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Sustainable Transport:

A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Module 3d:

Preserving and

Expanding the Role

of Non-motorised

Transport

Deutsche Gesellschaft frTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH

Division 44

Environment and Infrastructure

Sector project: Transport Policy Advice


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OVERVIEW OF THE SOURCEBOOK

Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook forPolicy-Makers in Developing Cities

What is the Sourcebook?

This Sourcebookon Sustainable Urban Transportaddresses the key areas of a sustainable transportpolicy framework for a developing city. TheSourcebookconsists of 20 modules.

Who is it for?

The Sourcebookis intended for policy-makersin developing cities, and their advisors. Thistarget audience is reected in the content, whichprovides policy tools appropriate for applicationin a range of developing cities.

How is it supposed to be used?

The Sourcebookcan be used in a number ofways. It should be kept in one location, and thedifferent modules provided to ofcials involvedin urban transport. The Sourcebookcan be easilyadapted to t a formal short course trainingevent, or can serve as a guide for developing acurriculum or other training program in the areaof urban transport; avenues GTZ is pursuing.

What are some of the key features?

The key features of the Sourcebookinclude:< A practical orientation, focusing on best

practices in planning and regulation and,where possible, successful experience indeveloping cities.

< Contributors are leading experts in their elds.< An attractive and easy-to-read, colour layout.


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i

Module 3d:

Preserving andExpanding the Role

of Non-motorised

Transport

By Walter Hook

(Institute for Transportation and Development

Policy)

With additional input by Oscar Diaz, Institute forTransportation and Development Policy

Editor: Karl Fjellstrom

Manager: Manfred Breithaupt

GTZ Transport and Mobility Group, 2003

Findings, interpretations and conclusions

expressed in this document are based on

information gathered by GTZ and its consultants,

partners, and contributors from reliable sources.

GTZ does not, however, guarantee the accuracy

or completeness of information in this document,and cannot be held responsible for any errors,

omissions or losses which emerge from its use.

Cover photo: Bike lane in Bogot, Colombia, Feb.

2002. Photo by Karl Fjellstrom

About the author

Walter Hook received his PhD in Urban Planningfrom Columbia University in 1996. He has served

as the Executive Director of the Institute for

Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP)

since 1994. He has also served as adjunct faculty

at Columbia Universitys Graduate School of Urban

Planning. ITDP is a non-governmental organization

dedicated to encouraging and implementing

environmentally sustainable transportation policies

and projects in developing countries.


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ii

1. Benets of a greater role fornon-motorised transport 1

2. Regulation of non-

motorised transport 72.1 Regulation of the vehicles 7

2.2 Regulation of non-motorisedvehicle operators 7

2.3 Regulation of the design ofnew and existing roadwayfacilities and their impacts 8

2.4 Regulation of roadway use 10

2.4.1 Developed countries 10

2.4.2 Developing countries 11

2.5 Regulation of commercialnon-motorised vehicles 16

2.6 Regulations and thePlanning Process 17

2.7 Regulations on importingnon-motorised vehicles 17

3. Non-motorised transportplanning 18

3.1 Project Team and TaskForce formation 19

3.2 Selection of areato be improved 19

3.3 Inventory of existingregulations and conditions 20

3.3.1 A review of the laws, regulations,and design standards pertainingto non-motorised travel 20

3.3.2 A review of existing data 20

3.4 Collection of usefuladditional data 20

3.4.1 Division of the project areainto zones 21

3.4.2 Supplemental household surveys 21

3.4.3 Roadside surveys 21

3.4.4 Roadside counts 21

3.4.5 Origin and destination mapping 21

3.4.6 Actual route mapping 22

3.4.7 Mapping of existing NMT facilities andperceived quality of NMV travel 22

3.4.8 Mapping of existing NMV ows 22

3.4.9 Mapping of trafc accidents 23

3.4.10 Intersection conict diagrams 23

3.4.11 Additional pedestrian and saferoutes to schools mapping 23

3.4.12 Collection and review of all othertransport plans for the project

area for impacts on NMT 253.4.13 Identication of priority

improvement locations 25

3.5 Selection and design ofappropriate facilities foreach location 25

3.5.1 Bicycle and non-motorisedvehicle facilities 25

3.5.2 Pedestrian and trafccalming facilities 31

4. Advice on how to achieveimplementation 33

4.1 Political commitment 33

4.2 Cost, and time frame forimplementation 34

5. Resources and key contacts 34

5.1 Web-based resources 34

5.2 Other References 34


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Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

g. 35

Narrow, obstructedwalkway in Hyderabadorces pedestrians onto

he street, consuming aull lane of road space.alter Hook, ITDP

no sidewalks, and those that exist areheavily obstructed by telephone poles, trees,construction materials, trash, and open sewerand drainage ditches (see Figure 3).

2. Secondly, the trafc system has been designedto increase motor vehicle speeds, at theexpense of pedestrian and bicycle safety.Many Asian cities make minimal use of trafclights with zebra crossings and medians whichprovide a place for pedestrians to cross safely.As a result, the number of roadway fatalitiesper vehicle is many times higher than inEurope or the US.

3. Finally, pedestrian barricades and one waystreets have been used to facilitate long distance

motorised trips but which simultaneouslyimpose huge detours for short distance cyclingand pedestrian trips (see Figure 4). Peoplewishing to cross a main shopping street oftennd it easier to take a taxi two kilometresthan to walk across the street. In Surabaya,

PASAR

GENTENG TO

TOPS (3.36)

HOTEL

SHERATON -

TUNJUNGAN

PLAZA (9.6)

KED. RUKEM

AREA TO PASAR

BLAURAN (8)

Fig. 43

Detour factors in central Surabaya. Bicycliststravelling between these origins anddestinations have to travel from 3.3 to 9.6times further than a straight line distance,largely due to one-way systems. Such detourfactors can induce a switch to higher speed where the detour factor impact is less signicant

but more polluting modes.GTZ & ITDP 2000

a World Bank nanced study estimated thatthese measures generate an additional daily7000 kilometres of needless vehicle trafc.

Most people feel that culture and heat are

reasons for low levels of cycling in parts of thedeveloping world where cycling is no longerubiquitous. In terms of heat, average tem-peratures in Asia are not signicantly higherthan summer temperatures in Europe whencycling trips are at their peak. Streets need to bedesigned to provide shade and pavements thatdo not radiate heat. Cultural factors are clearlyinvolved, but cycling culture did not happenovernight anywhere. In Holland the cyclingculture has long historical roots, but the dra-matic increases in cycling in the last two decadesresulted from concerted government efforts.Use of the Mayors Ofce as a bully pulpit inBogot coupled with the construction of exten-sive cycling paths has resulted in an increase ofcycling from 0.5% of daily trips to 4% of dailytrips in only 3 years.

Improving the efciency of non-motorisedtravel is economically vital

Virtually every trip begins and ends with a walk-ing or cycling trip, whether between a parking

lot and an ofce building or a home and a busstation. Because walking trips and cycling tripsare very slow, inefciency in making these trips,forcing people to walk or bicycle a long wayout of their way, has very high economic costbecause of the slowness of travel by these modes.At three kilometres per hour, having to walk akilometre out of your way adds 20 minutes to atrip. In some countries it now takes as long forpeople to walk from their homes to the nearestbus stop as it takes to y from Sao Paulo to Rio

de Janeiro. Similarly, new studies of modernlogistics indicate that the cost of making the last


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3

Module 3d: Preserving and Expanding the Role of Non-motorised Transport

link in the supply chain namely from the storeto the consumer - costs as much as shippingproducts half way around the world. These stud-ies indicate that the efciency of short distance

travel is much neglected and of critical economicimportance.

Full pedestrianisation of downtown commercialareas has been observed in Chinese, Colombian,European, Brazilian, and other cities to dramati-cally increase the protability of shops in thearea, and led to an increase in land values (seeFigure 5).

Fig. 55

Nanjing Road, Shanghai was recentlypedestrianised and is one of the highest rentdistricts in China.Walter Hook, ITDP

Bicycling and walking provides importantaerobic exercise which is important tocombating high cholesterol, obesity, diabetes,and depression

Increasing evidence, according to the US Centrefor Disease Control, indicates that the global ep-idemic of obesity, high cholesterol, diabetes, anddepression are directly linked not only to diet

but also to the sharp decrease in average dailyaerobic exercise. Bicycling and walking can helpaddress these issues. Rather than driving twokilometres to use a stationary exercise bicycle inan expensive health club, for example, it wouldmake more sense to make it possible for peopleto simply walk or bike comfortably to work.

This phenomenon is also evident in developingcities, where poor conditions for pedestriansresult in motor vehicle use for even short trips.Health problems associated with lack of aerobic

exercise are not limited to rich cities.

Increasing the modal share of bicycling andwalking can reduce a countrys dependence onimported oil

Many developing countries are going deep intodebt to continue subsidising oil, which isoverwhelmingly used by higher income motor-ists. The Indonesian government up to 2001spent more than $4 billion annually to prop upthese unsustainable fuel subsidies. (These fuelsubsidies have been considerably reduced by thecurrent government since early 2002, through aseries of price rises.) The volatility of oil prices,and the risk of diminishing global reserves overthe next two decades, make a reduced relianceon oil critical to avoiding serious exogenouseconomic shocks to the national economy.

Promoting safe bicycling and walking arecrucial to improving the accessibility of thepoor, and social cohesion

In some developing country megacities, reach-ing centres of employment from low incomesettlements is an arduous journey consumingover one quarter of a familys disposable incomeand more than 4 hours each day. For trips lessthan 3 kilometres, the poor of Surabaya arealready more dependent on motor vehicles than

Germans, who have incomes 40 times higher.This is imposing an enormous, needless burdenon the poor, and inhibiting their ability to par-ticipate in the workforce, as well as gain accessto education and health care. Viable and safewalking and cycling are also crucially importantin allowing people to reach public transit facili-ties, but little attention is generally paid to theseaccess modes.

Investments in walking and cycling facilitiesare investments for the poor. This creates a new

society where people of all incomes can meet asequals on a bike path or a sidewalk. In the devel-oping world where income disparities are oftenvery high, this potential role of non-motorisedtransport is very important. In Bogot the safestplace in the city is the Ciclovia. On Sundays 120kilometres of main arteries are closed to trafcallowing about 2 million people to cycle, roller-blade or just jog and walk. It is a meeting placewere the highest income earners ride beside thelowest earners (see Figure 12).


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Benets of planning for cyclingContributed by Roelof Wittink, I-ce, and based on the chapter: Planning for

cycling support road safety, i n the book: Creating Sustainable Transport,

ed. Rodney Tolley, Woodhead Publishing Ltd. UK, 2003 (forthcoming)

Safety-related benets

Data from different countries shows that an

increase in cycling use and an increase in the

safety of cycling can go together very well. The

Dutch Bicycle Masterplan1 concludes that in

1998 the number of fatalities among cyclists was

54% lower than in 1980 in spite of the increase in

both car use and bicycle use. The increase of car

kilometres was about 50% and the increase of

cycling kilometres was about 30% over the same

period. In Germany the total number of cyclist

fatalities fell by 66% between 1975 and 1998

while the share of cycling in transport increased

substantially, from about 8% to 12% of all trips.2

In the city of York in the United Kingdom 15

cyclists were killed or seriously injured from 1996

1998 compared to 38 in 1991 1993, while

cycling levels rose from 15 to 18% of trips.3

The best explanation for these effects is the

integration of cycling and of walking in our

trafc and transport systems. A good mix of

motorised and non-motorised modes of transport

brings the trafc system onto a more human

scale. This required a change in the planning and

the design of the roads. The measures also have

a huge positive impact on the motorised modes.

This approach ts very well with the modern

road safety approaches that aim to minimise

the risk of serious accidents, such as the Dutch

concept of Sustainable Safe Trafc and the

Swedish zero road fatality vision concept. A

key element in these modern approaches is the

prevention of risk by giving due consideration to

the limited abilities of human beings, meaning

that conicts between road users with huge

differences in mass and speed should be made

technically impossible. The trafc environment

should enable all road users with their huge

differences in skills and experiences to behave

predictably and respectfully to each other.

The consequences for the road network are a

categorisation that accommodates the efcient

ow of all different modes to a certain extent

and protects our urban areas from domination

by motorised trafc. The vast majority of the

whole road network has a low speed limit and is

adapted to facilitate cycling and walking in a safe

way.

This policy provides the right conditions for

safe cycling. It may not be primarily the cycling

facilities to segregate cycling from other modes

on the road that will increase the safety of cycling,

but the integration of cycling in the overall design.

By catering for a safe mix of modes, cycling can

even become a catalyst for a very successful road

safety policy.

The Dutch Bicycle Master

an, description and

valuation in an historical

ontext, Min. of Transport,

999.

Pucher, J. (1997), Bicycle

oom in Germany: A Revival

ngineered by Public Policy

: Transportation Quarterly

1 (4) and Pucher J. (2001),

The role of public policies

promoting the safety,

onvenience & popularity of

cycling, in World Transport

olicy & Practice, Volume 7,

), 2001.

Harrison, J.: Planning

r more cycling: The York

xperience bucks the trend,

World Transport Policy &

ractice, Volume 7, (4), 2001.

23%

5% 9%-

50%

-

13%

-

-200-100

0100200300400500600700

illion US$

n 10 years

Costs

In

frastructure

Congestion

Pollution

Health

Roadsafety

Bicycletheft

Usercosts

Timesavings

Costs

Benefits

C / B = 1 : 7

g. 66

Costs and benets oficycle lanes in Bogot.he Economic Signicance of Cycling;

NG/I-ce; The Hague/Utrecht; 2000

Fig. 74

A narrow street shared by cars and cyclists anda bicycle lane allowing bi-directional road useonly for cyclists in Florence, Italy.Roelof Wittink, I-ce

Fig. 84

mini roundabouts lower speed and facilitatesafe integration between cars and cyclists

(Utrecht, The Netherlands).Roelof Wittink, I-ce


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Economic benets of planning for cycling

I-ce calculated the economic value of planning

bicycle facilities in four cities, one of which was

Bogot.

The costs of building bicycle tracks, their

maintenance as well as promotion and education

campaigns were calculated to be US$186 million

over a period of 10 years. The construction costs

of one kilometre of high quality bicycle track were

about US$200,000.

Cost savings from reduced infrastructure needs,

reduced congestion and reduced pollution due to

the replacement of car kilometres over 10 years

amount in total to US$493 million, of which more

than 50% results from saved parking spaces.

Road safety is expected to be improved by

50%, based on experiences abroad. This results

in savings with an economic value of US$643

million.

Savings in running costs for road users by not

using a car or a bus amount to US$167 million.

The overall result is that the benets have an

economic value of US$1302 million over 10 years,

compared to US$178 million costs. The benets

are 7.3 times higher than the costs.For further information visit: www.cycling.nl;

The Economic Signicance of Cycling; VNG/I-ce;

The Hague/Utrecht; 2000.

Fig. 114

Segregated bicycle tracks in Bogot, Colombia.Roelof Wittink, I-ce

Fig. 104

An advanced stop line for cyclists makes themmore visible and provides them with right ofway (Utrecht, The Netherlands).Roelof Wittink, I-ce

Fig. 94

Separate bus and bicycle lanes through anintersection in Utrecht, The Netherlands.Roelof Wittink, I-ce


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Promoting safe bicycling and walking is vital toreducing over 500,000 premature deaths fromtrafc accidents each year

There are an estimated 1.1 million trafcdeaths globally each year, and among youngpeople in developing countries trafc accidentsare the second leading cause of death accord-ing to the World Health Organisation. In

developing countries, the vast majority of thevictims of trafc accidents are pedestrians andcyclists, though with increasing motorcycle use,motorcyclists are fast becoming the majorityof highway fatalities in higher income Asiancountries. Having a father or mother killed ordisabled in a motor vehicle accident, horrible initself, will almost certainly throw a lower middleclass family into destitution.

Bogot had in 1997 a trafc death rate of 2 to 3people every day, which is one of the highest in

Latin America. Even though it is still very highit has dropped to 1 to 2, due largely to dramaticimprovements in cycling and walking facilities.

Fig. 125

Ciclovia: Car-free Sunday in Bogot.Institute for Sports and Recreation, City of Bogot

Non motorised goods transportSource: Niklas Sieber, GTZ

In urban areas non-motorised vehicles (NMVs) are

not only relevant for the movement of people, but

also for the transport of goods. In many Africantowns handcarts are used to transport goods to

and from markets. This can be done either by the

seller or by a small scale entrepreneur as a service

provision for the customer. In Asia, rickshaws

designed for passenger transport are often used

to transport goods in towns (as for example in the

picture below).

A special form of rickshaw is used in

Bangladesh, the bicycle van, which has basically

the same design as a rickshaw, only the back

(load area) is designed to carry goods. Usingthis vehicle, a human is able to transport up to

one metric ton on a at terrain without the aid

of an engine. Most bulky goods are transported

by rickshaw vans; not only goods to and from

markets, but also raw materials and products of

small-scale industries. The abundance of rickshaw

vans in Bangladesh towns shows the economic

importance of this mode for the local economy.

Non motorised goods transport is often

important for intermodal goods transport. Farmers

often carry their produce with buses to the market

town and than load them onto NMVs. Bottlenecks

occur when loading facilities are non-existent or

inadequate and unloading on the road causes trafc

jams around bus stops. Additionally, often little or

no space is provided for NMVs around markets.

These types of non motorised transport

services are in most cases offered by small scale

entrepreneurs, which underlines the economic

viability of these NMVs. They are not only essential

for urban goods transport, but are also important

for the urban economy, because they give

employment to many drivers and entrepreneurs.

As a matter of course, these types of jobs are

mostly taken by poorer citizens.

Niklas Sieber


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2. Regulation of non-motorisedtransport

Non-motorised vehicles (NMVs) are regulated

in a manner similar to motorised vehicles. Theyface regulation of the:1. Vehicles2. Operators3. Design of new and existing roadway facilities4. Use of existing facilities5. Use of commercial vehicles under commercial

codes6. Planning and decision-making process7. Import and export of non-motorised vehicles.

2.1 REGULATION OF THE VEHICLESIt is instructive to compare the regulatory frame-works for non-motorised vehicles and motorisedvehicles. For motor vehicles, governmentsregulate the types of vehicles that are allowed tooperate. The vehicles, parts, and componentsare all generally registered by the InternationalStandards Organisation (ISO) and new cars gen-erally are subject to type approval standards tocertify their quality, safety, and emissions. Motorvehicles are also generally registered with the

police or motor vehicles department in case theyare involved in criminal activity or are stolen vehi-cles. In developed countries and more and moredeveloping countries motor vehicles are alsosubjected to inspection to ensure compliance withtailpipe emission standards and roadworthi-ness. For commercial vehicles, such as taxis andtrucks, they are also likely to need a license orplate/sticker in order to operate as a commercialvehicle, and pay some sort of taxes or fees.

As bicycles, cycle rickshaws, and other NMVs

generate no pollution, and operate at slowspeeds, very few countries require these vehiclesto be inspected for roadworthiness or emissions.Some countries insist that bicycles be manufac-tured up to a certain ISO quality standard, butbecause of the complexity of the number of newmanufacturers and new components, the proc-ess of approval by the International StandardsOrganisation is cumbersome and slow, and thecost high relative to the cost of the product. Assuch, the trend in the industry is to approve the

quality control of a manufacturer rather than ofa specic product.

In many developed and some developingcountries, it is illegal to sell non-motorisedvehicles without reectors in the front andrear, as well as to operate the bike without the

reectors and front and rear lights if operated atnight. Enforcement is generally lax. Some lawsspecify the use of reectors of a specic qualitystandard. Some safety experts have suggestedthat requiring the bicycles and cycle rickshaws tobe painted yellow might also solve the visibilityproblem, but the proposal seems to run againstthe strong desire to personalise the vehicle.

Finally, in some countries owners register theirbicycles or other vehicles with the police. Insome cases this is mandatory (as in Chinese

cities) but in most it is voluntary and usedprimarily as a mechanism to facilitate recoveryin case of a theft. Outside of China, bicycle reg-istration as an anti-theft measure has not provento be very successful. In Bogot people canvoluntarily register their bike with the police.

2.2 REGULATION OF NON-MOTORISED VEHICLE OPERATORS

To operate a motor vehicle generally requireshaving a drivers license. This is because op-

erating a motor vehicle is a skill that requirestraining, and untrained drivers are a risk tothemselves and others. The relative simplicityof operating a bicycle or other non-motorisedvehicle has made operating licenses unnecessarythe world over for non-commercial uses.

In some US states and municipalities the use ofa bicycle helmet that is in conformity with a par-ticular safety and quality standard is required bylocal law. In most developing countries helmetuse is less regulated on bicyclists and even rareon motorcycles. In Bogot, the use of helmetsfor motorcycles and bicycles is now mandatory,but in the case of bicycles it is not enforced.

Many bicycling advocates oppose mandatoryhelmet laws as paternalistic (the only person af-fected is the operator himself and thus it shouldbe their decision) and argue that they limit theuse of bicycles. Most agree that the use of hel-mets should be encouraged, despite ambiguityin the data regarding their effectiveness.


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2.3 REGULATION OF THE DESIGN OFNEW AND EXISTING ROADWAYFACILITIES AND THEIR IMPACTS

In most countries, developed and developing,

the law tends to authorise certain branches ofgovernment (or in a few cases professional as-sociations of civil engineers) to develop designstandards for new highways and for the congu-ration and signage on existing roadways.

One that has had a signicant impact is theUS American Association of State Highwayand Transportation Ofcials Green Book, orthe Policy on Geometric Design of Highways andStreets. This book sets parameters for geometricdesign of highway and roadway facilities. In

the US, all roads that are dened as part of theNational Highway System (NHS) and henceeligible for Federal funding must fall withinthese design standards. Most US states have alsopassed laws authorising the State Departmentsof Transportation (DOTs) to set up designstandards, and these standards are generallybased largely on the Green Book.

Transport master plans

While transportation master plans are not

heavily used in the US, in many European anddeveloping countries master plans are widelyused. These plans sometimes have status as lawpassed by national and local governments, andany new developments have to be in compliancewith these plans that are modied regularly.Sometimes the new master plan will stipulatedesign standards. In the Netherlands a BicycleMaster Plan was passed which made the promo-tion of bicycle use a clear policy of the DutchMinistry of Transport. Many cities then devel-oped specic bicycle master plans. One of therst and most famous was developed by the Cityof Delft.

Bogots 10-year Master Plan for the rst timestipulates as a matter of policy that prioritybe given to the pedestrian, and indicates theprojects that will be built in the city in theshort, mid and long term. This is further speci-ed in transportation master plans. The 2000Transportation Master Plan stipulates that allnew highways and road facilities include grade-

separated bicycle paths and sidewalks of specicdimensions. The design specications are based

on the Taller del Espacio Pblico, a manual inwhich the design for bike paths and public spaceis established.

Design standards

In developing countries, design standards havehistorically been based on standards from de-veloped countries, modied somewhat to meetlocal conditions. The prevalence of the GreenBookin setting roadway design standards hashistorically been problematic. It was developedoriginally with very little acknowledgementof the existence of non-motorised travel. Assuch, earlier versions of these standards, whichhave been around since the 1930s, propagatedinfrastructure designs that were neither safe nor

convenient for non-motorised travel. It wasthe proliferation of these NMV-hostile designswhich, much more than regulations restrictingaccess, led to a decline in non-motorised travel.Today, less than 1% of daily trips are made bynon-motorised vehicles in the US.

The adoption of similar designs and designstandards in developing cities, like in India andChina, where sometimes 70% of the trafc onurban roads is non-motorised, is resulting ina similar decline in non-motorised travel and

dramatic increases in accidents involving pedes-trians, cyclists and other vulnerable road users.

In recent years, in developed countries thesedesign standards are increasingly trying to en-sure that new road designs are safe and efcientfor non-motorised vehicle use, and to retrotexisting roadways to facilitate safe and efcientnon-motorised vehicle use.

For bicycle design standards, the Green Bookrefers to a new 1999 publication, Guide for the

Development of Bicycle Facilities. Most StateDOTs have adopted this guide as the basis forbicycle facility design standards. It is avail-able at www.aashto.org. These standards aresomething of a compromise between the wishesof the bicycle advocacy community and whatwill be tolerated by the highway engineeringcommunity. Another commonly used manual isthe Dutch Sign up for the Bike: Design Manual

for a Cycle-Friendly Infrastructure, publishedby the Centre for Research and Contract

Standardisation in Civil and Trafc Engineering- The Netherlands.


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The Green Bookitself provides limited designguidance for pedestrians. It stipulates onlythat pedestrian facilities (sidewalks and cross-walks) should be sufciently wide to handle

the volume of pedestrian trafc safely, andrecommends the use of refuge islands, streetlighting, and multiple visible pedestrian cross-ing signs at intersections. The US FederalHighway Administration and AASHTO(American Association of State Highway andTransportation Ofcials) have developed designmanuals for trafc calming and other pedestrianfacilities. Trafc Calming: State of the Art Practiceby the Institute for Transport Engineers andthe FHWA is mainly used in the US. Theseguidelines have been translated into state level

guidelines in many states. In Germany, England,and other European countries similar guidelinesexist.

Similarly, in the US, there is aManual onUniform Trafc Control Devices. The design ofthe devices themselves (such as road signs, trafclights, crosswalks, etc.) must conform to thismanual. It does not, however, require that thesedevices be installed. The use and installation ofthese devices is at the discretion of the agencyunder whose jurisdiction the road falls.

All these regulations and guidelines set fairlywide parameters within which local govern-ments and engineers have the freedom todetermine under what conditions to use theseguidelines. The guidelines do not stipulate thatthere must be a trafc light at every intersectionfor example, nor do they stipulate that thereshould be bike lanes on roads with speeds overa certain level. Such decisions are all left to localgovernment departments to determine at the

local level based on local conditions.Design standards for operating speeds

Most design standards are developed for specicoperating speeds. By setting speed limits onspecic routes, then, governments are simultane-ously dictating the appropriate design standard.Because these design standards were developedto ensure the safe operation of a motor vehicleat a given speed, but do not necessarily ensurea safe environment for pedestrians and NMVs,the standards themselves played a role in worsen-

ing safety conditions for vulnerable road users.

For example, in New York City, the State ofNew York set the state minimum speed limitat 30 miles per hour (50 kilometres per hour).New York City roads had to be designed to al-

low motor vehicles to travel safely at that speed.This made a large number of trafc calmingmeasures illegal until the Slow Speed Bill nallyrepealed the residential minimum speed limits,and allowed the City to selectively reduce mini-mum speed limits. It is certain that many of theover 350 annual pedestrian deaths in New YorkCity could have been avoided by design stand-ards which took vulnerable road user safety intoaccount as well as vehicle operator safety.

Simply designing all roads for highspeed motor vehicle use will destroythe commercial, recreational, andresidential character of entiresections of the city

Design standards and the road hierarchy

In many developing countries the road hierarchyhas never been dened, speed limits are unclear,and engineers are not sure which design stand-ard to use for a given roadway. In Surabaya,Indonesia, for example, in theory a road clas-sication system and road hierarchy has beendened, with allowable speed limits associatedwith the road classication, but no trafc policewere aware of legal speed limits, nor were anyspeed limit signs posted anywhere in the city.Design standards are meaningless unless they areassociated with a clear functional road hierarchyand corresponding speed limits.

In China there is currently a national effort to

increase motor vehicle trafc speeds on all urbanroads through roadway design changes, eventhough on some roads it might actually be moreappropriate to alter design standards to slow mo-tor vehicle speeds. Similarly, in Indonesia, mostcity trafc improvement plans aim to increasevehicle speeds, rather than increasing vehiclespeeds on long distance corridors and reducethem on residential and commercial corridors.

This problem is also embedded into the costbenet analysis process. The cost benet analysis

done for the Surabaya Integrated TransportNetwork Project, which was funded by the


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World Bank, calculated economic benets basedsolely on increased vehicle speeds even on roadswhere speed limits had not been dened in rela-tion to appropriate speed limits given the roads

function.Settling the conicting design needs of safetyand convenience for non-motorised trafc andthe safety and convenience of motorised trafccan best be settled through a careful denitionof a functional road hierarchy, establishing ap-propriate speed limits, and designing roads ina manner appropriate to the roads use. Simplydesigning all roads for high speed motor vehicleuse will destroy the commercial, recreational, andresidential character of entire sections of the city.

2.4 REGULATION OF ROADWAY USE

2.4.1 Developed countries

Vehicle use of roadways are also regulatedthrough trafc codes. In most countries, bicyclesand cycle rickshaws are dened as vehiclesunder the trafc codes, and have all the samerights to use roadways as any other vehicle un-less the trafc code specically says otherwise.Usually there are special provisions in trafc

codes pertaining to non-motorised vehicles andpedestrians.

Some cycling advocates argue that from thepoint of view of the trafc codes there shouldbe no other special regulations pertaining tonon-motorised vehicles, and any form of specialtreatment is inherently discriminatory. Certainly,any special treatment of non-motorised vehiclesin the trafc code should be justied on thebasis of the special operating characteristics ofthese vehicles, and all other vehicles with similar

operating characteristics should face similartreatment under the trafc code.

City governments or higher levels of govern-ment might restrict the use of non-motorisedvehicles on certain roads or types of roads toincrease motor vehicle speeds and to reduce therisk of serious collisions with pedestrians andcyclists. Ultimately, the criteria for whether ornot non-motorised trafc should be allowed ona particular road should be based on:< whether the facility can accommodate and

has been designed to accommodate both

motorised and non-motorised travel safelyand efciently

< whether a convenient alternative non-motorised route exists, and

100

2.40*

3.00

4.00

0 - 75

75 - 375

>375

minimum of 10% moped-riders or

three wheelers

1.50***

2.50***

3.50

0 - 50

50 - 150

> 150

1.50*

2.50

3.50

0 - 150

150 - 750

> 750

effective width of

cycle-track (m)

peak-hour volume

in two directions

effective width of

cycle-trck (m)

peak-hour volume

in one direction

maximum of 10% moped-riders

Two-way traffic**One-way traffic

g. 224

Preferred effectiveavement widths forycle tracks with variousicycle trafc.ROW Manual 1993

g. 234

The new West Side bikeane, in New York, andbike lane in Frankfurt,

Germany.

ransportation Alternatives (left); Karlellstrom (right)


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Fig. 245

Roundabout with cycle lane or recommendedlane and physical separation (hedgehogs) on theroundabout and the connecting roads.CROW Manual 1993

Fig. 255

Roundabout with separate-lying cycle track andcyclists having right of way.CROW Manual 1993

The disadvantagesinclude:< If they are too narrow, a single three wheeler

can obstruct the lane< If the lane is obstructed, it is very

inconvenient to go around the obstruction.< They are more prone to lling with debris,vendors, snow, etc.

< They must be placed on the curb-side of anyparking vehicles, or in the median strip.

< They can make truck deliveries to store-frontsless convenient.

< Facilities placed in the median strip causespecial problems at intersections.

The dimensions for the facility will be roughlythe same as for other bike lanes, with theexception that dimensions for two directionalfacilities can be suggested. The minimum widthfor a two-directional NMV lane with any threewheeler trafc should be 2.4 metres, with 4metres recommended where feasible.

3.5.1.2 Intersection design

In developed countries, most accidents occur atintersections. In developing countries there arealso a signicant number of accidents betweenintersections, mainly caused by crossings of longarterials.

There are two basic theories about how to integratenon-motorised vehicles into intersections. Oneis to pull them out of the intersection, and theother is to have them pulled into the intersec-tion and clear the intersection rst.< Figure 24 illustrates integrating bicycles into

roundabouts.< Figure 25 illustrates separating bicycles out of

roundabouts.< Figure 26 illustrates pulling NMVs out of

standard intersections.< Figures 27 and 28 illustrate pulling NMVs

into the intersection and getting them to clearthe intersection rst.

In China and Bogot, there are actually somemajor highway interchanges where bicyclistshave their own fully grade separated routethrough the interchange, where motorists passboth above and below the bicycle paths (seeFigure 29).


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Fig. 285

Expanded bicycle streaming lanes.CROW Manual 1993

A = Standard model

B = Right-turning model

C = Left-turning modelD = Left-turning model w/o a separate green phase

Fig. 263

A Bogot intersection design (bicycles arepulled out of the intersection).Bike Paths Master Plan, Institute of Urban Development, City of Bogot

Fig. 275

A Bogot intersection design (bicycles arepulled into the intersection, to clear it rst).Bike Paths Master Plan, Institute of Urban Development, City of Bogot


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Fig. 295

A grade-separatedbicycle intersection inBogot.Bike Paths Master Plan, Institute of

Urban Development, City of Bogot

3.5.2 Pedestrian and trafc calmingfacilities

The British publication, Trafc Calming inPractice: An Authoritative Sourcebook with Eighty-Five Illustrated Case Studies(London Publishing)

is a good resource for various pedestrianimprovements. The number of basic options isfairly limited. The basic principles to protectpedestrians are:a. Slow down trafc speeds through both speed

restrictions and physical infrastructurechanges:

< neck-downs at intersections< restructuring roads to meander around trees

and planters and medians forcing them to goslow (see Figure 30)

< sleeping policemen and raised zebra crossings(see Figure 31)

< changing from smooth to rough road surfacesor using rumble strips.

b. Reduce the distance pedestrian needs tocross at any one time at uncontrolledintersections:

< Trafc islands (see Figure 32)There is a question about whether it isfeasible to put trafc islands in the middle ofa multi-lane one-way street. There are a fewexamples (including in Curitiba, Brazil), but

they are rare. This is a major concern in many

Indonesian cities which have very wide one-way streets with long distances between trafclights or intersections


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Fig. 304

Restructuring roads to

meander, and makevehicles go slower.Photos from Germany.Bike Paths Master Plan, Consorcio

Projekta Ltda-Interdisenos Ltda.,

nstitute of Urban Development, City

f Bogot

Fig. 3246Trafc islands to assistpedestrians and cyclists.Clockwise from topleft, Marakina, Manila(under construction);Brisbane; Yokohama;and Bangkok.Karl Fjellstrom, 2002

Fig. 314

Speed humps

(Butingford, UnitedKingdom) and raisedzebra crossings (USA).Bike Paths Master Plan, Consorcio

Projekta Ltda-Interdisenos Ltda.,

nstitute of Urban Development,

City of Bogot (left); Pedestrian and

Bicycle Information Centre, US DOT,

www.walkinginfo.org (right)


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c. Reduce the amount of overall motor vehicletrafc on routes heavily used by non-motorised modes.

This would include the entire array of trafc de-

mand management measures. Some of the moreinteresting ones include trafc cells (reroutingthrough trafc out of neighbourhoods), parkingrestrictions, congestion or cordon pricing, re-ducing lane widths, closing streets to trafc andother measures.

d. Send signals to drivers that they areoperating on areas intended for pedestrians

Elevating pedestrian ways at intersections ratherthan having pedestrians descent to the roadwaysends a signal to drivers they are on space

designed for pedestrians. This can also be donewith paint, design features, and markings.

e. Physically protect pedestrian facilities fromincursions by motor vehicles

Placing bollards to protect curbs at intersectionsprevents trucks and motorists from jumpingcurbs and hurting pedestrians. Bollards also areused to prevent motorists from parking acrosssidewalks.

f. Trafc crossing signals

In developing countries, it is quite common tohave very large unsignalised intersections. Theselarge unsignalised intersections are extremelydangerous for pedestrians and NMVs. Othertrafc calming measures are more importantwhen there is no trafc signal. Where signalsdo exist, not allowing right turn on red signalscan help pedestrians cross safely. An increasingnumber of municipalities are using a phase inthe trafc signal sequence only for pedestriansand cyclists to cross, allowing pedestrians andcyclists to clear the intersection before the turn-

ing motor vehicle trafc. In the Netherlands, thereare entirely separate trafc signals for bicyclists,motorists, pedestrians, and trams. While thisallows tram and bicycle prioritisation, it is alsovisually confusing to some people.

4. Advice on how to achieveimplementation

4.1 POLITICAL COMMITMENT

Politically, it is often easier to implement anextremely expensive metro or highway projectthan even the simple improvement of a side-walk. This is because any large constructionproject has large interests which stand to makea lot of money if the project is implemented,and therefore are willing to push govern-ment ofcials on a regular basis to ensure it isimplemented. Politicians also stand to gain bybeing identied with the completion of publicworks. Even though basic improvements like the

construction of sidewalks may do more to allevi-ate trafc congestion and road accidents thanother projects costing hundreds of times more,the very low cost nature of these improvementsmakes it difcult to nd a political constituencyto ensure their implementation.

Historically, these sorts of projects have comeabout because someone with political power,money, and perseverance made them happen.The most recent large-scale non-motorisedtransport improvement was done in the city

of Bogot. In Bogot, improving the citystransportation system in this way was a majorcampaign promise of Mayor Enrique Penalosawho was personally convinced of the importanceof such measures. In the city of Bogot, theMayor also has enormous power, unlike in someother cities where the mayor is less powerful.Support for the NMT improvements from theNGO community existed, but it was clearlythe Mayors ofce which pushed it forward.Similarly, the pedestrianisation of downtown

Curitiba, Brazil, was also pushed through by anenlightened Mayor (see Module 1: The Role ofTransport in Urban Development Policy). The pri-oritisation of bicycle use in China was a decisionby the highest levels of the national governmentand party, just as today the restrictions againstbike use are being pushed through national levelpolitical pressure.

In other locations, pressure from bicyclists,NGOs, and international funding agencies hasproven critical. The bike facilities in most large

US cities, in Western Europe, in Central Europe


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(Krakow, Budapest, etc), in Bangkok, and thedramatic improvement in pedestrian facilities inSeoul clearly resulted from pressure applied togovernments by NGOs and cycling federations.

In Accra and Tamale (Ghana), in Tanzania, inMarakina, Manila (Philippines), Lima (Peru),Gdansk (Poland), Yogyakarta (Indonesia), andSantiago de Chile, new bike and other NMV fa-cilities were given a strong push by internationalorganisations such as the World Bank or UNDP,and often more specically committed individu-als within these institutions.

Other factors critical to ensuring implementa-tion are good public education efforts throughthe media. If the Mayor fully supports the

plans, he can use his access to media to pushthem forward. NGOs can also make clever useof the media to win popular support for NMTimprovements.

Involving all the relevant stakeholders both in-side and outside the government in the planningprocess from the outset, and letting them takeownership of the plans, is also likely to reducesignicant obstacles to implementation.

4.2 COST, AND TIME FRAME FOR

IMPLEMENTATION

While it can cost tens of millions of dollars toproperly reconstruct a single major public transithub or intersection to ensure safe non-motorisedtravel integration, many measures to improveconditions for non-motorised transport canbe done for the cost of basic roadway paint.Construction costs vary from country to coun-try. Most measures can also be implementedrapidly, in less than a year. Physical constructionfor pilot projects will take weeks rather thanmonths.

Developing cities should start by forming anon-motorised transport task force, which caninitiate a planning process. This task force canthen begin to develop and implement measures,beginning with isolated improvements, and in arelatively short period laying the foundation fora city-wide network of non-motorised transportroutes.

5. Resources and key contacts

5.1 WEB-BASED RESOURCES


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Deutsche Gesellschaft frTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH

Dag-Hammarskjold-Weg 1-5Postfach 51 8065726 EschbornTelefon (0 61 96) 79-1357Telefax (0 61 96) 79-7194Internet: www.gtz.de

Sourcebookenquiries:[email protected]@sutp.orgwww.sutp-asia.org

On behalf of:

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