Various Models of Indigenous Language Education Programs:

Some Comparisons

George Ann Gregory, Ph.D.

University of Maryland University College

georgeann.gregory@faculty.umuc.edu

Or

linguisticdoc@drgrammarguru.com

Fishman’s ScaleStages of Reversing Language Shift:

Severity of Intergenerational Dislocation

1. Nationwide levels in government, education, work, media

2 .Local government and media

3.Non-neighborhood work used by minority and majority

4. a. public schools offering instruction in minority lg

b.minority lg medium schools under control of minority

RLS to transcend diglossia

5. Schools for literary acquisition in minority lg

6. Intergenerational transmission—family & community

7. Cultural interaction in minority lg

8. Reconstructing minority lg & adult acquisition of minority lg as SL

RLS to attain diglossia

Case of Māori

New Zealand government supports all schools—public, private, religious.Māori have the widest variety of models.

Māori in New Zealand

There are about 94 iwi or Māori tribes in New Zealand. The population of NZ is 4.4 million. 14.1% are Māori, and 21.31% speak Māori.

Kōhunga Reo

Language

and culture

immersion

Early childhood

school experiences

Kura Kaupapa Māori

Immersion primary through high school

Te Wānanga o Raukawa

Immersion higher education Bacherlor’s through Ph.D.

Language Rights & Other Options

Te reo Māori is an official language.

Bilingual Schools

National Standardized tests can be taken in Te Reo Māori

Can do all papers at tertiary level(final course work) in Te Reo Māori

Can request classes in Te Reo Māori in primary and secondary schools (1.5 hours instruction/week)

Courses, majors, and schools of Te Reo Māori at universities and technical schools

Case of Secwepemctsínthe Canadian Model

There are 600 recognized First Nations in Canada.

Adams Lake Band

There are 17 bands and about 6500 Secwepemc.

Chief Atham—a Secwepemctsín language

immersion school

Adams Lake Band has 700 members.

Pre-school through ninth grade

Instruction in English and via English begins at 4th grade while instruction continues in Secwepemctsín.

Partnership between Secwepemc Cultural Center and Thompson

Rivers University

Language Rights & Other Options

English and French are the two official languages.

Section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the right of citizens who were educated in the minority language in a particular province to have their children educated in the minority language in publicly funded schools. • Acquisition of the written language is significantly

more effective when pupils already know the language.

There are Secwepemctsin language courses available at local provincial schools and at other schools on reserves.

Case of Irish

Ireland declared itself independent of the United Kingdom and Ireland in 1919.

Gaeltacht

The population of Ireland is 4,658,825. 11% speak Irish, and 1 in 3 can understand Irish.

Gaeltacht school

There are Irish medium schools in the Gaeltacht.

Irish is a required subject.

Gaelchutúr

There is a growing number of programs for adults to learn Irish Gaelic, including among Irish descendants living in other countries.

Language Rights Irish is the official language of Ireland.

Children whose first language is Irish are entitled to instruction via Irish.

Irish is a required subject in all Irish schools. However, students no longer have to pass exams in Irish, and civil servants are no longer required to have proficiency in Irish.

Case of Scottish Gaelic/UK

.

The 2014 Referendum for Independence was55% to remain with theUK and 45% for Independence.The Scottish National Partynow representsScotland in theUK Parliament.Scotland expectsto have more sayas a result.The ScottishParliament wasestablished in 1998.

Regions of Scotland

The population of Scotland is 5,254,800. About 1.7 % speak Scottish Gaelic.

Scottish Gaelic Schools

There are 38 Gaelic medium schools with 14 going beyond primary. This one isin Edinburgh.

Sabal Mór Ostaig 

Sabal Mór OstaigUniversity of the

Highlands

Founded in 1973 on the Isle of Skye, it is the only Scottish medium university.

Language Rights & Other Options

Children living in Scottish Gaelic areas are entitled to instruction via Scottish Gaelic.

Gaelic has been declared one of the defining languages of the UK.

Scottish Parliament endorses the principles of promoting Scottish Gaelic in Scotland.

Total Immersion Plus provide services to adults, especially parents, who want to become fluent speakers and use Gaelic in the home and community.

Case of Breton/France

France has actively tried to stamp out all its minority languages.

4 dialects of Breton

The population of France is 64.3 million. There are about 400,000 speakers of Breton with only about 15,000 children speaking the language.

Breton Diwan Schools

Diwan schools receive governmental financial support for teachers only. There are also Catholic bilingual schools.

University

The University of Rennes is the only university that has a major in Breton. There is no bilingual endorsement for Breton.

Language Rights It is unconstitutional in France to provide education

in any language other than French.

The Deixonnne Law (1951) allows 1 to 3 hours of instruction in Breton language and culture if the teacher is willing.

In 1994, the Diwan schools were recognized as private schools and the ministry of education provides teacher salaries.

Some qualifying exams can now be taken in the Breton language.

Reversing Language Shift

MāoriLoss Levels of RLS Gain

  1. Higher Ed, work sphere, mass media, gov., official lg

Yes/official lg/TV, Radio, advanced degrees

  2. local/regional media & gov service

Yes

  3. non-neighborhood work sphere Sometimes

  4.a. public schools offering instruction in minority lg

4.b. minority medium schools

Yes

  5. Literacy acquisition  

Yes 6. family, community, intergenerational

transmission

 

  7. Cultural interaction in minority language

Yes

  8. Reconstructing minority language/adult acquisition

Yes 

The percentage of Māori speakers has dropped from 25.15% in 2001 to 21.1% in 2013.

SecwepemctsínLoss Level of RLS Gain

  1. Higher Ed, work sphere, mass media, gov., official lg

 

  2. local/regional media & gov service

Yes

  3. non-neighborhood work sphere  

  4.a. public schools offering instruction in minority lg

4.b. minority medium schools

Yes/4 b

  5. Literacy acquisition  

Yes 6. family, community, intergenerational transmission

 

  7. Cultural interaction in minority language

Yes

  8. Reconstructing minority language/adult acquisition

Yes 

There are 675 speakers.

IrishLoss Level of RLS Gain

  1. Higher Ed, work sphere, mass media, gov., official lg

Yes/official lg/TV  

  2. local/regional media & gov service

 

  3. non-neighborhood work sphere  

  4.a. public schools offering instruction in minority lg

4.b. minority medium schools

Yes

  5. Literacy acquisition  

Yes 6. family, community, intergenerational

transmission

 

  7. Cultural interaction in minority language

Yes

  8. Reconstructing minority language/adult acquisition

Yes 

The home/community language usage is 1% of the population. The prediction is that Irish will cease to exist as a home/community language within one generation.

Scottish GaelicLoss Level of RLS Gain

  1. Higher Ed, work sphere, mass media, gov., official lg

Yes/TV station 

  2. local/regional media & gov service

Yes/signs

  3. non-neighborhood work sphere  

  4.a. public schools offering instruction in minority lg

4.b. minority medium schools

Yes/4 b

  5. Literacy acquisition  

Yes 6. family, community, intergenerational transmission

slight 

  7. Cultural interaction in minority language

Yes

  8. Reconstructing minority language/adult acquisition

Yes 

In 1991, 1.34% were speakers. This number fell by 11% in the 2001 census.The most current estimate is 1.7%.

BretonLoss Level of RLS Gain

  1. Higher Ed, work sphere, mass media, gov., official lg

 

  2. local/regional media & gov service

 

  3. non-neighborhood work sphere  

  4.a. public schools offering instruction in minority lg

4.b. minority medium schools

Yes/4 b

  5. Literacy acquisition  

Yes 6. family, community, intergenerational transmission

slight 

  7. Cultural interaction in minority language

Yes

  8. Reconstructing minority language/adult acquisition

Yes 

The number of children entering Breton schools has risen by 33% since 2005.

Are Schools Reversing Language Loss?

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

Having Language in School Does Not Reverse Lan-

guage Loss

Series1

Need School-Family & Community Connection

Intergenerational

School

school

In 1991, Fishman cautioned about just relying on schools to reverse language loss.

The data presented here seems to support that caution. Those schools that are the most successful in producing fluent speakers appear to be those that have support from family/community.

As educational services expand,

the number of speakers does not

necessarily increase.

“The very principal behind immersion is not to teach a language as a goal in itself, but to use the language as a means of learning in various areas of activity. A child will not willingly learn a language when he does not see what this serves. His attitude is different when the language becomes a tool to acquire knowledge.”—Diwan philosophy

Bilingualism is best supported by having at least one parent who speaks the language and the language is used in the school.

Schools are most likely to reverse language loss when the parents and community are involved in using the language as a medium of instruction..

Language loss is more likely to occur when schools reflect the values of the culture and the child knows his/her place in the community. This creates a positive attitude toward the language and the role of the language in the future of the child or adult.

Non-speaking parents of the language need to be encouraged and praised for learning the minority language.. The responsibility of preserving the language cannot be left to schools alone.

What Can Schools/Classes do to Reverse Language Loss?

Intergenerational Transmission