J .~ )or distJontinutJus(nonlinear). A J : r n o u g hthe disr--n;ncrionlbetweentbemissometim.es,arbitrary, ,incrementa l, Ic:hang~ta:kesplace st~pabYSfe:p(~~ore.xa:mpie,tDe adc : .Ht i .onof new m e m b e : r sto a.R 'g b n .e o n eby one ' over a period ofy ea:rsh , w h ereas: d iscontinuous chang ei n v o i \ ! " e S ;a sharp break w iththe paslt(:iore:xampte,a.w.nolesalecba:ngein m em bership aU at onc-e). C om biningrnes:e:dkbot()iAliesY Ields alWo-by'-two ta,M e ,in W ',bidl. the cellsrepresent ineeemental endogenonschange, incremental e~ogenolil!s change" discontinuous endogenouschaoge,and discontinuous exogeneuschange. AU four forms of change'OCQ[[ W :lil thconsldera,bleregiUIaritymthe realm ofiuternationaJ environ-m e n te l :re gim . es~ ,a nda n y ' ene of [he four.m_a :y~ffioct:.any ofthe ty pes of(ba ll .l e~ iden ti fied , ,inthep'Ieoedimgp ara ,g ra pb

.Sev1eral,additionalas.peflCSof regim.edy.namicscome into focus when

w e c fa.m 1nethe :p rocesses: o fconge. Changes .maytake m eform of'. b J l t e m i a n a l(plan_ned)alteraeions,oruolntentional or de facto a~tel'attonsIn .iD$bw riona[ au,angem ents .T o m a k e mat t e r. s ,.ro.Ote( o . m . p l e x ,somep am :cIp an ts in a ..reg im e m a yard e.n dy ,p ursu e so m e ch an ges, w h U eo tn cBvigorously 'oppose thecbanges in'qgestiQD.C onsidee the debateever theintroducrioill,Qt he so-cal led:R.evi~d M ;a n :a g , g m . en . tProtedUflCS:for w h :d ~ins' orrb,e ne:gmradoD.o f s u.b st an .t iv e p ro to c ol sp erca.in in g to 't n .e emissionof greenhouse gases as;cases .in point (V1.ctorand Sah 19 9'4)..Changes::mayalso bem a d e throughp.l!oceduresspeU ed out in ther:eg im .e Itself orthrougb ,pl}~slhat are nor r : e c o , G I n i 2 1 e d , .much i.ess acce,ptool,aslegir im aife under theprovisions;of the re lecy,an tinstitution. MakIng ,theprocess m ,Q ,[Ccomplex, regim es varygready both :~ntlheextent towhichthey prescr.i.'l)e, p ro ce dg :r,e s. fo r'changingrheIr p.rovisions and~n libestringency ' olf the relevant ttansfor.m ation m les in cases w h erethey do,setfo rth expn titproceduresto be oUowedbymosG advocating c h a l 1 ! 8 e .What is m.o,n; real-worldcaeee m ay tum, out ro be d i:fn .c uh :;tu so rt 'o ut.with .R5,Pt to'tnne 'QU.5r iO.D51 0 ptooess.D et.c[m :D ed ad vo cates o .fch an ge: ty pk aU y pu rsu e th eir'g oals th l'io :u gh .aU a,v aU ab le:,chaIUle~~s:"oth.wlm:in tbe rules; :andoutside the mles.MQreoiver, c b a n g e s ,thar ureuIdmare~.yattr1iburabl,eto :p re ss ure ' b ra u.g lnt1 0 bear eueside th .e conR n,es



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of a regrm e itself are of t en liaJt~ 6edin duecoarse t : h _ f O U , g hthe use o:ffor.malp , [ o c e a . l J r e - 5 ,presenbed by th e re.g im e .

As these observations sl!Jgg.esl '~weshould also ask , , !!uest~orlsabout theso urces o f in stitu tio naI change orabout th e d riv in g,forces that lead inalterations In inif.ernatior!Ja~e:n viro nm e ntat reg im e s,. Su rp risin glyIjtdeeffort has been devoted so far to answeIin;gsueh quesdons, An cadyatte'mpr on the pan of Robert Keohane and Joseph N y esought toexplaln institl!ldonal changes in terms of such factors as economicprocesses, overall po:werstructure, ,~s:su.estnu::turetand international

'Organizations (Kenhane and Nye lS''''?7).. Although this .annlysis001}-stimted agood beginning.jt len much to be desired ;3S a theory ofinstitntiona] change, IJtoveeemphaseed materlal conditions in contrasttoshift~ng ideas orcoll_figIl lI ,a tionso fin terests, reO c c!tcd a p reo ecup ation.w i th p ow e 't'"which. iscom m on am ong students of polities but w hlch ismisplaced ln thestudy of ineem anonal rU lduansnatlonal reglmes; and~ ,eftno place forCbaJlgt: ,s , inthe physicaland b io log ical sys ,l1ems w trh

which soc.h1J.~.n is dtu d on s In te r:1 ,c ta ndwhich are often hlghlydy nam ic ~ ndleir ow nr.ight. U n d ers ta nd in :g th e d r1 v.in g orc es ~n o w ' C " H : . rt :l$critical toany effor.t to ex~plain or predict patterns of change in Internationaleneironmenral regimesand is rhos an area that deserves much moreattention than ii i :has;received to date among students o .fgovemance .inwor ld ,affair ;s"

The chaptersthat m ike up thefour m a . jlo rpat'ts oif this vQ hune ar,erevised.versions of pap en prepared lur discussion at the DertmourhConfeeence on International GovernanQein the Twen~~first Cenmry.

'They'lIe organ i21ed inpa lrs ;, e acho c fwhich.r e ' p c 1 e s e n n a .d1fferenrs:trategyf O l r.gaining an~dytic purchase on the ro le ofregimes{o r, m o re b road!),,)secial i:ns,tltutions}in m,ee:tin:g:the current chaUenges of g;overn.an.cetha.t

nave arisen in a variety oflrnerna[ional and transna'cional s:cnings.Taken together, the chaptees o .frer both a blood and a preclseassessm entof the role of .reg im es ,inaddressing plroblemsof governance ..

Chapters 2 . and 3"by O ~,av Schram Stokke of theFddtjof Nansenlnsritare in .Oslo 3ndPa.ul Wapner Q .fthe .Ame:r]can U.n iv ' t fS ] [ tyin



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20 Oran .R . Yo u ng

Toronto, Paul MuM.oon.of the C an ad l;a n E nv,iro nm e nta1Law Associ-ation" and Lee Botts, a weJl..known envimnmenra l advocate, focusim ensively on one substantl,y ,e issuearoea.:waterand" meee pafiliculadY:iIdv,ers and lakes treatedas,s:na.r:,ed nattu :a ,lr:csoorces" T his issue ispro.fQund~.yirnportanrinehe sense thatissues J r, e~a . ' r ingto fresh warer aredestined eo becom ecritical totn.e ca. :pacl .tyof a grow.hllg.humanpopula-tion to survive andthrive DEl,,Ea.rth:in the fu ture. D raw ing onexperiencewith ~onigs .tandlng a.r rang.ement,s , suchas the set of insrituti ,o~s:pertain-ing to the Rhine RiYer and the t~mearriculated in the Great Lakes

Wa.ter Qu:ali!ty Agreements of 1972. and l:9?'S,the alutho:n.Q.f 'both(:hap1iersm~ke the case tba'~ ill$ti,wtlonaldes:tgnmatters whenit comesto dea lin g,with shar,ed natural resourcesand tba.t successful reg im es areapr ro combine top-down .approaches to d~ignwith bottum-up devel-opm ents f.ea,w r lng the ' em ergence ofcommanides o f rq jm .e supporters.

Cha.pters8 : and '9 ~by David R eed of the W orldW U d :IH eF u n d InWaiSMf:lg~nnand K onrad von M oldbc of D artm outhCollege, address

questions in:vo:lYm g insdtudonal U nka,ges. ingeneliaJ~ and~ m ore ;s;ped6 .caUy.; .mc' interface betw een regim es t!ha.li:deal w ith trade andth eenviroament. These chapters offer the intriguin:gobseev,ationthat a~-though w eoH ,eD thinkof .iindividualt~gimesasstand~alone arrange-rnen'ts ,tDey a rein .fact aUn.o5talw a,ys 'w nbeddedinla:rge,rlnstltuti,ana],structures. M o :r;oovef, the stru tru rcethat:hiM ,e"y o[ved~ n (m e iss,ue ar,ea(e,.g., trade) may dia:e~r fundam.en1ta.Uyfrom the sttucture that hasemerged in another issuearea (e .g ." th .e,environm ent),.W 'hen :U nkag esemerge that cutacress . issue: anms"tib.erefo.re."cla,s:hes between differentsets of insdrurlenal a :r.ra .n gem e nts ofte n.instiga.fe,co.mpllcadonsma1tcannot: be ignored in. efforts to solve problems of governance. Quiteapart from their S p c c ; ! D Cdetails,such comp.lic.ati.onsare 3. major source.o f the diffi.culcl'esthat ha-vesurfaccd . in.tradeaed ensieonment regimesin recent years .

Chapter '10, 'Whkh IS based on the discussions that occurred dUr l l l , g

the. DartmouthConfe rence, p rovides3. mo.regeneral ,assessment,off ut ur e p .ro sp e < :;t s:f or ~ ~ g o v em a n c e:w ith o utgovemment .~'~Doesthis atp"p1roacb o.fXr a.b.as.is 01.[ :h .o pe in .re sp on .d in gto the cbaU engesofg overn an ce thatha:ve overwhelmed,con~n, t iQnnl;approa,chesm r'ecenty ears? S'R ould w eexpec,t .reg im es to , arise in ccnneerionwid} some



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2 3 R Jgb .tsJ,R ules~and R est)u 1'as in 'Wor,ld .Affr,irs

Exponents 'O fm ore radical changein th e n atu re o f iarem a no nal.so cierywUl like:l.yfind t he se ,a ssumptions ;objectionable. ,If, howevertch:eGoncept:o:f 'gove,mance associatedw l d l regimeanalysisp .roves tobe a success fu lv eb iC le ,fo,r reform ing the statessyslems- in. oth.erwords:, if i. tQffe:l:saneff~ crive m eans of solv ing a w ide tange of p .robl,em swithout abandoningthe d lcfin ia,g featut(!'s o fin tern atio nal so ciety asw e know it t ,oday~ theresultant system,of though,t aboueregimes is lik~ly 'tQ ,gaIn a, largefoHowin,ga m o n g th os e $ t~ iv in ,gtn m eet thegrQwingdemand orgo:ve,[o-anee atthe mtemadorudand t tan$nadQn~devels.

4. Can w ea p r p 1 ytbe I ( : xpe r i encegaip ,edfrQm env ironmenta l,Issues:toabroader'raIll,geogovemance problems that arise in inllf!'rnatior:ud~ ety 'orin~ obal civ il:society.?M any observers sim ply assum e thatprob~ e,m s of,goV',e41lanoeaod"therefore, the eequirem ents forSiO.lvingt hem. d iffe r:m arkedly m omone issuearea or functionalrealm to another.Securityp.robJems~~or i_nsmnce~aresaidmbe m atters ofh~,ghpoHrlcs inwhich .power IS tllLep rin cip al d riv in gfor,ce.. E conom i.c issues turn on

o pp o.rtu nio es fo r .r'ea pin gmutual sain s and the,r:do.[iege,oeccateJncentivesfar c-ooperation, despirerhe faec that there is a lw a y.sroom for conmcto'Verthe distribudon.aEga,ins from trade, H um anrights issueoSraisequestions about the :solVere.ignauthority of indiv:idual sta.tesand run ther is li co f p rovokinghosdlereacdonrsto outside int:edercncc:.Hows .~~ i f i~cant arc these aiffe,[ences, how c:v,c'r? .Arethey :tnote fuildamen.ta~than.varlous an a~ y d'ca,i co nsld eran on s th at cu ta cro ss fU !nct~ on:dreal.m s" :su cas 'the distinctions bet;w,ee.nbenign problems: and. m aligupreblems,betw een ,ooo:rdinatt~)inp r:oblem s, and. coUaboration problems,or betw eenen fo r:cem .tm tap pro ac:n ,es; an dmanagement approacheste elidtiIl;g com:pUancehom .r-egimememberssThevolume.autbon.5:pedficaUydrawon,experiencewith ,env.iro rnmenra l is sues ;as;a ; S O U R i eof .~nsights[OltD gQ'VeJ'n~ance in wolld mfairs, but they also make a constant e.fort'to determlnewhether these .in sigbu ,are generaUy a ,ppHcableinseek irngrsol~donsto thevaried challenges ofgevemaaeethar we can expect toenceunrer inthetwenty-firs1tCCIiI'tury.



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I



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2R-- ,c- ime - :asGo--er,nan!ce~-s:tems,g ,8 ___ _ _V _. _ __ y

O l a,v Sc .b r,a m Sto kk e

Wba.t ba:s the now twenty~ye,ar~QM, sdlolady debate on igremat~onalregimes contributedto our understanding of global gov'er.llance?'Thischap ter o cu :Se8three g en eralapplroaches"il:o tha,t qliJc,stion:(1) theconcept of lovcmancc i m p U ~ d .in regime theory; (2), changes In ,ta,e.l'exar:chProl:fi~t,~n.dud[ng pr,lvU-egedff iemes and theore ticalfoci; and (3 )m e c om ,p atih m ,tyof tna,t:p , r con lewith the needs; ,ofpollcy m .akers andOdlier:sto came to terms wi,mCUf,reOil:gov~mancep'ro'b~em.sjn wodd,- _

1 '"POttf~.WlthJn the larger, more UlberalprOljectinthe study of international

r-e 1a do ns". w h ic h d ea lsbroadly with howl, :sm iet:y of states can g,ovemlrseli""eg lm em eo .r:y has been . especially o rien ted to w ard in stru m entalusefUJness.I , In.other w o rds" canpast experience help us todeal betterwith :s lt ua fio n sm w h ic htb ebehavior of one member a .t :fec tsche w e lfa re

of another; and .if S O ; . how~ 'Two common cdddsms ~.evied againstregim e analys~ s are rhatthe conceptitself is wool~yandEhe theo.r.ybasically conservative becaiUs~ of its focus an order; stabmty, andthecentrnlhy of states in mamaging worM affairs. ]n t 1 b i schapeer, :1showhow th .nSf i ! :two cririeisnrs are ve''Yciosel.y tied te thepo~i(:y-otientedam b.idan of ,reg im e rul,al:y sis. T he!loosenessof its Qonc(!:prnalb asis: h asa llo W-le do r ev enen.C-Quragedthear,e;ric~:dherer.,ogen.ei:ty"thus sensitizinganalysis to a.faidy wide I < a l 1 g eof mechaJt~s.ms and. plooecsse5relatedtointenla:donal. ,coordination. M.o:rceover,the atrenrkm gi.y ,ento regim esc:abiUty, espec.iaUy ineady,contributions to regime analysis, r-eflects theR quentia~ m anner in w hi.chgovem .ance has been addressed In regim etheory. Regime scbolafs have beencantious enough to split the largerquestion ofgovemance ineo a.number of smaUerand more manageable



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o nes-,fo r exam p l,e ,s;in:g ,I,ing ou t tbel[uema:tional,regim e as ones i ,go i f i , -can t m .eansofgove.manceand th en asking sep,araft' ,qu estion s aD om ;itsmaifl t:ena :nce~ change ,and


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1:9i70s"wlrb:perhapsasHght shih , Q : emphical~ocus.from,t ransnadona~eerporarions with , g I , o n aI,reach 11 ' , 0' t ransnad.ona~,environmental groupswithglobal WQUies.,2

A~th.otligh:regime a:naJysisma,yhave grown O U t of thesame Ut1erature,its scopeo concernremains nasrower. The signIficance of $ubnad(ma.~a nd tra nm a tio na l g ro up .s,h as:alw a y s b eenacicn.owl,eaged,bo th as ag~ ts,and targets of governancee.fforts,bU.1 tha,t ack now l ed gm en t has: n ey ershown up much In actual c : h c Q , r i z i n g ,(Ia]dw,~o1993a: 9). In p,[3cd,ce,most regime dleorybas been in U n.ew ith themethodologj,calassum:p~

tions of struetural realism . that states can ~ sefuH ybe'eoncelved of asunita,[y,. r.at',~ onal actors and that openingthe b~ ;ac:k box ofdomesticpoG ,tics, Jn anintera)ctiv,e rather'thanaddjovf:manneri$ n.Qt Ukelyro bew orth thecasts: in v ol y ed . A lth o ug hth ese a ssu m pd on sensure a s~mpleJ 'and m ore focused.ana ly : s I s : ,th.eyalso have tw o petentlany f.rqub~jngimp:Ucatiions. Fi:rsr,un~iikethe srudy of gle 00.1.governanc:e~ regime analy-sis,censiders ,onlyproeesses relaeed to .~ll.mernadonal-I.eyel.rules,hlll.piying

thatprl'lateregi:m.es-~in which the members are private .organizationsmthertba:n sitates-havebem ~ven scarce :systematicattcrntion(Haufl.er199'.3)..Second,l inkagesbetween.intecrna,rional.regilme-sand t ransnat ionalin te:racdon have not beenadequately ex:pl.ored~Jincluding the questionof wherher m echan ism s: fou nd.to be relevant tO~J[ ternadona.1r~Jmep.rocesses are .Hkelyto shape transnational ones as well. lhda:y, these. impUcadonsare n n a U - ybe;ingsC l!udi.ed.som ew hat,especia,llyin[he;, ana . l .y~sis, of regim e consequences,but .a~soin.creas~ngly lin so m e accounts ofhow reg im esare fo rm e d . o .r m a in ea in ed ,

Another salient ,feature of regime analysis is its focus on e.xJplkidyd e1 in ea :te da nd s ep ara teissu e area s. Gov~man:ce,as eoneelvedof in.reg ime analysi:s , is c l,earJ .y c ircumscribed:spailiaUyand fnn.cdon~'dly..Thiseenceptloals cempatible w.ith th.eintema[ional~aW' notion of reglm.es as:systems ofru~.es: orregclariens pl'!naining tovarious spalti.alobj;ecr.s oflaw ,such as high seas, areas, continental shelves, and terrirerial seas, asweUas to various ty,pes of ,activitiesconducted the:re, such as fishing,na.viptinll,. or scientific:r-esearch.4 E n .regime analysis,issue spedfi.dty'also n! ' J l : ec I5d.oubt,-art iculated.stFongly~ntbe iot,eldcpenaence lirera-tnre concernin,greaUs,t .assumptions about cros$~issu.eunity of agencyandmefungibiUty0 . p O i w e .rca ,pabnir ies {Keohaneand N ye 1977) ..O n e



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.adv.anm g e of an o pena.ttiJtU .d e!ltoth.ese m atters Jsthae ItaU ow s ; us ttheorize th e ,conditions necessary for~inkageof is sues (5eben iuSI983)and [0 pose petaled , questiensabout w hen. issue hound lades canbecrossedhy certain.actors andideas orw hen suchdcdlbera.tec O l l . p U n ; gwil lbe dlfficuh:.Indeed, one of the presum edbene,firs ofi[iJtemat~onallastiruricns istha.trhey m a y :facU irate th eprr1Qduct~.veinkage OfVaiIIOOSissues w ith ina. la rger area of eoneen tion (K eohane and .M artln19 9S).

So:m.e s tudents o fg loba lgo 'V emrana,how e:ver~W3.m. against theis su e-a re a a p pro ac n,aI~]ng that it .W lrrow sm c analy sis o f go vem a nee

and t~ndsrtoobscure the fac tthat re gim e s a re lin k edby mormstbatco .meiD~Op1ayw h e n tw'O or m eeel1eglimes.ov,etbp'ro t comlict (Rosenau .1992;9 ' ) " .P'oU.dcaUfspeaking,e~ggerated issue orienta:t~on.m ay serve toreproduce anifi~ ia l boundaries betw eenactQ ts, .ideas,. andsolutions.E.JlJv ir-o :nmenra lp r,o teCcion, fu r:instance,is difficultto discussa.dequatel,w.tmOUIdelving deeplylneo Of her is su e a re as :becau se eelevaar m easu restend to affectactorsengagediOV3U:ious. 6 f '~ .dsof eeonemkprodncrion or

miU.tary ope.r adcnl .;! I L lkew Is t,.3S

part of m ecurrenr poli . t ica.~reorgan~Zi~anon of C entralanrd!. E astern E urope,ra swarm o frc ra nso ou nd a.ry re gio n-bDiMil lg :reUorts has been underw ay tbepas't c lewy ears to generateOIr-eaw a .k en.3 w i de .tang e.o f.pol.itical"cl!llttn~ al, and com m ercial tiesa,CfOSSthe old,East-Westdivide (Stokkcea nd Tiln an d e:r1994)r!.Thepe".mtssi.ve~ness oftlt:ese p.roo esses in term s of: issue scope:ref1lects a desireto m.us,terbroad rcoa[i:tioDSin :5 U pp o.rt o,f tbe es tab~i5hm,entand.opeta;t~onof suchnew a:rm as orco()pera,do{l} ~ O nthe 'Q,therr ban,d, abh(m.~poJit icalproc~ m ay ,c ut a t;ro ss .issu eboundaries ,rules are s riD drc l lmscr rbed_,an d, as K r a~ o Ch .w Ufl9 93 : 8 2)p oin :ts o ut, th e circu m sc:ri.p do n !,eflects8.con sen sus, established. inapo Hd od pru c-es:s th atitself IS a n . .in re gra t p arto f reg im e an aly sis;,

In summ ary, thet,do re~m econcept.o f ,gOVfrnance impliedlin .re gim e.analy sis is narrow er than the O D e in tendedby g lo ba l g ov e:m a n ce .~ nterms O 'flocus".rregimethenry has been largelyp,renccUipledwlthinrer"

state;relat Ions" w hereasglobal g ov ern an ce re'ie rstQ th e creatio nand'O p era tion o fm 1 e 5at o th er lc~ v,eJs;swe1l1and to' the invo:lvement of:su.bna.tlonal:Bndttansnational aeters .As~odQmain,r regime theory hestak en o ve r t o mimetna.~iowj l awand the I n . t e , t d e p e n d c D ( l Cschool-em



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T he M ain Puzzles.0,( R eg im e .Analy ds'T hree m aier them es canbe Jd en tified ~ n. r e g i m . e i~ l ! e ' r aml1eto date~ai though,emphasisouany one them e hasshifred over tim e.O ne t hemeconcerns the:mai:nt'enance o: . fexisting reg irlles"a phenom enon w ithseveral components. Many regime: scholars have been struck ~y therobustness of int:em ,atl.ona:1 regim es, even inthe faee of consjdef"ab~ echa;[)g,es~n~h,(,,:interest or power structures tnatpresumably Weltimpo.rtanc6ordlei:r creation. ThiS observaeion and the fa.ct that gp;vern-ments continue r,olnv'est substa:ntial resources in int~rnadonal regimes

are oft~n seen as evidence that reganes must be more than ,epipb-enom ena in w orld affaIrs (Y oung 1992; K eohane and M a.edn1 9S)...F or.in stan.ce:, m .uch !W Bo.lad y .fuelhas betn Spetllt 3Jocoun.tJngfo.t theC()!R~tlll!o .ed slg nU ican ce o f th epostwar ~Bl'et to :nLWoo-d :snstioudons as:arenasfo .~ in tersta te co ord in atio n o f trad eand:finance, d esp ite t:h edeclining.wHUngnessoftheirmaior architect and proponent, the United SI3:CeSj 10suppoet them w ithge~e(t~velyb~astd:market access and fixedexcha:n.ge

rates, How can. weaccouarfoe suchr-obusmess?Whydo some interna-tio nal in scitu tl.o ns: g ,ro 'Wst rongera nd m O l'el.e gltim a te ,~ . w h ere asothersshrink and fader' As w e shaU see, som e accounts of :r'~ ;m .e.obILlIStne-ssempbasize features of the r~gime imelf~whereas othees are ~argdyconcerned with varieus structural conditions in :~tsenvironment ..

Closer examination .o f regimes, oftt:n discloses that such robustness

does Dot nocessarUy Im.plystability. On the conn:aIY~ fegimestyp:~caUychange;coMiderablyov-:er tim e; the num berand composition of members~a:t :es often. ,change. ;tile ttanspateocy .o fdecision making rna.)' vary" F o einstanceinthe degree( . i fOperult~$$to paJrticipa,tioRby nons,tat-ea.ctofS;

l . L.. I .. . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . ..d ... d d .. . . ... .. Ii{legIJlLat~ons:.may ~ 5~~~~_,.Q'f watere_ " ~,own,mQre:UltrUSlveC O m . :P. I .-anee eontrcl mechanisms maybe .introduced; Of new programmatic3!cti.v.iti'es.mayb e ad dedto, existingones . Indeed ,ahbol!]gitillstitutionaltransfosm arion is often a. sine quanon for the continued. poUrical

'1 1 f"" ' ill " . . h I . f' r e .L C !V ln c e 0 U:lilernarl.ona,~ reg~m es"n: 1 :5nevert . ' . e ~ . e s san a s , p e e r0: -. t'r:!.glme

ma.~ntenance[hat so {ar has been g ivencom.par.3rhl,ehr l lrde systematkattention inthe Jite,ratur,e. 9

A second major theme in r lcg~meanaJysis is : the form'ation ofiQlterna.,dona. I iastitutiens, Author.s,try roaccoune forthesuccess or failur-e:ofvarious efforE sto crease new reg im es intheietemaeional domain~



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ttad litio na1 m ean s. o f treatyinrerprerarion-e-ascedifiedin Artldes3] and32, of tb,e V ienna. C onvenrion on the Law ofTreatl.es-ave not limitedto the rreaty text: itscU~but require that accountbetaken of the contextandeiteum stances o:faitreatyconclusi,oll~o th er re 'lev an t ag r,eem e n.fSbetw een pa.:rrles:;tbeff subsequentpracrice, and so IO n;

T he _focus on subStandvely defined p.rob~ em s rarherrhanfo,rmaU,d efin ed g ,o als d oes n or elim in ateany of the difficulties of specify,ingthe,C(mt-entsandorigiins ofa standard ofev.alu3,tion. Ra,ther, It 3ck(1;O'w1-edges.the fact ' that .ormalgoal attainment is .in su.fficient and u rgesthe

analyst tc peeceedwirhabroader andm ore in-depth assessm entofth,e" 1 1 1 -d 1:__ ..1 ':1..' '" 'S " m . f tit b . '" bS O C U 1 JY e n n e a p u rp os e0_ _'y~e reglme.pec~- ,~C'a t lOl l l 0-" ~ _ e : a s :U ; : : JU ; : ' ( ) 1rl ems to be addressed is notalwa:ysa stra ig ,h .tfo rw a rd m ~ n te 'r!if mayI\equireprioddzadon; various: tu:tors m ay o om !p tth.en dthe plolliem. : in.dliffereo.t w,ays; ,and ehaages ma.yoccur overrime In their understandingotheprob~em.'These dimensions should be incorporated in the evalu-adve standard, heacealso allow ing evaluations; of theadaptabiliry 'O fthc!

reg im e to a chang ing social environm ent.In,the rest of' this ~haptcr, ,I utilize the ,ma~or anal~c .,pu_zz~es_~n

o{krulga ooughsk:etc:hof th e d .e vd op m e .n ta lhUitO!ryof reg im e theory0.[ thepasr tw o decades ..Ipa.y pa:rticul,arattention to tw o aspects of th isdevdopmcnt~ooth of which affect the relevance ofreg1mcelieoryto theem e rg in g c on cernforglobal ,governance: first,.,I examinethe l o c . U $ofgovernance-that 015, rhe level atw h icb .g ov e;rn an cejssct:u diea, in clu din g:the ty peo.factnts drawninto the analysis; and second, Idiscuss themeclta,,,ismsofgo:vernance-that is,the; .kind 0 1lntetmedia.teca.usalpr()C es~ , invoked w hen .re ,g im e,3nalystsaccouolt for the creadon andoperadon o,f intemalt ionaJM e 5 ,or the behavioraladaptation pursuantto.;such . m les, T he m sinduust of m.y a~umenl i 'is that .reg im ea n a : ~ . y s ] : s t Sgradual1.yadl::in:g;1 mo[ei_ndOClsiVre~approacb.in de,aling 'Mrh boththelocus and m echanism s of govem 'ance, hence'm o\ril1lgcloser tothe study'O fglobal :govemance.

T h- 'P ro d - '9 '. It R ". A al ..1 .1 . .' .~ '.lId1ve .~ eterogeuf:l,tyol.epme.n , ) ISISlnthe ,eVallllalt10nofthe distinctive cont r~lbuQons ,of regimetbeory~thebottom line is w hedlerregime theory can addressthe v ario us p uz.zl.e s o fgovel.nance more:sa.tisiactorilyrhansomeother approach, Although,this



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36 Olav Sdm;~rnStokke

is nottheplace for a. foclJJsed com para.tiveassessm em j a few p .re]jm ina.rycom ments rna:y showhow regime analysis differs from an ,importantprecursor sl(lchas '~nrep'atio:nth,eo.ry and EIom a ,.major cusrent eompeti-tor such as structural realism,

Regim.eana,iy:sis acq,ll li redmany o f In ; traitsfrom the intieraepende:n,celiterature:,in.cludingthe b le n d c fe o ntin u ir yand re jecr:lonscemm jngfromin teg rn '~ io n[b eo ry ..rs Althou;ghF egim .e ;analy sis shares inregration the ..oryts:strong concern w,~ th.insdtutionsand, increaslog1y"anemphasis onsubs t:a li c ac to r sandtransn,ational :acdvitles,.it oJfe.rsa far m ore pro-

nouncedartkul,ation of agency and intentional pursuance of :self~inte:r~e eS t.R eg im e sc ho la rsna:v,eai .waysasfmmeda cautious:arritude towardagertcy~di(stant and apparendy unidirectiofilalphello.mel1l,asuch as in-crementans.m" spillover,and sense ofcommunity; ,tmeyhavt) soughtmoredifferentiated and conditional.prolPosition.sabout the origins and pros-peets of coo[dina~edbeha v .& u [.1 6 ,

Putblundy ~ regim e throry sliced upand sim plified. pans of neofune-

tio nal in tew a dQ fltheory in three move--cs.Fitst')it l if ted i s$ue~$peiCi fic,.institutionalized eoeperaticn Ol!l![ of [be theoretical context of broaderregional coopefatl.onprocesses,,~hl!ls dram.at~cany .tf!lcreasin,gshe numbero:f casesto observe and compare sim,ply because' there aee far morereg im es than ,poH dcalregions, Seoond"lit divorced hstlf' fm m thenotionthat centralized decision ma.kingis the optimal response to situations ofimerdependence, Instead, regime analysis has tended to rega rd theappropri.ate dlvis~on () flabor between nationa1 governments and imer-nationa~ or:ganjzations as, a IheQ.retical matter.P.re5umably., :r~mescholars argue, thedivision of~abol[ d e : p e n d s ,m ore uponthe issue areainvolved and f.be spe-dfic purpose 0. the i:llsrit:ut.~oninquesdcn tbanon some abstract .s tage .tCacbcdin a . p r o c - t S 5of un i f i ca . r ion . .And th:it.d,by .ref


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m entis am ,singled out andframed as :problewrhat: requ irle .jo in .t action"The ma,m body of regime ,5CJn.olarsrup doe-snotsltalie:~ how e ver~ :t'h .es kepticis m o fmany' soc i,o log i,Q( au thors,regal'ding the poulhUityord esirab ility o f m an lp ulatin ,g in stitu tio ns in o rd er' to realize :p ven go alstth e p ne t'a do :n 'o f c o nc re tepolicy advlc;eon how ro structure,negotiatiol1Serinstiratiens forms the 'Very core of to .IS tradidon. Often , inherent l:nsuch 03- raematic orientar"on i a,re~, - 1 1 : f::r I-'}~ - ,,- 'I I-d' J', , th ' , " '. '_ _ _ _ 1 '_~gmau ,___ u S ~ p , ,ere__e _ 0_ ex-:ptdUa.torymoe.~s ._.atare :sim ple anddec is len .orieneed .ra.t ll erthan "~ 'thick .""orlC'onte'x:t:~aden.HIIn otherWQ[dis, 'the .melh()denstfe'tb etw e en in div id ua 1ist a nd so cl.o lo gi-

cal oo ntrib ution s ' t -o ~ ,im e tbeo> 311" '0 .-- il l ~-+,"'--rn ->h-'Ir:.Jifi--:en:t_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ &~__ _ ry _ilL R:__ X!.Q so__~ew__ ~ u__ eI' ,. l cl1 ,. h ,. f" , .purp~; It, :ail'So suggests,~ '~~ angtng emp_Jt :StS()J} Q=~enICQmpenngCI~-r er ia .- pa :t s:i !mouy andd~termi_nacY',on the one .band"and richness andlempiri.calvalid ity , on theother, Th.einite1[ecnud ,exchang:ebetweenthetw o cam ps0 .re gim .e an aly sis is cu rre ntlyon rhe rlse ..

The vocational and me~bndo~ogical diversity ( ) i fregime analysis nodoubt renders cammuniearien among regime analysts more d.ifficult;it

is ,dearly one of the reasonswhy so m uch in tellectual. en ergy has beenspent onp.r,e;Hrninaryra:sks such as con:(prtdennido:nana.jusdfication,(U n dc rd al 1 99 .5 ). 'B ut ite lsorenders regim e analy sis m oreflexible:thand og m a.tk n otio ns, ,a.d dress",g lh e p .u zzJesofgovemana:.. In general ,wri.~emtend ro be acutely aware of the piu11al.andc.omplementaryname .0 1 me:irc on trib u tie ns ...

M e C tu w ~ s ill lS of G o em a n ='T h e :P u n m o aa l:L~ c of ,M ailutream ,R.egime,Anal,ys~sR~rdm.g the p U1 ;Z [esa .1regime maintenaneeand(hange, :thequestion01 ,h"Refno.nic,stability is casUy the most ,central noudebate in regimeanalysis.b is a no nd eb ~ \Jte be ca us .e r~ s m ce ,e arlyin the 19 '1lHls"noeneseemsto have defended the 'f1hesisin Its str-ong:fOfm-nam~l~y,.that tb,erobasmess of llegimesrequi.res,3. predominant aaOl, prepared , e id l e .1 :topay a d ]sp ro pO r tlO n atf sh area.EllteCOSts , o f u ph o:~ (H n g th eregimeor to

c oe rc e o th ers. in tobehav,lor l.1 conformity'With~t.zO Y et alm ost ,everycontributor tom ere-gime .li teraturehas tax!eD su bsta ntia l ,p a~ n s1:0 d.iscussthe origm s" m erits~ andespedaU.yshonoomings of ne:gem.onj.c . s ,mb iHty ...Alm ost all concludethat there is every reason to. distance o ne se lf fro mth e: 'w h o l.e; id ea . T h isrl.wal;-me condnuous dem .oU tianof 3 . t h : c & i sthar



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tra tion of pow er.F n term sof institutional design" it m erely sugg es.ts anawaeeness of hew [he membeeship com,position of Jleg~:mes mayaffoot

m elev el o fperceived,a~m m etdes am ongmembers.T he ea .g em e sscfmainstream reglm.escho~arsto repudiate theb cg e ',m ..

enic stability thesis has sl~mulated the elaboratkm ofarational~sta h e i l'- n e g , .e m . o : n : yUt,e:lr,amre:i'which argues thiacregim,esaee maintained hytheir pereeised usefulness infaciUtadngcollaboration among se lf -inter ..esred actors (K eohane 1984),,,Here, the und;edy.ing.Io g ic isafuncrional,one; v.ario\tsbUi'ietsto cQllectiveaction an: m atched w itheUicicat:

i .nsdwtion.a~ remediesalong thevarlous dimensions,of regimes,:Re'por:t~ingp,rooedul'eS, perf().rrnan


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42 Olav Schr~m Sto.kke

Considerations such. as.rhese may also yield prescriptions regarding themembershipand issue ~o~pe' of in,temational regimes-e-because bothm a y a .f.fe ct: th e (lo Jle ctiv e s.itu ad on ~ scomptexityand maUgnness" includ-:ing the 3bUityto Unk issues and ac~onj:in order to enhance the size ofthe bargainer:s~surplus (Seben.ius 1983).

A l t h o l l l l g h :stressing t h ~ t t~;gim.e~orrnation . i s less a c ~ ' U : e . f u U : ydes~gnedreSJ'o'1'!lsethan a product o .f c om p ~ e x ::paHdeaJ in te :r 3d i.o n , r at io n a~ j st :reg im e an aly sisisalso invoked by schelsrs u : s u a U y~de:lltiAedw, i r nthesoclologlcal a.pp.roach...In bis influentia! article on the :smdyof reglmes

and in~ernatiQJilidorganiza.rions~,Joho Ruggie (1975: 575)1suggested thatreg;ime formation and tns,titll.ldona,~.orm are do.se1.yrela,ted C D m ep'lievaiHng collective sftuadnn-that Is;, the type and locus of poUcyi .nrerdepe:ndencecharacteristic ofvarious Jssaeareas overtime"

Thust tA,e .fOcus oJ the m echanism of gQ vem a nee im pU e~ ~ ntherationalist core 01 re,gime alla.l.ysisrests on how the incentive structures u rro u nd il'lg b eh av lo urisa.ffKted by an existing or proposedregime. 2 :2

I,n g en eral, th e e xis,ten .c eo f a.re g im ! e: .m a ycbsngeca.kllllationsof'co-standb en en .tfo r a cto rsbyp,F.O,v.id lng rew ardsfor. th()se~wn.Q oomply with the'rules, such. as a :green im ageabroad orar home, or bycrcati:ng newcostsfo r th osew ood o, n ot" su ch as p olitical em b arrassm en t, 'T his,changem ayaffect: both the atuactivetless, of ap.ropo&ed.teglme-Induding th elikelihood {hat It w iU be :n ;egof.iated-and its ,effectivenessif the regimea,~readyexists. For instance~ iin discussions of tbe dfectiv,ene.ss .o f re-source m an agem ent regim es, a.ttel1.tlo:nis us:t],aU ydra.w n to the adeq uacyo .fmon~tof.ing or saJll,cd.onl:ngproiV.~sionsl"The underlying idea is 'filarfOI!< 1 .regime to hav'c an impact, i'l must render ll ionoompUanc-emore costlyor adherence more be'nefidal.than they would have been WithOIUEtheregime: . .The~ndi1)ect'Versi.onof th is m .ech a.n l$ fil ..m ay be :just asrelevantbecause entrance or :adh.erence tome: regime can be made easier, byrende.r.ing negodado.Ds a r'egui;ar .ra.tber than ad hocexercise and b :yenhandIJigt.he flow ofimormation and th us: th econfidenoe ma.tothers

teo are behav~ngcooperativety, .23,W e have seen thatthere is consideJ:ab lel le t'e .W8en.eEty .amongthoodstS

of intemarionalregimes and cluurhe rari.ona1ist core of thisrradition~sa contended one, Part of this ,eo.l1!reo,tionis relaeedto epIstemology,3 c Se. 'V.ldenced~ntbesociolog~cal ,critique of rheposidv~st commitments of



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mainstream regime :a.nalysistindudingir;s:solipsisricconception ofatmcy. Bven soaie regime scnolarswho (lOnCur ep,isremologicallywith

th~ ,r;ationali:sts" how ever"po,int to a broader and somewhaI: d~Jfere.nt setof causa] p,(OOcsseshan in'ten.riomla.dapta.tion to cllan~g cost-benentsiwa.tiorus.InmenextsectioR, I mow tbat reg im e ana.ly sisis currentlybe~ ~xpande~by scholarswho.c h a U e u _ _ g e t h eassumpti ;onsof rationalist~gime theruy by advocQ:t i_ngac(msider.ab ly ~" thicker",Oil m o re .c om 'tx t-laden, app' tQ4(n.I 'Qrp.~e the discussion arcnmdtwos!l ; lcb.challenges,.O ne :seelc.sto expand thera:F.lige ,oilgov,e :rnance mechanisms:av,aflaMeto,

reg im e an aly s'is an d.questions theviabU hy of discussing:regim.es,m dy inte rms o f G"onngura tlo :n ;s,of ,capabmde ,s0[' preferences,.The secondchal-lense!,ex pan ds th econsentienal locus, of govemancejmplied il l .regim.eana~ysis bypa.y.ing; greater attenriun ro subnational and teansaanoualp m c -e ss es .

Quesdonin.8 Conftptations

'The j'.atlooa)ist care 'O f regime .analy.sis(]'ies ttls,pedfy certain mida,~oo.ndidons n~essary lo r f,eg i:m .esto em C (g et S,lJ_nive,or iaffect behavior,in .tet:mso f (u n .6 S U _ ta tio B so fp r-e fe r'C niic s o rca,pa:bnid.es.am.on;ga groupof s ta ,t es~'Those,c-MditiOfiSare then.ma.tclled wi th 'C~l'tam.P[Oposed orexistingandblu;es. ofthe regim e w ith an ,ey e!to w bether the reglm e m ayh elp , th e g ro up ' o ve rc o.m .ecolh~or ivcN~ct jQnp.robh~;ms .The beautyof thisappr,oach U es~ n bs:simpUci'~,yand. in tbe plaus1blU ty of t!h .e basicassU Dl,pd .on thatst~ ues w ould f:Q rhc[ be bener off than . w orse'off. Inad dr,esslllg .(eg ~ m eplJZ 2les" h ow e ver, sch olars m o re o ften re co gn izethatthissiimplicl.tym ay hide simationel comp~exities thaI are w o rth . th.enr-iziog. Compact and elegant cun6gur,ationa~ rheories are incre3s1lllsJybeing com plem ented bymodels Irhata;te,rtthe ana.~.ysittQvaJriioQs fa.;u::u:srelated to. meprcQCCssof nam jofD ilingsuch in itia lcondjtion:s. to reg im e-reFevantbehav~o.rand to - the srabU ity ofthe c-o :ndjjdonsthemselves.

FromC alculus to C ausationExplaining( ionfigumtionalapproacl lesto' regimes ..Isa matter of ,a~cul.us ,tal tberthan ~ausalprocess:~if it is , s how n thata . reg imedesigned inap.arti(Wat w, a . y is 'the: be$tmst~imtiQnalI,espo:nse to a given. ltJou'ec,ti,ve



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B asically, th ese v ario us lin es o f realizatio n,theo:ry render m ore p~ jableth e: ,an aly tic al, rig id ity,an da plp ,a r-en t d etc fm in ismof "onfigw:at iQna~analysis. Ace-lOrdingto this 'Ylew"tne structure of i:nttre-st and power isless than d ete rm in"t'""", regim e form ..rion a ..d : m ainten anee are seen as"""', .~ c,an ..e' J:[~. ~] p. .,.,.." ,,' "co.. ' .. ", ..... . .,. " ' ~ ,~ . " ..u,~... ,g ,..,"" G ... iii .,,"_.~ ""_possib le outcom es ,of fairly com plex in teractive processes w ith a num beof pitful18that are ,of teD related to cognlt ivematters and wi th certainshortcuts thll!'l! actors may exploit in order to reach agreement.

T bePotce of Procedure

B y'demonstrating th e p ote m la l0 :reg im e s: to


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consistency andco nn ecred ness m p rin eip les u nd ed y:in g o therrules;;and(4)ad!hermce. or v"Gm(;a~co.nneaednessto a normative hlera.,chy,inctudin,g secondary ndes oflaw.fulproc-edure~Le,t us exum ~ ne bowandd l .e ,e x te n tto w h ~ c h t h e s epm.umab~y le g i. t i :m J _ z j]_ n ge a tu re s a readdressedby students of interna:donal ..regimes,

Pedigree,which .Lm p1lies validation by durabil i tyand social. practice,h as been . d eal.t w ith $o m ew h a.tt a : D i g e n t i a U yin allthree siublidds of ther,egim~l i ternm(\eji t is (a.rely. s . h l C _ g l e doutasa key issue... :R.egardlngthecreadOll 0 . n l!_ ~ , e s"pedJgr>eetums uplarhe analy sisofsponta:neQ~.sorde:IL'S:,.

seen as productsofa la:rge number o.frn'onQ()(H~dina~edb u r su sta ln .e dd ec isio ns a bo utsecialbehavieur [Young 1982,). . Gam e . .rheoredc:' V l e : r s : i o n shave~r.ied to ~sho:wthat such ordere, exemplified by markets andlangu.a,gesysteIt1sbutpresum:ab:lyex te nd ab le toorber ty p es o f co ord io a-dOJ1~ m a.y ,evolv,e even w irhoutas ,em bry onic alevel of ,com m unity assh are d n orm s o f re C li.p ro cJty (A xe iro o19'84). P,edigreeis also anis\Sue inaccoun ts of im posed orders, to the exten t that reg im es canbe created b)T

sustainedullUatera.rpractice by a d om inant actor.O D emustrat~on ofrhisis the significance of the U.S'. postwarpoUcy toward the, evol.vingco ntin en tal sh eU reg im e(Andrassy19'70).Track reco rd is abo invokedin theinsdtutiollaJ. b.argaining.lite't.aulfif:in. duu cenain reg im e selueiensa re : b eU e v ed t:u s ta ndout as pamad:aiIys.al ientin internationalnegoti-at iQ.ns~au5et .heyha ve b ee n ,e m plo ye d. su C(:e ssfu U yin otherareas .

Likewise , ine rt ia0(' habit-drivenbe,bavioris s :omer ime$lnvQ~edwhen.explainingr1egim erobusm ess: over tim eand corupl~ance wldlin~ema-do nal nerm s(Rose.rnau.l.9'86)..A specialversion o f 'th is ,phenomenonIStlOutinlZed.beb;Q;viorOil the part: of national 'bureauclades; i f the issue isnot a ma.ner' oJ c U s pute :;lmongv3.dous dome-sdc grolllps"r:n,ebureaaera-de-s.maytendto see inttr.oaional co mm itm ents as d b~ ecif.i.vef(lfeve,rydayadlmini,strativcdecisions (Chayes and Chayes ]9'93:: 179).

The sC Qondv:didating lea ture of a rule,d ef~ r m in ,a cy ~has b een rath ercentral In thereghne~liierawre bea.usc it h~nl.es on. the question of

whetber expU,it and formal fu~es are essential to the dfocti:veness offntJema.t].onalregimes, Remember that, eady on~thefOcus on impU.cit

and inform al norm s.1 5oneef the features thatset regime analysisasidefrom parts of the In. temadonalla.wor ot .ganiza .f iontbeory. . .Tbe,teodencyhas bem to move t c : rwarda. ROtiOl]. Q.fregimes that mOftcl.osdy



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a.djacen:~,or,ocrlapping reg im es affect theprocess, T hisapp,toach i5oR en takm desp i,tf! the, rna, that, . from,th e o utset,reg~mesc ho l.a rs h av eerop:basbed bow the n .a ru reQiagiven ,reg im e: isde:6ned by its embed-d ed De$$ln m o r'e g en et,a]inst it ll ,t i


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r:obustness and ,effectiveness of regim es, they m ostbe seen as reaso nablyd is ta nc ed , fro mparticu~aris,tic iateeests,

Configuradao,aDd :ProCfl5, iD ,R eg im e A naly sisWe have seen tharrhe rationalist core of regim e:,analysisis , i t n c r e a s i n l g l ybein,goomp~e:ment 'edby ,apprQachesthat in d iffe rentW~JS are alread y'c o m p l e . m . e n t ! i : n : gc'onnguradonalac-collllllts: o f .regjm.ef Q . r. m a r i Q n "mainten-ance"and effectiveness w ith. broader andmoeeeontext-sensitivemedels.T he: rum toprocess has infused.regimeanaly sisw i~ h greater causal

aw areness a nell,.3 . clearer' picture or.fthe oa.rr.ie,rst -o coope,! [a tiont!hat". , ., 'h .. " - ~..", L_b UIongmare mn ~ negonanonprccess m e dsa nn g b etw e enfEle,CO~tecUv,e:isim arian , or :problemstructure, and regime developm ents, Ithas alsoencoueaged .r~gime anaiysls, tuaddress! t al.thotlgD:sofarsome:whatunsyuemat icaHy, therelevance ofa . broader range ofca'USd,'meeha:nismsbeyond .r~ t1ona~ .max imiza tio .n.a tglveninte:restsw n . e nexplainingregime:d ev do pm ,en ts: atten tio nIS now m ere orien tedtoward p.rocessesi n v ' o h 1 ' ' '

ing leaming,obHgation,,and evendomestic realignment among c U J f e r e n t;g ro u.p s in terested ini :nrematilonalregimes.

L n m any insmnces;. scve:r.aJcausal mechanisms m ay be simulraneouslyor co.nsecoti,y,elya.two[k.lndeed~the effeetivene-sspr.incipl,e of in tema-Q .onallaw sugg:esrs iliat once co:m pU edwith by re le va nt s ub je cts/-fo rreasons 0 ,( either reward o r p un ishm .en t~ m eobUgadIl ;gfur,c~of a

. . nh ed s~ 1 "d .t.- 1: .. ~ '1 . reguneLS e~~_ ~~nc _ _ ,-lmtlar _ y"e V J' c ,e nc e S U8 !l J!:S tsm at . L o r;SOCla , [ .' e a , r n . L n gto take place as a consequence of a ..reg im e, t 'b ,e.te,gime needs:lobe inoper:ad.Qn.fora eertain pe'J!'iod of tim e sothata .a iv i ' t i e - swithin it canaccumulate. a cerndn traek record or :$0 tha~ domesticagenoeieshave-a,chanceto change their r o u c i o _ e sia respense tonew responsibihres thatem an ate .from .m eregime,

]:t is wOMb ,keep'ing .inmind also that csusel tn.ech3rds:msare qui{:egeneral in nature and jhat no one.. wa ystreet rIlIf1IS between jheieope:ra~i.o.mlndtheformanon O fe ffe ctiv e ne ss o f a , re gim e .In some cases,nc,w incel l!dve -sintrodu(iedJbya regime .m ay ~ mpede(am er thanpromote:theso.~ution of tbe problem.,F'o:rinstance, lithe regime lead s toincreasedatten tian to an issue area", som e actorsma:ybe (-empted.'to empih;asbetoesy m bo,U caspa:t oftheirpartic.ip.atioo more than they 'dldbe:fo,reand tofocus on the values isignaled bythtir positi.ons rather than 'On t h e :

Tclif hakk: a an male ya'


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p o l i , o c s :Md .noostaJte :actClrs a ffectin te rna tional deve lopmen ts ...A1 tboughw.ldd.y shared, thisric:w .is by no means sdE-evident .Tr,adid.onaUy:, thewider ,public has playcda far more modest role in foreign,than in .domestic affairs~:unfamiJiadtyi_s,pervasi.ve',t he leve l'o fane :o fionrn.ooer"ate" and the dq;r,:cco,fku:iusJ('Ul of'5:och:~algroupsin the dcv1C!,IQpmcntofpoticy usually lower. Because it deals w iththe ~ecud.tyof the state"fOeignaffai:rs continues to be seen as requiring a highly stable andconsistentpoUcy,whJdl .can be ensured onlyby o en tra U za do n~ th us th etendency to si,v,e the ~- !XeC '1 Itiiveb ranch of 'gevernment a . .rdativdy

privnes~dposi, t ionin the for-e ign pol icyaeea..However, one consequence'0,1g l!obaU zed m arkets and. m eansof ,c(lmmumcati,onh;.that:a.number,o fvociferous societal actors increa.sJnglysee dlem se~ ves as bav~ ng high

k . f . .. r . de ,. . . d ' h .. _ 1 ,- . .. ....nstaL_tSm _or:e l:Ppo~rcy_ecl slonsanJ~Lence~seCA,some m nuenee O V 'e!'m e m , .'This is true for both Interese grou.ps.andpromodoaal o.rgan1z.a .t ions , suchas those tb:attarget environm ental m anecst , di8at 'mament~and so on ..

Inp r.iinclp,l e" .r eg ime~th,cory has ;been cri ri,ca lo.f.stare centrism .rigbtfrom the outset:. In 1:9 75~ ,w ben discussing bow jnte .rdependence~is, re la tedto :insriw U o l1s,itug gie (564,576)emphasized its locus-that: is, bowdirtlyth.einterde.~ndences~tua.tion is link~d to the domestic ,poUcyp u r s u J I t ' S0 .1s t ca t e s : .He p o i n t e d .out that s u c c e s sof'faitUt,ein anem:ptstoestablish n~gimes often depends on ho,w existing, lnsdtudons at thedom estic level am'affedned.Despite :Ruggie?sas~:ct.io'n;s,this part; o .fthereseariihp~ . on in~ema:dQRal.regimes.f ,emaintdin$Iumbe.runtilthelate 19 80,5 (K eohane and N yc 19 ,87: 75 .3 ), and. is 'Y ~rto a.w akefuUy.O nereason .forthis: ]'],egleclt isp'!obablythe sequentialaesc'hetics that p . r e v a i l .in.regime'aual.ysis.. A:&eil"an" the deter.m:inatlon.to ask mere Umi: ledandpoint :edquesdcms, one a.l :9 . t ime, about h lt em a t lo n al . .in sd :t ud o ns il n.dbowrhe,y relate to QOOpfll;ia,ti.on was one 'o tthewa.ysrcgimechcQ1rists.disrin.gmshedmemselves,fmmrheirneonl .l lc ti .onaUst fore:nm ners .An-other reason. ism atthe primary pressure onregimean,alysi.shas com efrom. structural !,ealists, who genernJly tend to downplay domestic,p ro ce sse s" a rg uin g th a:tth cy,alCroenderedunimportantby tne ,anarchicalnatere ofmmnational re'la.nons.14 A] so " the:ratlooaHst:modelsoluenused.in . regimean.alyslstyp,icaIlyd ism iss p r-o ce sse s0 .1p refcnm c c fo.[ '.m a-tion. and!change,whether tbey occerar domesde o r s,y s1 te:mklevels,.



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56 Olav Schram .stok:ke:

O ne Importam~c n:aU .e ng e" tb en , is[0 com.b~Dethe Ins;l,ghtSand gener-aliaations based onthe slmpUfying 3:ssumption that states ar-e unitaryradonal actorswJth mO[if:sophls:dcaire;dmodels olfhow theexeernalbehavior of stares IsshaiPed,.~u In dfttt.,(Ms combination w O l d dmoveregime theory in rhe direction of fo reig n p ol~ cyanalysis, Two mainapproaches m aybe di.s,tiugulsnedin thls Hteraru[ lc} l ~ A 50d ,e fy"oenren :dtsecdonal"inten~'st,a.pproa.chfocuseson efforts of s~bnationa~ 3l::WrS [0~nHuerUJestate anitudcsto various regime options. Heil'e,.aa::e:ndonrestson ~oc:iet-alalignment p,3.tte:ms;,it is a feature oJ many cnntemporarg

po.~itiC:~!lI~S5Ue5ha:t t_hisk indof 3;!;ti.vitytakes place not only domesticallybut a lso transnetiona H y ."O&ef l~govemweni[ ' r sa re in te re ste d:ill.il:l.clucHngn onsta te acto rs in the po liricaJ p co cess in o rd er to chan aelrhelr exp ertiseinto t!he decls1on-mak1.n,gprocess o.r to reveal ina .m anageable w aytherelevant ,SOt;: ietalviews~especially chevi.cws: oftbose most st1'lo.nglyaffected by a o.f~ ignpo Uc:y decision",InSEf l ! lmel l ta . l1y"thisindus.fon m ayhelghren rhe decision m akers' sensitjv~tyD sodelal opposi:nion and

sU,ppor [. .M.o .reove,r,because such inclusion .m :a ybuild cemmirment ana~ o y a h:y,. it m a Y ' a ~ so fa ci~ ita .c s ub se qu en timple:ment,at.tom.3'~M ore gen-ler.aU y ~ th ,ere ~ s a p ro m isin gUnk to be ex.p~olt-edbetween ine stllldy ofregime effeetiveness andthenmge of theories on jmplemenranen in thedomestic domain. 38

,A ,s te te -cenrred , .lnsdmt i.o :l laJ l J sta:PPl'IoachFocuses on both.fo,r.ma:tand~ , n fQ . filJ la , 1 s p e c ts( lr fr h e s ta te a p r p a r r tli !. JS ,w b e , [ l i.aoru.ndngform ed o m e s e lc,odglnsof .fQ.reign.poHcy.Particular a tten t.ion :isglvent:o t-be ~ eveJ0 .,cenu3iHzadon, aetision-m.a,ldngrules, and precederes, as wen. as to thenOIW!iregalldingindus Ionof societalgrot1ps:~nch.eforml!ll:ation.o fforeignpo.ti ,cY' .These' featuresm ay 'va.ry overrlm e and lssueareas, and .there canbeinterestingiPter.aclionsbeltweendomesticand ineernati.onal levels,Insom.e cases, certain gtloups~such as seientisrs nr nongovemmentelorganizations, enihanc~ their domesric. imOuenceby virtue o .fexpertise andcontacts acqnired through pani.cipar]:onin mternarional deliberations.

'The converse m ayalsobe true': the fa.ct that a few k iey co untries:,. sucJtasthe: U n ited States an d A usttalia~ p erm ittedenvironmental organizations topa.rddpate in domestic preparations .formeetings, in the Antarctic TreatySy stem proved. instrum ental in theirsubsequenttocJusicmas:observersint he lnt ema t ionalcO,Ds:ul,tativeproces,s(S to ll ck ea nd V id as ]9 ,9 6b } ..



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S8 O lav Sc hram Stokke

serve to tbkke~ . the descrip'don :an .d render the em t'ijrka~account moteL J L t" '" .

peC$u :a : s .~v ' e .Final ly. ,. aJ thotl .gh,ep~su~miccommunity scholars them at1ze tbe ro le of

emerging knowledgeand inrersnbjective meanings,they proceed from.there in a manner Jargely in Iine with th e m a in stre ammeth.odo~ogkalre qu ie em e etsin th esu bfig ;1 d(Keobane!1988) by em phaslzjng~ alt least .~ npril]dp.~c,th.e need to . iden.t ifycnmmunity'members and bc~~e:fspdorto: investigan-in.g n-h.ejr ; Influ.enceOD outcomes (:P..Haas 1992b: 34).Thisempba!sisresonates well with a major finding of e.pis~emiccommunfty

scholars that such com m u

Global Governance- Drawing Insights From the Environmental Experience Yazar- Oran R. Young

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Transcript of Global Governance- Drawing Insights From the Environmental Experience Yazar- Oran R. Young