Function of Groups Affiliation (e.g., sororities, fraternities, clubs) Survival Vital for task...
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Transcript of Function of Groups Affiliation (e.g., sororities, fraternities, clubs) Survival Vital for task...
Function of Groups
Affiliation (e.g., sororities, fraternities, clubs)
Survival
Vital for task completion (organizations, work groups, charities)
Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has. Margaret Mead
Group Processes
Do people try less hard when working in groups? Does social loafing occur?
Ringleman Effect?
Social Loafing
The average performance (input) of individuals decreases as
group size increases
Ringelmann Findings
Individuals Individual Efforts(Sum)
Group Effort Group/Individual
Ratio
1-7 764 480 .63
8-14 516 432 .84
15-21 533.7 435.4 .82
22-28 575.5 471.2 .82
15-28 1109.2 858.9 .78
Why?
a) Less effort
b) Coordination issues
Precursor to the Latane et al study (Ingram et al, 1974)
Yelling (& clapping) study by Latane, Williams, & Harkins
Procedure?
Alone
In actual groups
In pseudo-groups
Less individual effort when in groups, even in “groups” when no one was present (but people thought they were)
10
8
6
4
2
Sound pressure per person
1 2 6
Group size
Reduced effort
(Social loafing)
Coordination loss
Potential productivity
Pseudo-groups
Actual groups
Social Loafing on a More Complex Task
Social Loafing on a More Complex Task (cont.)
Men, Women, and Leadership Characteristics
Procedure?
Survey: List of 92 adjectives rated on a 5-point scale from (1) “Not Characteristic to (5) “Characteristic”
Ratings on:
Men in General, Women in General, and Successful Manager in General
Results – Ratings by males?
Men, Women, and Leadership Characteristics
Results – Rating by females?
Men, Women, and Leadership Characteristics (cont.)
Results?
Men, Women, and Leadership Characteristics (cont.)
High agreement in ratings
Less agreeme
nt on ratings of women
by males and
females
Results regarding specific trait differences?
Men, Women, and Leadership Characteristics (cont.)
Males higher ratings on “Dominant-Aggressive” characteristics – e.g., competitive, need for power, aggressive, assertive (especially by male raters)
Females higher ratings on “Social Humanitarian” characteristics -- e.g., sympathetic, desire for friendship, helpful (especially by female raters)
Big Picture Implications?
Less representation of females in business (e.g., CEOs), politics (e.g., U.S. Senate), academic administration (e.g., universities)
Females in Leadership Positions - Percent of females in US Senate?
Barbara Mikilski
Dianne Feinstein
Barbara Boxer
Debbie Stabenow
Maria Cantwell
Parry Murray Susan Collins
Mary Landrieu
Lisa Murkowski
Amy Klobuchar
Jeanne Shaheen
Kirsten Gillibrand
Kelly Ayotte
Claire McCaskill
Kay Hagan
Tammy Bladwin
Deb Fischer Heidi Heitkamp
Mazie Hirono Elizabeth Warren
20
Company CEO Company CEOGENERAL MOTORS Mary Barra
2014AVON Sherilyn McCoy
2012
HEWLETT-PACKARD Meg Whitman 2011
SEMPRA ENERGY Debra Reed 2011
IBM Virginia Rometty2012
GUARDIAN LIFE Deanna Mulligan2011
PEPSICO Indra Nooyi 2006
CAMPBELL SOUP Denise Morrison2011
A.D.M Patricia Woertz2006
MYLAN Heather Bresch2012
LOCKHEED MARTIN Marillyn Hewson2013
INGREDION Ilene Gordon2009
DUPONT Ellen Kullman2009
CH2M HILL Jacqueline Hinman 2014
MONDELEZ Irene Rosenfeld2006
GRAYBAR ELECTRIC Kathleen Mazzarella 2012
GENERAL DYNAMICS Phebe Nokakovic2013
GANNETT Gracia Martore2011
TJX Carol Meyrowitz2007
FRONTIER COMM. Maggie Wilderotter 2006
XEROX Ursula Burns 2009 YAHOO Marissa Meyer2012
DUKE ENERGY Lynn Good 2013
Female CEOs of Fortune 500 Companies?
2011 = 12; 2012 = 1823 (Link)
Females as CEOs --- increase in stock price
But, it depends on industry
Price goes up higher if female CEO is head of female-dominated business, otherwise small decrease in stock price (Cooke & Glass, 2011)
Survey of over 60,000 direct reports
No gender preference for one’s own boss
“Ideal” boss:
54% -- No Preference
13% -- Female Preference
33% -- Male Preference
Gender and Leadership: Recent Findings
• Small but significant preference for opposite-sex bosses• Increased preference for stereotypical female leader characteristics (sensitive, supportive) vs. direct, forceful. Study by Elesser & Lever (2011)
Zajonic’s Theory of Social Facilitation
Well-learned(dominant)response
Poorly learnedor novel(non-dominant)response
Social Facilitation
Performance enhanced
Social Interference
Performance hindered
Arousal causedby presence of others
Charting the Course of Groupthink
Irving Janis depicted groupthink as a kind of social disease, complete with antecedents and symptoms, that increased the chance of making a bad decision. (Based on Janis, 1982.)
Antecedents
• High cohesiveness• Isolation• Directive leader • Homogeneous membersStressful situations
Symptoms
• Overestimation of the group (invulnerability) • Close-mindedness• Rationalization • Increased pressures toward uniformity• “Mindguards” and pressure on dissenters• Self-censorship• Illusion of unanimity
Consequences
Incomplete survey of
alternatives
Poor information
search
Failure to examine risks of preferred
choice
High probability
of a bad decision
Other Group Decision-Making Phenomena
Collective Entrapment --- The more effort used to make a decision, the greater likelihood of sticking to that decision (even if it’s been shown to be incorrect)
Common Knowledge Effect --- Information held by most group members exerts a stronger impact on final decisions
~ Social Identity Theory ~[In-Group Bias]
They tendency to link one’s self-concept and self esteem with the status and/or behavior of groups
Also, people tend to reward members of ingroups and disfavor those in outgroups (e.g., Minimal Group Paradigm) ---
Basking in Reflected Glory ---
Favorite Football Team wins --- “We;” More likely to wear team t-shirt
Favorite Football Team loses --- “They”
• Liking, spend time with leader
• Challenging, visible jobs
• Better memory for good behavior
• Treated warmly
• Performance evaluations
• Allocation of rewards
• Less desirable jobs
• Less time spent with supervisor
• Treated formally
• Lower performance evaluations
• Less rewards
In and Out-Groups Bias
In-group characteristics
Out-group characteristics
Are Groups Good or Bad?
Gustav Le Bon (1895) stated that leaders can manipulate citizens by simplifying ideas, substituting affirmation and exaggeration for proof, and by repeating points over and again. (From: Forsyth, 2010) --- Concept of “deindividuation”
LeBon and Tarde --- Mass hysteria