Ann G. BROCKHarvard University

GENRE OF THE ACTS OF PA UL

ONE TRADITION ENHANCING ANOTHER

Les Actes de Paul et Thecle (APITh) sont importants pour determi-ner Ie genre des Actes de Paul. Cette contribution examine les structuresdu dialogue, aussi bien les fractures litteraires qu'ideologiques, pourmonfrer comment Thecle, un temoin chretien independant, a ete recuperesous l'autorite de Paul. Ainsi, les APITh ne sont pas une compilation detraditions sur Thecle, incorporees a des traditions sur Paul et Thecle,mais sont, au contraire, une simple greffe de Paul sur la legende deThecle. C'est ainsi que l'auteur cree une composition litteraire fondee surun modele semblable aux evangiles du Nouveau Testament.

The Acts of Paul and Thecla (APITh) is crucial to determining thegenre of the Acts of Paul. This paper will examine patterns of dialogue,as well as, literary and ideological fissures in the text of the APITh toshow how Thecla, an independent Christian witness, has been subsumedunder the authority of Paul. The APITh, then, is not a compilation of tra-ditions about Thecla incorporated into traditions about Paul and Thecla,but is instead merely a grafting of Paul onto the Thecla legend.The author thus creates a literary composition modeled similarly to thegospels of the New Testament.

I propose that the genre and Sitz im Leben of the Acts of Paul(APi) is a religious propaganda tract for the early Christian com-munity which the author writes in order to enhance the promi-nence of Paul as an apostle. Such a proposal takes seriouslyTertullian's statement that the Asian presbyter who wrote APldid so because «he wished to add something of his own to theprestige of Paul» 1. Whether or not Tertullian's statement indeedcontains some historical reminiscence, these words «adding tothe prestige of Paul» encapsulate what appears to be the rheto-rical dynamic of the text. The author enhances Paul's statuswithin the composition in numerous ways:

1. Ernest EVANS, Q. septimii Florentis Tertulliani De Baptismo Liber.Tertullian's Homily on Baptism. (London: SPCK, 1964), p. 37.

Apocrypha 5, 1994, p. 119-136

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1.- Paul's actions often parallel those of Christ as he is de-picted in the New Testament. For instance, Paul preaches inbeatitudes, performs miracles, is martyred, and then makes anappearance to others.

2.- Through various interactions, the author places the figureof Paul in a position of prominence over other early Christianmissionaries, thereby crediting Paul for having baptized,strengthened, or commissioned them.

3.- Specifically, the writer takes the well-known Christianwitness of Thecla and remoulds her tradition, grafting Paul intothe story.

Before discussing genre and the effect of the above threepoints of the author's strategy, however, I will first present somegroundwork concerning the nature of the text of APi.

I. Introdnction and Snmmary of Genre Debate.

A reference made by Tertullian in De Baptismo (XVII, 5)gives some assistance in placing the API both geographically andchronologically:

«quod si quae Acta Pauli, quae perperam scripta sunt,«exemplum Theclae ad licentiam mulierum docendi tinguen-« dique defendunt, sciant in Asia presbyterum qui earn scriptu-« ram construxit, quasi titulo Pauli de suo cumulans, convictum« atque confessum id se amore Pauli fecisse loco decessisse ».

«But if certain Acts of Paul, which are falsely so named,«claim t~.e example of Thecla for allowing women to teach« and to baptize, let men know that in Asia the presbyter who-~o~piled

that document, thinking to add of his own to Paul's«reputation, was found out, and though he professed he had« done it for love of Paul, was deposed from his position »2.

Thus, if Tertullian's reference is trustworthy, Asia Minor is theprobable place of origin of the text. Furthermore, this referencefrom De Baptismo was written approximately 200 CE, providingthe terminus ante quem for the API 3. When Tertullian refers to

2. Ibid., p. 36-37. It must be noted, however, that few manuscripts fromTertullian are extant, and, with this text, only two (Codex T and B). Formore information see: Thomas W. McKAY, «Response to Davies'"Women, Tertullian, and the Acts of Paul" », Semeia 38, p.145-149.3. SCHNEEMELCHER, W., «Acts of Paul », New Testament Apocrypha,E. HENNECKE and W. SCHNEEMELCHER eds. (Philadelphia: Westminster,

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Thecla's example above, it is unclear whether Tertullian refers tothe API in its entirety or only to the segment, the Acts of Pauland Thecla, which circulated independently as well. This subse-quent lack of consensus on the primitive integrity of the APImakes the issue of genre more complex. For instance, in addi-tion to the Acts of Paul and Thecla (APITh) several other frag-ments, such as the Corinthian correspondence (3 Cor) and theMartyrdom of Paul (MP) also circulated both independently andas part of the Acts of Paul 4.

According to Rostalski's statistics, the API has an overall uni-formity of language 5. Rordorf, likewise, states that the style ofthe Greek remnants of the API so resemble the APITh « thatthe identity of the author of the two narratives can hardly bedoubted » 6. Therefore, for the sake of brevity, I will work fromthe assumption that the same person who compiled and wroteAPITh also compiled and wrote the API 7. Having in a cursorymanner established the text, the next step, before coming toany conclusions about genre, is to spend some time carefullyanalyzing the text.

1964), II, p. 235. Unless otherwise indicated, all English references tothe API will be from Schneemelcher.4. Davies raises the issue of whether Tertullian is referring to this docu-ment or another one altogether. He suggests some lost pseudepigraphi-cal Pauline letter used by feminist groups. My disagreement with thishypothesis is presented later in this paper.5. Friedrich ROSTALSKI, Die Sprache der griechischen Paulusakten.. milBerucksichtigung ihrer lateinischen Obersetzungen (Myslowitz: Buch-druckerei Max Rolle, 1913).6. Willy RORDORF, «Tradition and Composition in. the Acts of Thecla,»Semeia 38, p. 44. He also cites Schmidt and Schubart as further support.If the author composed the narrative framework of the Acts of Paul andThecla, this would explain its similarities in vocabulary with the rest ofthe API without negating the possibility of the absorbtion of an inde-pendent Thecla tradition into the text.7. The greatest amount of scholarly debate concerning the integrity ofthe text occurs with respect to Third Corinthians. [See ThomasW. MAcKAY's article, «Response to Davies' "Women, Tertullian, and theActs of Paul",., Semeia 38, p. 148.] McKay points out that of the fiveLatin witnesses, only the Zurich manuscript preserves the narrativebridge between the Correspondence of the Corinthians and Paul'sresponse. Thus, although the Coptic version of the API and the ZUrichmanuscript of the Latin text associate 3 Cor with the API, scholars oftencontend that 3 Cor is a later accretion. For the Latin manuscripts seeOscar VON GEBHARDT, Die Lateinischen Obersetzungen der Acta Pauli etTheclae. Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der AltchristlichenLiteraturs. VII, I. Leipzig: Hinrichs Buchhandlung, 1902.

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II. Portrayal of Paul in API.

The portrayal of Paul's actions in the API is strikingly similarto the portrayal of Christ's actions in the New Testament gos-pels. For example, the author portrays Paul as preaching in beat-itudes just as Jesus did (Mt 5:3-12; Lk 6:20b-23) 8. Like Jesus,Paul was persecuted and martyred for his message. Likewise, healso makes a post-resurrection appearance (MP 6). In fact, aneven more direct emphasis of the parallels between the twofigures appears in the author's statement that when Thecla« looked upon the crowd, she saw the Lord sitting in the form ofPaul» (c. 21).

Not only does the text parallel Paul's actions to those ofChrist, but the text also portrays Paul as more than a merehuman being. For example, the beginning of the APITh states« for now he appeared like a man, and now he had the face of anangel» (c. 3) echoing the synoptic accounts of the transfigura-tion of Christ. Another similarity to Christ is Paul's hearing aheavenly voice that others around him cannot hear 9. As Theclalooks steadily upon him, he departs into the heavens and, in thenext scene, is fasting in an open tomb. Further parallel circum-stances in the gospels include numerous miracles such as exor-cisms (PHeid 40) and a raising of the dead (the boy in Antioch).Moreover, just as Mary sat at the feet of Jesus (Lk 10:39), so,too, Thecla sits at the feet of Paul. She hears him proclaim «themighty acts of God» (c. 18) and is even portrayed as kissing hisfetters -possibly reminiscent of the woman kissing Jesus' feet(Lk 7:38). Another resemblance to the gospels appears in Paul'sbeing betrayed to the authorities by people with whom hetraveled (Demas and Hermogenes). Likewise, he undergoesrejection by the crowd and also a scourging. Furthermore, atPaul's death, a soldier is amazed and glorifies God (MP 5,Lk 23:44). Finally, Paul's tomb is visited by Luke and Titus whoare praying there at dawn (MP 7). Thus in numerous ways, Paulis portrayed in the API as being in especially close proximity tothe divine sphere.

This unusually high correspondence between the actions ofPaul in the API and the actions of Jesus in the canonical

8. AP1Th 5 contains the only two sentences which correspond directlywith the NT: specifically Mt 5:8 and 9.9. From the unpublished Coptic papyrus: the beginning of the stay inEphesus, SCHNEEMELCHER II, p. 263-264.

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gospels 10 are not necessarily sufficient to establish a similarity in

genre. However, the close parallels in depictions point to thepossible use of such a gospel model in the portrayal of the apostlePaul. The result is that Paul's status in the APt is noticeably higherthan his status in Luke~ Acts. Although Paul is a significant figurein the canonical Acts, in the APt he is raised to superhumanstatus. The next section will examine how the portrayal of Paul ininteractions with other missionary figures aids in establishing anelevated, or even hierarchical, position for the apostle Paul.

III. Further elevation of the status of the Apostle Paul.

Paul not only encounters numerous early Christian missionaryfigures in the API, but is almost always portrayed in a position ofauthority over them. By means of motivations and words placedupon the lips of the characters, the author rhetorically enhancesthe authority of Paul. For example, Thecla, who I will arguelater was a prominent figure in the early Christian movement, isportrayed with the words, «She desired to be counted worthyherself to stand in Paul's presence...» (c. 7). Likewise, on a strik-ingly familiar note, API describes the prominent missionarycouple Aquila and Priscilla as praying « that they might be foundworthy for Paul to set foot in their house » 11. The author estab-lishes Paul's spiritual superiority over other characters not onlythrough such descriptions, but also through interactions withthem, such as visitations, baptisms, and commissionings.

Paul's visitation and conversation with Prisca (Priscilla) andAquila serve to heighten his hierarchical position over them.Prisca and Aquila were among the prominent early Christianfounders of house churches in Rome, Corinth, and Ephesus.They worked independently of Paul 12; their names were proba-bly well-known across Asia Minor 13. Significantly, in the API,

10. The references to the «canonical » gospels or the «canonical» Actsare only a means of identification and not an indication that the authorof APl necessarily knows of the existence of a canon.lL The next references are from the beginning of the stay in Ephesus-unpublished Coptic papyrus, SCHNEEMELCHER, II, p. 263.12. Elisabeth SCHUSSLER FIORENZA, In Memory of Her: A FeministTheological Reconstruction of Christian Origins. (New York: Crossroad,1983), p. 178.13. Aquila and Priscilla (actually usually listed with Prisca's name firstbecause she was the more prominent of the two -Rom 16:3 and2 Tim 4:19). Ibid., p. 178.

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when Paul visits Prisca and Aquila, an angel of the Lord appearsas well. Although the angel appears to all of them, only Paul canhear the words. Paul's subsequent conversation with the groupfurther underscores his apostolic prominence. For instance,immediately following a reference to Pentecost (the point atwhich Peter and others received apostolic legitimation), Paulmakes these three points:1) he makes a reference to his own Damascus experience;2) he establishes God the Father as the source of his message:«The [...] Father, he it is who preached to me the Gospel of hisSon [...] »;3) and then, he traces his apostolic lineage by pointing out thathe entered the great church through the blessed Judas, thebrother of the Lord. All three of these points function to fortifyhis status with respect to the rest of the apostles.

Various early Christian communities often aligned themselveswith different apostles. Competition for apostolic authority is,therefore, a motive for apostolic propaganda and could be oneway of explaining the context for the author's elevation of theapostle Paul. Such use of apostolic propaganda could alsoexplain why the API contains a version of the Quo Vadis speech(PH 7-8) which also appears in the Acts of Peter (APt) inAct. Verc. c. 35. If the APt contains a personal appearance ofJesus to the apostle Peter in order to tell him that he would becrucified, then in all fairness he must also appear to Paul. Theaccount in APt is probably the primary version because thecontext for the one in the API seems more contrived.

Another method for establishing Paul's spiritual authority isthrough the baptism of other characters in the API, especiallycharacters of no small distinction. For example, Artemilla andEubula come to Paul for baptism. The prominence of Artemillais demonstrated in a number of ways. For example, the highestlevel of Greek language of any of Paul's four speeches is hisspeech to Artemilla. According to Schmidt, this conversionspeech shows much more rhetorical art than any of the otherthree speeches, including his speech to the governor 14. Not onlydoes Paul's elevated language signal Artemilla's prominence inthe community, but so does his choice of words in addressingher: «Woman, ruler of this world, mistress of much gold, citizenof great luxury... » (PH 2). Another character, Procla, is described~

14. Carl SCHMIDT and Wilhelm SCHUBART, IIpa~Et<; IIauA.ou, Acta Paulinach dem Papyrus der Hamburger Staats-und Universitiits-Bibliothek.(Gliickstadt and Hamburg: J. J. Augustin, 1936), p.14.

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as a «woman in the city who did many <good> works for theEphesians» (Ephesus 13). Likewise, Paul baptizes her and allher household.

Although the author does not portray Paul baptizing Thecla,the author, nevertheless, also establishes Paul's authority overher. Perhaps the legend of Thecla's self-baptism was already toowell-known for Paul to be portrayed as the one who baptizesher. Instead, the author uses another device for establishinghierarchy -Paul is the one who commissions Thecla. AlthoughThecla has already been teaching the word of God and has evenconverted Tryphaena's entire household, Paul says to her, «Goand teach the word of God» (c. 41). This commissioning occursalmost at the end of APITh. Again, one can see obvious similarityto the gospels, as Paul's action parallels that of Jesus, who alsosent out disciples with a commission to teach. Even thoughThecla has already been teaching, Paul's statement functions asan official conferring of authority, effectively making Thecla oneof Paul's disciples. That such an action, in fact, establishes ahierarchy is further supported by the Syrian version of theAPITh, which contains the colophon: «The history of Thecla -a disciple of Paul » 15. This discipleship effectively subsumes thefigure of Thecla to Paul.

IV. Evidence of the Remoulding of the Thecla Tradition.

Schneemelcher states that one cannot distinguish the tradi-tions from the author's literary composition, because the tradi-tions are part of homogeneous creations 16. Nevertheless, Icontend that some speculations may be made about the legendcycle that lies behind the APITh. As a starting point, I maintainthe improbability that someone would have composed the Actsof Paul and Thecla as a literary unit in its present form. Forexample, where is Paul when Thecla is being burned at the stakeor being attacked by an aggressive suitor or by wild beasts?Paul's being conspicuously absent at climactic, dangerousmoments, seems to be in contradiction to the propaganda mo-tive of « adding to the prestige of Paul ». In fact, Davies does notthink that this API could possibly be the text to which Tertullian

15. Willy WRIGHT, Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles: I: The Syriac Texts;II: The English Translations. (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1968), p. 116and 145.16. SCHNEEMELCHER, II, p. 80.

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refers, because, in his estimation, this text certainly does not add tothe prestige of Paul. Instead, it depicts him as «deserting her justwhen she needed him most, refusing to baptize her, [and] failing torecognize her spiritual worthiness until the concluding passages ofthe narrative» 17. I suggest that while it appears that Thecla hasbeen abandoned by Paul at crucial junctures of the story, in fact, inthose instances, he did not «desert» her; rather, the character ofPaul was never in the original story in the first place.

I propose a reconstruction of the textual history in which theauthor does not take traditions about Thecla and join themwith traditions about Paul and Thecla, but rather compilestraditions solely about Thecla and then grafts Paul onto thenarrative. The author portrays Paul as the person who teachesher in the beginning and commissions her in the end, therebycrediting Paul as the source of her contributions. In all proba-bility, it was this framework and not the text itself that waswritten by the presbyter from the «love of Paul ». In thisreconstruction my methodology is to read against the grain,looking for inconsistency in character portrayal, the presenceof ideological or literary fissures in the text, and changes inpatterns of dialogue.

1. Inconsistency in Character Portrayal.

Even in the earliest commentaries, scholars have mentionedthe noticeably secondary position Paul holds in the APlTh. Thisresponse may well be a recognition that Paul is a later accretionto some legend, story, or historical reminiscence, which I willrefer to as the Acts of Thecla (abbreviated AThe).

The APl contains an ecclesiastical tradition that maintains thememory of a strong legendary/historical female figure who is anearly Christian teacher and preacher. She suffers persecution forher religious convictions, especially for resisting familial andsocial pressures. Thecla becomes a particularly prominent figurein Asia Minor from the second century through at least the sixthcentury CEo She is mentioned by Church Fathers, such asTertullian, who resents the way in which Christians appealed toThecla to legitimize the practice of women baptizing andteaching. Numerous other legends sprang up about Thecla.Dagron's book, Vie et miracles de sainte Thecle, includes amongother materials, forty-six accounts of miracles attributed to her

17. Stevan L. DAVIES, «Women, Tertullian, and the Acts of Paul»Semeia 38. 0.139-143.

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even after her death 18. Such a figure became an inspiration tomany, as evidenced by the spread of the cult of Thecla as far asSpain. In fact, the feast day of Saint Thecla is celebrated both inthe West (on September 23) and in the East (on September 24).

This strong figure of Thecla, described above, is preserved inthe early Christian traditions as a solitary missionary figure.However, this memory of the martyr contrasts sharply with thefigure of Thecla depicted in the author's redactional framework.The following passages demonstrate some of the rhetoricalmeans by which the figure of Thecla is subsumed beneath theauthority of Paul:1.- she is so entranced with Paul's word that for three days andnights she does not leave her window (c. 8) ;2.- Thecla is placed at Paul's feet in the prison scene. The phrase«sitting at someone's feet» is symbolic language for beingsomeone's student. So, too, did Mary sit at the feet of Jesus inBethany, and Paul at the feet of Gamaliel (Acts 22:3) ;3.- Thecla not only sits at the feet of Paul, but also kisses hisfetters (c. 18);4.- after Paul is taken away, she throws herself into the placewhere Paul had sat (c. 20);5.- after the trial, Thecla seeks Paul <<as a lamb in the wilder-ness looks about for the shepherd » (c. 21) ;6.- when she looks upon the crowd, she sees «the Lord sittingin the form of Paul... » (c. 21);7.- Thecla sets out to find Paul, and upon finding him, she criesout to the Father, «I praise thee that thou didst save me fromthe fire, that I might see Paul!» (c. 24);8.- Paul's reply to her implies that she was saved because Paulprayed for her, and then he humbly offers praises that God « hastso speedily <accomplished> what I asked, and hast hearkenedunto me» (c. 24);9.- she wishes to join Paul in his mission, offering to get a shorthaircut and follow him wherever he goes (c. 25) ;10.- she asks Paul to baptize her (c. 25);11.- Paul gives her his commission to teach, «Go and teach theword of God!» (c. 41);12.- not only does Thecla throw herself into the place wherePaul had sat in prison, but later, when she returns to Iconium tothe house of Onesiphorus, she again throws herself down on thefloor where Paul had sat and taught the oracles of God (c. 42).

18. Gilbert DAGRON, Vie et miracles de sainte Thecle, texte grec, traduc-tion et commentaire, Subsidia Hagiographica 62, (Brussels: Societe desBollandistes.1978).

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Because of these variations in character portrayal, I maintainthat the protagonist Thecla who single-handedly rips offAlexander's cloak and removes his crown (c. 26) is not the sameThecla who sits at Paul's feet in prison and kisses his fetters(c. 18). The following textual inconsistencies will help to deter-mine points in the text in which the legend of Thecla ends andthe portrayal of the fictional disciple of Paul begins.

2. Fissures -Ideological or Literary.

Numerous inconsistencies in the text, primarily in the form ofideological or literary fissures, clearly demonstrate that theAPITh as a whole was not a literary creation from the beginning.

1.- In addition to myself, others such as Schneemelcher havepointed out an inconsistency in the justice of the governor's ver-dict. «It is striking that Paul, who is really the guilty party, isaccording to c. 21 expelled from Iconium, but Thecla must sufferdeath by tire » 19. This inconsistency points to one of the sites atwhich the author has absorbed the Thecla tradition. The coreThecla legend probably continues at c. 22, immediately after theauthor's redaction that Paul « departed into the heavens » (c. 21).

2.- Another ideological inconsistency reveals itself in whatappears to be two different understandings of baptism whichexist in the text of API. Whereas one might think that Thecla'sendurance of a trial of fire and her miraculous deliverance mightbe a sufficient indication that she is worthy of baptism, Paul stillhesitates and denies her baptism until a later time. By contrast,in the last section of the API, Luke and Titus are «seized withhuman fear» when they see Longus and Cestus arrive at thetomb because they think they will be killed. Yet, in the very nextsentence, Longus and Cestus are baptized simply because theysay that they saw Paul standing between Luke and Titus (MP 7).Several explanations are possible for the different approaches tobaptism: 1) Two different sources would account for thedifferent understandings of baptism. 2) Or, as mentioned earlier,perhaps Paul does not baptize her because he cannot, because itis already a well-known part of the legend that she has baptizedherself. In the remoulded version, however, she asks Paul for thebaptism (c. 25), and he tells her to have patience (in otherwords, «the time will come»). Therefore, when she baptizesherself, the words are placed on her lips, «Now is the time formy baptism », and she throws herself in the water, saying: «In

19. SCHNEEMELCHER, II, p. 221

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the name of Jesus Christ ». The unevenness of the text may indi-cate that the author has again added to the legend, becauseherein lies another apparent literary fissure. In the next twolines, oddly enough, the text repeats itself, «she threw herselfinto the water, in the name of Jesus Christ» (c. 34).

3.- There exists a rather weak attempt at the end of AP1Thto patch the rift between Thecla and her mother. Strikingly, theonly female character in all of AP1Th who is not supportive ofThecla is her own birth mother, the one who says, «Burn thelawless one! » (c. 20). The initial legend may have preserved theway in which traditional family bonds were broken in the earlyChristian communities and new families were formed. Thecla'sally, Tryphaena, may be part of this new family bond in that shebecomes like an adopted mother to Thecla. After invitingThecla into her house, Tryphaena tells her, « I will assign to theeall that is mine ». This section of the text clearly contains an ele-ment of closure which I contend could well have been the end ofthe AThe legend: Thecla goes into Tryphaena's house, instruc-ting her and the maidservants with the result that they all belie-ved and there was great joy in the house (c. 29). The authorthen augments the legend with a new section beginning withthe statement that Thecla once again yearns for Paul and goes insearch of him. Interestingly, the appended narrative frameworkincludes in its closure an attempt to everse the rift in the originalfamily.

3. Change in the Sources of Dialogue.

Using the criteria of which characters receive a voice in thenarrative, one may make further claims about the lack of literaryunity of the API. With the exception of the APITh, women havepractically no speaking parts in the entirety of the dialogue ofthe Acts of Paul. In the APITh, however, the proportion is radi-cally altered. Not only do women speak, but they do so ingreater proportion than do the men other than Paul. Theamount of dialogue for women in APITh is 43 lines, whereas theamount of dialogue for all the men including Paul is 60 lines.Male characters other than Paul have about half the maledialogue. In a similar comparison of women's dialogue to men'sin the rest of the API (not counting 3 Cor) women receive noteven one percent, but one-third of one percent. This change inpercentage cannot be attributed to the absence of women in theremainder of the API. Rather, Paul encounters numerous otherwomen, including Nympha, Myrta, Procla, Priscilla, Artemilla,and Eubula. However, all of these women together have a total

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of only five lines of dialogue between them. [Ironically, the lionwho comes to Paul. for baptism also has one half of one percent,with four lines of dialogue]. Paul is portrayed as speaking tothe women in dialogue, sometimes even long speeches,but the women rarely speak in return. By contrast, even thesupporting female characters in the APiTh have twenty linesof dialogue.

In summary, the male characters speak about as often as Pauldoes in both APiTh and the rest of APi. However, in APiTh,Paul and the male characters combined speak only 59 % of thetime, compared to 99 % in the rest of APi. I seriously doubt thatthis trend is an abrupt reversal in style on the part of the author,but rather indicates the insertion of earlier material into theliterary framework.

V. Sitz im Leben.

When reading ancient texts, one frequently becomes accus-tomed to reading certain names in combination such as Priscaand Aquila, Joseph and Aseneth, and in the AAA, of course,Paul and Thecla. However, judging by the aforementionedfissures in the story of Paul and Thecla, I maintain that in allprobability there never was a missionary team of Paul andThecla. Instead, the two names are deliberately juxtaposed forsome purpose. Some scholars have suggested that the API incor-porates the legend of Thecla to lend Thecla the authority of theapostle Paul. While this may be true, I wish to point out that theopposite may also be true. The Acts of Paul incorporates theActs of Thecla in order to maximize upon her popularity withincertain communities or geographical areas. This option has grea-ter probability when one takes into account the rhetorical dyna-mic of the remainder of the text as a whole in which interactions,conversations, and descriptions of Paul all appear to be workingtogether to enhance his apostolic authority.

The deliberate juxtaposition of the names of Paul and Theclaalso indicate a social milieu, at least with respect to the author ofAPI, in which the linking of a Pauline apostleship and strongfemale leadership are ideologically compatible. In sharpcontrast, the Pastorals present Pauline apostleship and strongfemale leadership as mutually exclusive. In this respect, I findMacDonald's research concerning the competition amonggroups claiming Paul to be especially thought-provoking. Hesuggests that the Pastoral epistles were written in response tothose groups who follow the Paul depicted in the apocryphal

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traditions 2°. That there exists some theological interactionbetween the Pastorals and the tradition behind the API is quiteprobable. For example, it seems significant that such a high cor-relation exists between proper names mentioned in the API andthose also mentioned in I and II Timothy, including Onesiphorus(II Tim 1:16 & 17; 4:19), Demas (II Tim 4:10), Hermogenes(II Tim 1:15), Titus (II Tim 4:10), Luke (II Tim 4:11), Prisca(II Tim 4:19), Aquila (II Tim 4:19), and Alexander (I Tim 1: 20,and II Tim 4:14). These common references lead one at the veryminimum to acknowledge that they both draw upon a commontradition. However, the existence of a struggle for authorityamong early Christian groups may be even more compelling asan explanation of the common references above and the under-lying tensions between the groups 21.

VI. Theories of Genre.

The body of literature encompassing the apocryphal actscontains so many striking variations that one cannot assign thetotality of these texts to one genre. No doubt these differencesaccount for the numerous conflicting theories with respect totheir genre. Many scholars consider the AAA to be literaryfictional creations. Scholars such as von Dobschiitz, for example,draw parallels between the apocryphal acts and the Hellenisticnovel 22. Reitzenstein also perceives fictional origins, but arguesthat the apocryphal acts arise not from the genre of novel butfrom Hellenistic miracle stories. Pliimacher sees the AAA asChristian versions of the Hellenistic romance 23. Pervo suggests

20. Dennis Ronald MACDoNALD, The Legend and the Apostle: TheBattle for Paul in Story and Canon. (Philadelphia: Westminster Press,1983), p. 56-57.2L It is perhaps relevant that the name Onesiphorus and the church inhis house is mentioned eleven times in a text as short as the APlTh. Infact, the setting of Onesiphorus' house seems to be the very frameworkwithin which the story of Paul and Thecla is set. It is from the house ofOnesiphorus that Thecla first hears the word of God coming. And againat the end she announces to Paul that she is going to Onesiphorus'house. There she teaches on the floor where Paul had sat. Subsequently,when she prays, she addresses and identifies God as : « [ ...] God of thishouse where the light shone upon me [...]» -in reference once againto Onesiphorus' house.22. SCHNEEMELCHER, II, p. 80.23. Ibid., II, p. 80-81.

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the genre of historical novel with motives of entertainment,instruction, and propaganda 24.

Several other scholars also perceive a relationship betweenthe AAA and the Hellenistic novel, but do not interpret thesimilarities as necessarily indicating the literary dependence ofthe AAA on the novel genre. Soder, for example, identifiesnovelistic elements in the AAA in that she finds strong similari-ties in motifs: travel, propaganda, erotic elements, crowds; andoracles. She points out, however, that these elements also existin folk tales and folk narratives. Likewise, Kerenyi sees theapocryphal acts and the novel as related and contends that boththe apocryphal acts and the novel, therefore, contain similarnon-literary folkloric elements. Thus, for these scholars, folkstories are the primary source for the stories and motifs inthe AAA 25.

Kaestli, however, does not agree that the AAA are popularliterature as Soder suggests. Nor are they a Christian form of thenovel because the miracle stories of apostles are not part of theGattung of novel 26. He sees the AAA, shaped by the novelisticgenre, as an attempt to preserve ecclesiastical traditions.

In the last decade scholars such as Burrus and MacDonaldhave continued the scholarly investigation into the folkloricorigins of the AAA, highlighting the characteristics of oralnarration which are evident therein. For example, Burrus, byapplying Propp's structural analysis, concludes that the chastitystories of the AAA are more likely to have derived from orallegend than from novels. She asserts that these stories representtraits of the social world from which they emerged. Since theyare, therefore, not merely fictional creations, they need to betaken seriously as revealing elements of historical information 27.

Rather than attempting to squeeze the AAA into a particulargenre, which, as we have seen above, presents difficulties, it isperhaps more helpful to examine what models have influenced

24. Richard PERVO, Profit with Delight: The Literary Genre of the Actsof the Apostles. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987).25.

Virginia BURRUS, Chastity as Autonomy: Women in the Stories ofthe Apocryphal Acts. (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1987), p. 18.26. SCHNEEMELCHER, II, p. 80.27. Virginia BURRUS, « Chastity as Autonomy: Women in the Stories ofthe Apocryphal Acts », Semeia 38, p. 101-117. I must add, however, thatI am not completely convinced that the chastity stories need be limitedto being stories about women transmitted by and for women. Thelegend of Thecla, for instance, may well have appealed to a broaderaudience than just communities of women.

133GENRE OF 1HE ACTS OF PAUL

the AAA. Although Lukes Acts has frequently been suggestedas a model, there exist some significant differences between it andthe AAA. One concedes that similarly to Acts, the AAA containtravel narratives, discourses, miracles, and liturgical scenes 28. Yet,the canonical Acts is lacking some crucial elements such as theprotagonist's death and the focus upon one primary apostle.Moreover, numerous elements of the overall structure of APIcause it to more closely resemble the form of a « gospel » than thecanonical « acts » 29. As already indicated in the beginning of thispaper, recurrent parallels exist between Paul's and Jesus' minis-try such as performances of miracles, preaching in beatitudes,persecution, death, and resurrection appearances. Thus, I agreewith Bovon that the gospels more closely resemble the modelfor the API than does the canonical Acts. The next step, beyondthe scope of this paper, would be to examine the way in whichboth the gospels and the apocryphal acts contain some interest-ing parallels to the genre of the « life of the philosophers »30.

VII. Conclusion.

Not only is assigning the wide range of contents within AAAto one particular genre difficult, but even establishing the genreof one apocryphal act presents problems. This difficulty is espec-ially the case in the API because it portrays a mixture of genresand contains a complex textual history. APITh resembles bothliterary invention and the transmission of oral tradition preciselybecause it is both. I maintain that parts of API are tradition orlegend, especially the segments which transmit the experiencesof Thecla. Other parts of API were the purposeful literary crea-tion of the author. While I concur that novelistic elements doappear in the API, the genre of novel simply does not fullyencompass what I perceive as the force and motive behind theAPI. Instead, a religious propaganda tract modeled somewhatafter the gospels more closely describes the rhetorical dynamic

28. Gonzalo DEL CERRa, «Los Hechos Apocrifos de los Apostoles SuGenero Literario », Estudios Biblicos 51 (1993), p. 207.29. Fran~ois BOVON, « La vie des ap6tres : traditions bibliques et narra-tions apocryphes », in Les Actes apocryphes des apotres: christianisme etmonde palen. Publications de la faculte de theologie de l'universite deGeneve, n° 4, (Geneva: Labor et Fides, 1981), p.141-58.30. Richard GOULET, «Les Vies de philosophes dans I' Antiquite tardiveet leur portee mysterique », in Les Actes apocryphes des apotres: chris-tianisme et monde pai"en, op. cit., p. 161-208.

134

A. G. BROCK

I see present in the API. In this paper I have indicated three pri-mary techniques by which the author elevates Paul's position:through numerous parallels to the life of Jesus, throughhierarchical interactions with other apostles, and through theremoulding of the Thecla legend into a reverent disciple of Paul.In support of my conclusions, I also add Tertullian's ancient wit-ness as to the author's purpose -that the presbyter in Asiacompiled the document, thinking «to add of his own» to Paul'sreputation and doing so «out of love for Paul »31. Thus, I see inthe Acts of Paul a Christian propaganda tract which promotesthe apostolic prominence of Paul. Although it was never inclu-ded in the canon, this apocryphal text remains valuable in that itpreserves for us some intriguing traditions not only of Paul butalso of the missionary Thecla.

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