Funcionais-opções para a Substituição de gordura em prod carneos

8/6/2019 Funcionais-opes para a Substituio de gordura em prod carneos

1/12

Review

Healthier lipid

formulation

approaches in meat-

based functional

foods. Technological

options for

replacement of meat

fats by non-meat fats

Francisco Jimenez-Colmenero*

Instituto del Fro (CSIC), Ciudad Universitaria,C/Jose Antonio Novais, 10, 28040-Madrid, Spain

(Tel.: D34 91 549 23 00; fax: D34 91 549 36 27;e-mail: [email protected])

Healthier lipid formulation based on processing strategies is

one of the most important current approaches to the develop-

ment of potential meat-based functional foods. This article

discusses the partial replacement of meat fats with various

non-meat fats (of plant and marine origin) which are added

to different meat products (fresh, cooked and fermented), using

a variety of available technological options. It analyses factors

associated with the composition and physicochemical proper-

ties of the new lipid materials used in meat processing. And it

further discusses the consequences of changes in the composi-

tion of meat products as they relate to the potential contribu-

tion to fatty acid intake goals and lipid oxidation stability.

IntroductionRecent advances in food and nutrition sciences have

highlighted the possibility of modulating some specific

physiological functions in the organism through food intake.

This means that it is possible to help optimize certain

physiological functions through the diet and/or dietary com-

ponents in order to improve health status and well-

being and/or reduce the risk of disease. This is the context

in which we are seeing the emergence of so-calledfunctional

foods, which are currently an expanding market and one of

the chief factors driving the development of new products.Like other food-related sectors, the meat industry is un-

dergoing major transformations, driven among other things

by changes in consumer demands. One of the main trends

shaping developments in the consumption of meat deriva-

tives is consumer interest in the possibilities of improving

health through diet. Meat-based functional foods are seen

as an opportunity to improve their image and address

the needs of consumers, as well as to update nutrient die-

tary goals.

Because of their importance, lipids are among the bioac-

tive components (functional ingredients) that have received

most attention, particularly (in quantitative and qualitative

terms) with respect to the development of healthier meatproducts (Anandh, Lakshmanan, & Anjaneluyu, 2003;

Arhiara, 2006; Fernandez-Gines, Fernandez-Lopez, Sayas-

Barbera, & Perez-Alvarez, 2005; Jimenez-Colmenero,

Carballo, & Cofrades, 2001; Jimenez-Colmenero, Reig, &

Toldra, 2006; Muguerza, Gimeno, Ansorena, & Astiasaran,

2004). There is growing evidence that dietary fat may play

a role in the prevention of and therapy for a number of

chronic disorders, particularly coronary heart disease. Rec-

ommendations for optimal intake of total and unsaturated

fatty acids have been proposed by a number of scientific

authorities and nutritional organizations including the

World Health Organisation (WHO, 2003). Dietary fat intakeshould ideally account for between 15% and 30% of total

diet energy. According to dietary recommendations for the

intake of specific fatty acids as a proportion of total diet

energy, no more than 10% of calorie intake should be from

saturated fatty acids (SFAs), 6e10% should be from polyun-

saturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (n-6, 5e8%; n-3, 1e2%),

around 10e15% should be from monounsaturated fatty acids

(MUFAs), andless than 1% shouldbe from trans fatty acids.It

is also recommended to limit cholesterol intake to 300 mg/

day (WHO, 2003). There is abundant evidence to suggest

that regular consumption of and/or dietary supplementation

with long chain n-3 PUFAs (eicosapentaenoic e EPA, 20:5

and docosahexaenoic e DHA C22:6 acids) confers a number* Corresponding author.

0924-2244/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2007.05.006

Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 567e578
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://-/?-


2/12

of health benefits (Garg, Wood, Singh, & Moughan, 2006;

Simopoulos, 2002). Since the health implications of fat con-

sumption are determined by the proportions between fatty

acids, some recommendations are still made on the basis of

specific fatty acid ratios. Accordingly, the recommended ratio

of PUFA to SFA is between 0.4and 1.0, andthe n-6/n-3 PUFAratio should not exceed 4 (Enser, 2000; Wood et al., 2003).

Excessive amounts of n-6 PUFAs and very high n-6/n-3

PUFA ratios promote pathogenesis of many kinds, including

cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer and inflammatory and

autoimmune diseases, whereas increased levels of n-3 PUFAs

(and low n-6/n-3 PUFA ratios) exert suppressive effects

(Simopoulos, 2002). It was recently demonstrated that the

greatest risk factor for arteriosclerosis and ischaemic heart

disease is not hypercholesterolaemia or high cholesterol in-

take but a high n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio (Okuyama & Ikemoto,

1999). So, although it is frequently asserted that less fat in

the diet is better, qualitative aspects of fat need to be takeninto account, including the fact that some fatty acids are

essential in our diet.

Saturated, monounsaturated and n-6 polyunsaturated

fatty acids make up most of the fatty acid present in human

diet. Of the n-3 PUFAs, a-linolenic acid (ALNA, C18:3) is

present in large quantities in plant products such as oils

(maize, soy, cotton, canola, linseed, walnut, etc.), while

other long chain fatty acids (EPA, docosapentaenoic acid e

DPA C22:5 and DHA) are found largely in seafood (fish

and algal oils). Depending on the different recommenda-

tions and on physical activity, a reasonable estimate of op-

timal intake would be 0.8e1.4 g (or even more) for EPA

and DHA, or 3e5.5 g for total n-3 PUFAs per day (Kola-nowski, Swiderski, & Berger, 1999). Western diets are de-

ficient in n-3 PUFAs (especially long chain) and contain

excessive amounts of n-6 PUFAs, with an n-6/n-3 PUFA

ratio of 15e20 as opposed to the recommended range of

1e4 (Simopoulos, 2002). Moreover, consumption trends

for food containing n-3 PUFAs are currently static or de-

clining (Lee, Faustman, Djordjevic, Faraji, & Decker,

2006). Therefore, in order to improve the health status

of the population, health agencies and professional organi-

zations have issued recommendations to increase the con-

sumption of food rich in n-3 PUFAs (especially for certain

sectors of the population), as a means of promoting a re-duction in the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio (Garg et al., 2006; Ko-

lanowski et al., 1999; Simopoulos, 2002). Similarly, diets

rich in monounsaturated fat have been associated with

positive health benefits (Mattson & Grundy, 1985), and

it is therefore recommended that the majority of fatty

acids be derived from monounsaturates (Simopoulos,

2002).

The recommendations cited in fact refer to the overall

diet; however, given that meat and meat products are some

of the most important sources of dietary fat (Givens,

Khem, & Gibbs, 2006; Valsta, Tapanainen, & Mannisto,

2005) and the PUFA/SFA and n-6/n-3 PUFA ratios of

some meats are naturally somewhat removed from the

recommended values (Wood et al., 2003), changes in the

amounts and the lipid profiles of such products could help

to improve the nutritional quality of the Western diet

(Anandh et al., 2003; Arhiara, 2006; Fernandez-Gines

et al., 2005; Jimenez-Colmenero et al., 2001, 2006).

Although meat, particularly red meat, is already an importantdietary source of long chain n-3 PUFAs, in which DPA pre-

dominates, further enrichment of meat with these PUFAs

may be a practical means of increasing population intakes

of n-3 PUFAs (Howe, Meyer, Record, & Baghurst, 2006).

The unwillingness of consumers to change dietary habits

suggests that there is a considerable potential market for fre-

quently consumed foods such as meats which have been re-

formulated to incorporate health benefits. At the same time,

the diversification of products with health-promoting ingre-

dients offersadded possibilities of augmentingtheir presence

in the diet and thus coming closer to recommended intakes.

In response to these considerations, numerous re-searchers are endeavouring to optimize the amounts of

lipids and the fatty acid profiles of various meat products

in order to achieve a more convenient composition related

to nutrient intake goals. Lipids have been cited as func-

tional ingredients in some reviews dealing with the devel-

opment of designer meat foods (Anandh et al., 2003;

Arhiara, 2006; Fernandez-Gines et al., 2005; Jimenez-

Colmenero et al., 2001, 2006), but there have been no

reports of research that specifically analyses non-meat lipid

sources, technological options for replacement of animal

fat, or problems and consequences of use in the formulation

of different meat products. This paper reviews processing

strategies for the development of healthier lipid meat prod-ucts, looking at the different non-meat fats (of plant and

marine origin) added to various meat products as partial

meat fat replacers, and also the various technological op-

tions available for that purpose. This aspect is particularly

important given the differences in the composition, physi-

cochemical properties and stability of the new lipid mate-

rials being used in meat processing. It also discusses the

consequences of composition changes as regards their

potential contribution to fatty acid intake goals.

Processing strategies to develop healthier lipid

formulation in meat productsIn the development of healthier meat and meat deriva-

tives, a number of different strategies have been described

for modulating the presence of numerous compounds

(endogenous and exogenous) that have various different

potential effects on the organism. Hitherto, qualitative

and/or quantitative changes in the lipids present in meat

and meat derivatives have mainly been achieved by means

of animal production practices and processing strategies

(Jimenez-Colmenero et al., 2001, 2006).

Genetic and dietary approaches have been reported as

means of altering fatty acid contents and/or profiles of the

meat. Recent reviews describe the opportunities that these

offer (Givens et al., 2006; Jimenez-Colmenero et al.,

568 F. Jimenez-Colmenero / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 567e578


3/12

2006; Raes, De Smet, & Demeyer, 2004; Scollan et al.,

2006; Wood et al., 2003). Leaving aside approaches involv-

ing animal feeds (not discussed in this paper), there have

been many studies involving the alteration of lipid contents

and profiles of processed meats by means of processing

strategies, which offer more opportunities and are more ver-satile. Reformulation of meat derivatives is one of the strat-

egies that has been studied in order to develop meat-based

functional foods. Where the lipid fraction is concerned,

reformulation is generally based on the replacement (to

a greater or lesser extent) of the animal fat normally present

in the product with another fat whose characteristics are

more in line with health recommendations: i.e., with

smaller proportions of SFAs and larger proportions of

MUFAs or PUFAs, better n-6/n-3 PUFA and PUFA/SFA

ratios, and if possible cholesterol-free. There are various

plant and marine lipid sources that can help supply such

nutritional and functional benefits to varying degrees.

Non-meat fats used to formulate healthiermeat products

Meat product fatty acid composition can be modified by

the formulation approach through the ingredients employed:

meat raw material and non-meat ingredients. A variety of

non-meat fats of plant and marine origin (Tables 1e3)

have been added to different meat products as partial substi-

tutes for meat fats (mainly from pork or beef).

The type of vegetable oil affects the fatty acid composi-

tion of a reformulated meat product. Vegetable oils are rich

sources of MUFAs and PUFAs and are cholesterol-free. In

order to improve their nutritional quality, various meat prod-ucts have been made using oils from olive, high-oleic acid

sunflower, linseed (flaxseed), soybean, peanut, palm, etc.

While some of these oils have been used to promote

MUFA content, others are used essentially for their PUFA,

or more specifically n-3 PUFA, contents. Besides providing

a source of various health-promoting fatty acids, vegetable

oils have been used because they contain a wide range ofother bioactive compounds, some of them antioxidant.

Of vegetable oils, olive is the one that has received

most attention, chiefly as a source of MUFAs. Olive oil

is the most monounsaturated vegetable oil and has

a high biological value, attributed to a high ratio of vita-

min E to polyunsaturated fatty acids. It has a lower ratio

of saturated to monounsaturated fatty acids than any other

vegetable oil and contains antioxidant substances in opti-

mum concentrations (Bloukas, Paneras, & Fournitzis,

1997). Olive oil intake is associated with a lessened risk

of heart disease and breast cancer, and it has positive ef-

fects on colon cancer. Also, it has beneficial effects onpostprandial lipid metabolism and thrombosis and inhibits

LDL oxidation (Luruena-Martinez, Vivar-Quintana, & Re-

villa, 2004). Partial substitution (in various percentages) of

pork backfat by olive oil has been tried in various cooked

and cured meat products, adding between 1 and 10 g of ol-

ive oil per 100 g of product (Tables 2 and 3). In the case of

meat-based gel/emulsion products, the purpose of substitu-

tion has been essentially to produce low-fat formulations

(Table 2), but it has also been tried in fermented products

with normal-fat formulations (Table 3). Olive oil increases

MUFAs in meat products without significantly altering the

n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio (Ansorena & Astiasaran, 2004;

Muguerza, Fista, Ansorena, Astiasaran, & Bloukas,2002). Substantial amounts of MUFAs have also been

Table 1. Fresh meat products formulated with different non-meat fats

Products Oil Incorporation Fat content(g/100 g)

Oil content(g/100 g)

n-3 PUFAg/100 g

Source

Ground beef patties Corn Solid form: PHa 9.6 5 e 1Cottonseed Solid form: PH 9.9 5 ePalm Solid form: PH 9.6 5 ePeanut Solid form: PH 9.6 5 eSoybean Solid form: PH 9.6 5 e

Ground beef patties Palm Solid 14e45 5e40 e 2Soybean Liquid 14e45 5e40 ePalm mid-fraction Solid 14e45 5e40 ePalm super-olein Liquid 14e45 5e40 e

Beef burgers Palm stearin Solid 15 15 e 3Ground beef patties Refined 4

Groundnut Liquid 17 14 eMaize Liquid 18 15 e

Ground turkey patties Algal Oil-in-water emulsioneWPIa 3 1.1 0.400 5Fresh pork sausages 21 1.1 0.400Ground turkey patties Algal Oil-in-water emulsioneWPI 2 1.1 0.402 6Fresh pork sausages 20 1.1 0.397Restructured hams e 0.402Beef burgers Palm Solid 15


4/12

Table 2. Cooked meat products formulated with different non-meat fats

Products Oil Incorporation Fat content(g/100 g)

Oil content(g/100 g)

% ofCholesterolreductionb

n-3 PUFAg/100 g

MUFAg/100 g

n-6/PUFA

Frankfurter High-oleic acid sunflower Liquid 17 7.5e13.1 e e 12.2c eDeodorized fish Liquid 15 5 e e e e

Frankfurter Peanut Liquid 12e29 7.2e17.4 17e35 e e eFrankfurter High-oleic acid sunflower Liquid 11e28 6e24 e e e eBologna Corn Pre-emulsified/

SCa15 10 e e e e

Frankfurter Virgin olive Pre-emulsified/SC 11 7 e e e eFrankfurter Olive (O) Pre-emulsified/SC 10 6.7 e 0.05c 6.8c 14.

Corn 10 6.7 e 0.03c 3.1c 132Sunflower 10 6.7 e 0.02c 2.9c 215Soybean (S) 10 6.7 e 0.44c 2.5c 7.

Beef frankfurters andcooked salamis

Soyseed Liquid 22 19.5 e e e eSunflower Liquid 22e30 19.5e27.5 e e e eCottonseed (C) Liquid 22 19.5 e e e eCorn seed Liquid 22 19.5 e e e ePalmine Solid 22 19.5 e e e e

Frankfurter Olive Pre-emulsified/SC 10 4 e e e eFrankfurter OC S Pre-emulsified/SC 10 4 59 0.10c 4.0c 24

OC 10 4 52 0.06c 4.0c 31O S 10 4 56 0.15c 5.0c 10

Frankfurter Olive Pre-emulsified/SC 9 2.7e5.4 e e e eEmulsified meatballs(Kung-wans)

11 Plantd Liquid and solid 5e7 4e6 e e e e

Frankfurter Palm Interesterified 21e22 6e10 e e e 8.6eCottonseed Interesterified 18e19 6e10 e e e 6.5 Olive Interesterified 18e21 6e10 e e e 9.3e

Spreadable liver sausage Soybean Liquid 31 1.2e5 e e e eFrankfurter Olive Liquid 12 5 e e e eChicken frankfurters Refined, bleached

and deodorized palmMelted (55 C) 25 10e20 e e e e

Palm stearin Melted (55 C) 25 10e20 e e e e

1. Park et al., 1989; 2. Marquez et al., 1989; 3. Park et al., 1990; 4. Bishop et al., 1993; 5. Bloukas & Paneras, 1993; 6. Paneras & Bloukas, 1994; 1997; 9. Paneras et al., 1998; 10. Pappa et al., 2000; 11. Hsu & Yu, 2002; 12. Vural et al., 2004; 13. Hong et al., 2004; 13. Luruena-Martinez ea SC, Sodium caseinate.b Versus the control sample.c Estimated using 0.950 as conversion factor to give total fatty acids in fat.d Coconut, sunflower, palm, corn, peanut, soybean, tea seed and olive oils, and hydrogenated oils from coconut, palm and soybean.


5/12

Table 3. Fermented meat products formulated with different non-meat fats

Products Oil Incorporation Fat contentb

(g/100 g)Oil content(g/100 g)

% ofCholesterolreductionc

n-3 PUFAg/100 g

MUFAg/100

Fermented sausages Olive Liquid 25 3.3e6.6 e e eOlive Pre-emulsion/ISPa 23 3.3e6.6 e e e

Spanish fermentedsausage chorizo

Olive Pre-emulsion/ISP 31 1.31e3.95 4e22 e 14.2e

Turkish semi-dryfermented sausages

Palm Interesterified 26e27 3e16 e e eCottonseed Interesterified 26e27 3e16 e e e

Salami Extra virgin olive Liquid: pre-mixedwith SCa

e e e e e

Dry fermentedsausage Turkish soudjouk

Olive Pre-emulsion/ISP 20 3e9 12e35 e e

Spanish fermented

sausage chorizo

Soy Pre-emulsion/ISP 31e34 1.97e3.28 0 0.51e0.62d 14.3e

Dry fermented sausage Fish oil extract Pre-emulsion/ISP 29e33 0.5e1.1 0 0.56e1.01d 12.6eDry fermented sausage Deodorized fish oil Pre-emulsion/ISP 27 3.3 31 1.41 11.98Dry fermented sausage Linseed Pre-emulsion/ISP 30e32 3.3 e 2.44d 11.8d

Dutch stylefermented sausage

Flaxseed Encapsulated 39 4.5 e 3.82d 13.34d

Flaxseed Pre-emulsion/ISP 40 3.0e6.0 e 2.38e4.72d 16.4eFlaxseed Pre-emulsion/SCa 35 6.0 e 4.33d 13.61d

Canola Pre-emulsion/ISP 39 3.0e6.0 e 0.75e0.89d 17.9eFish Encapsulated 39 4.5 e 0.38d 17.0d

1. Bloukas et al., 1997; 2. Muguerza et al., 2001; 3. Vural, 2003; 4. Severini et al., 2003; 5. Kayaardi & Gok, 2003; 6. Muguerza, Ansorena, & Ast2004; 8. Valencia et al., 2006; 9. Ansorena & Astiasaran, 2004; 10. Pelser et al., 2007.a ISP, isolated soy protein; SC, sodium caseinate.b Initial fat content.c Versus the control sample.d

Estimated using 0.950 as conversion factor to give total fatty acids in fat.


6/12

incorporated by addition of high-oleic acid sunflower oil

(Park, Rhee, Keeton, & Rhee, 1989; Park, Rhee, & Ziprin,

1990).

Animal fat has been partially replaced with various veg-

etable oils (cottonseed, corn, soybean, peanut, etc.) to in-

crease PUFA levels, improve fatty acid profiles (PUFA/SFA ratio) and reduce cholesterol contents of different

meat products (Tables 1e3). Cottonseed and corn oils are

very rich in PUFAs and contain very high concentrations

of linoleic acid (LA, 18n2:6) (>56% of total fatty acid);

their addition to meat products does reduce PUFA/SFA ra-

tios, but it also has the unwanted effect of raising the n-6/

n-3 PUFA ratio(Paneras & Bloukas, 1994; Paneras, Bloukas,

& Filis, 1998). Soybean oil contains high levels of both LA

(56.1% of total fatty acid) and ALNA (7.3%) (Paneras

et al., 1998). Canola oils (with 20% LA and 8% ALNA)

have been used to increase the PUFA/SFA ratio in fermented

sausages (Pelser, Linssen, Legger, & Houben, 2007). Animalfat has been substituted by groundnut and maize oils,

which are cholesterol-free and have a higher ratio of

unsaturated to saturated fatty acids, to improve the nutri-

tional value of ground beef (Dzudie, Kouebou, Essia-

Ngang, & Mbofung, 2004). When added to restructured

beef roast, rice bran oil not only favours the presence of

LA but also has useful antioxidant activity and vitamin

E stabilizing effects (Kim, Godber, & Prinaywiwatkul,

2000). Palm oil and its products are used in the reformu-

lation of meat products (Tables 1e3) because of a number

of desirable characteristics (easy to use at normal ambient

temperature, cholesterol-free and naturally contain antiox-

idants) (Babji et al., 1998; Babji, Alina, Yusoff, & WanSulaiman, 2001). However, palm fat has a high content

of the saturated palmitic acid, which is considered a risk

factor for CVD.

Vegetable and marine oils have been used to supply

substantial amounts of n-3 PUFAs in order to produce

n-3 PUFA-enriched meat products (Tables 1e3). Linseed

oil containing 57% ALNA (Pelser et al., 2007) has been

used to alter the PUFA/SFA and n-6/n-3 PUFA ratios

(Ansorena & Astiasaran, 2004; Pelser et al., 2007;

Valencia, Ansorena, & Astiasaran, 2006). Fish oils con-

taining approximately 22% EPA, 3% DPA and 22%

DHA (Pelser et al., 2007) are one of the food sourcesof long chain n-3 PUFAs. The two main problems associ-

ated with them are susceptibility to lipid oxidation and

a residual fishy aroma and taste. These problems can often

be minimized by refining and deodorizing the oil, and by

applying various antioxidant strategies (Garg et al., 2006).

Fish oil has been used in various forms and levels to

enrich different food products with long chain n-3 PUFAs

(Kolanowski & Laufenberg, 2006), including some meat

derivatives (Tables 2 and 3). Some marine algae produce

DHA-rich oil, which is processed in the same way as

most vegetable oils. After extraction, the oil is desolven-

tized, winterized, refined, bleached, deodorized and finally

diluted with vegetable oil (high-oleic sunflower oil) to

bring the DHA level to 40% (Becker & Kyle, 1998). Al-

gal oil has been used to produce meat products (Lee,

Faustman, et al., 2006; Lee, Hernandez, et al., 2006).

Numerous plant materials have been used as ingredients

in meat products essentially for purposes of economy, tech-

nology and composition (nutrition and health). In some ofthese non-meat ingredients the lipid component plays a crit-

ical role both quantitatively and qualitatively, and one

example of this is the development of meat-based func-

tional foods with walnut. Walnuts have a high fat content

(62e68%) and are rich in MUFAs (oleic acid, 18% of

total fatty acids) and PUFAs (LA and ALNA, which res-

pectively account for 58% and 12% of total fatty acids).

Olmedilla-Alonso, Granado-Lorencio, Herrero-Barbudo,

and Blanco-Navarro (2006) reported health benefits of wal-

nut consumption with respect to the risk of coronary heart

disease and proposed a nutritional basis for and a technolog-

ical approach to the development of functional meat-basedproducts with potential for the reduction of CVD risk. The

FDA recently authorized a qualified health claim indicating

that eating 42.5 g per day of walnuts, as part of a low-

saturated-fat and low-cholesterol diet not resulting in in-

creased caloric intake, may reduce the risk of CVD

(FDA, 2004). The effect of walnut addition on the nutri-

tional profile of restructured beefsteak (Serrano et al.,

2005) and frankfurter sausage (Ayo et al., in press) has

been reported.

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a component of rumi-

nant meat, has been shown to have beneficial effects such

as anticarcinogenic and antiatherogenic activity, and to al-

ter the partition of energy toward protein deposition insteadof fat (Enser, 2000). Fatty acid profiles of meat products

have been improved by direct addition of CLA to pork

patties (Joo, Lee, Hah, Ha, & Park, 2000) or beef patties

(Chae, Keeton, & Smith, 2004; Hur et al., 2004) and by in-

jection into beef strip loin (Baublits et al., 2007). Other

lipid materials (e.g., ginger and basil essential oils) have

been added to meat products less to induce quantitative

or qualitative changes in fatty acid profiles than to harness

specific desirable activities e e.g., antioxidant e or some

other components (e.g., aromatic substances).

Technology options for replacement of meat fatsBoth liquid oils and plastic fats (solid at room tempera-

ture) have been used to produce healthier content and

lipid profile formulations in meat-based functional foods

(Tables 1e3). Compared to habitually used meat fats, these

new lipid materials (of plant or marine origin) have differ-

ent physicochemical characteristics which may mean that

meat processing conditions have to be adjusted to induce

the desired quality attributes in the reformulated product.

The procedures used to incorporate natural or processed

plant and marine lipids in meat products range from direct

addition as liquid oils or as solids (including interesterified

oils) to incorporation in encapsulated or pre-emulsified

form or as part of plant ingredients. The potential of these



7/12

approaches varies, among other factors, according to the type

of product. The following is an account of the different tech-

nology options for meat fat replacement that have been as-

sayed for the development of healthier lipid meat products.

Incorporation as liquid oilOils are among the most commonly used lipid materials

for animal fat replacement. Since they are liquid at room

temperature or even under refrigeration, incorporation in

some types of processed meat can pose technological diffi-

culties. The oil needs to be incorporated in the form of sta-

ble oil droplets which do not coalesce during product

processing or cooking, as otherwise this would result in liq-

uid loss and poor quality. Another vital aspect is that they

are more susceptible to lipid oxidation because of their

highly unsaturated fatty acids.

Liquid oil has been incorporated in a variety of meat

products (Tables 1e

3). Incorporation conditions vary ac-cording to factors connected with the type of product (intact

muscle tissue, fresh, gel/emulsion-based or fermented prod-

ucts) and with the characteristics and amount of the incor-

porated oil.

In meat products made with intact muscle tissue, liquid

oil has been added by micro-injection. This procedure gen-

erally needs to be accompanied by other ingredients and

mechanical processes in order to favour product character-

istics (Domazakies, 2005). Liquid oils have been added di-

rectly to products like beef patties (Dzudie et al., 2004;

Shiota et al., 1995), fermented sausages (Bloukas et al.,

1997) and salami (Severini, De Pilli, & Baiano, 2003).

However, Bloukas et al. (1997) reported that direct incorpo-ration of olive oil in fermented sausage produced an unac-

ceptable appearance and very soft texture. End chopping

temperature is crucial in determining the emulsion stability

of meat batters, although the ideal chopping temperature is

highly dependent on the degree of comminution and per-

centage of fats present in the formulation (Whiting,

1987). Liquid oil is added to gel/emulsion products at the

end of the emulsification process both with (Ambrosiadis,

Vareltzis, & Georgakis, 1996) and without (Hong, Lee, &

Min, 2004) temperature control. In order to increase the

viscosity of liquid oils, Luruena-Martinez et al. (2004)

used olive oil at 6

C to replace 5% of pork fat in low-fat frankfurters.

Incorporation as pre-emulsified oilsPre-emulsion is generally used when incorporating fats

that are difficult to stabilize. A pre-emulsion is an oil-

in-water emulsion with an emulsifier, typically a protein

of non-meat origin. It is made prior to meat product man-

ufacture and is added as a fat ingredient to meat products.

Oil pre-emulsion technology with a non-meat protein im-

proves the systems fat binding ability, since the oils can

be stabilized or immobilized in a protein matrix. This re-

duces the chances of bulk oil physically separating from

the structure of the meat product so that it remains stable

throughout the range of environmental conditions that are

likely to be encountered during processing, storage and

consumption (Djordjevic, McClements, & Decker, 2004).

Besides being physically stable throughout a products

lifetime, oil-in-water emulsions constitute an excellent

means of enhancing the oxidative stability of lipids inbulk oils, as additional protective measures such as antiox-

idants can be used to inhibit lipid oxidation. Also, oil-in-

water emulsions are easier to disperse into water-based

systems such as muscle foods (Djordjevic et al., 2004).

Because of their physicochemical characteristics, pre-

emulsions are suitable for use in the formulation of

a wide variety of meat products (Tables 1e3).

A number of procedures have been reported for produc-

ing an oil (plant or marine) pre-emulsion for incorporation

in meat derivatives. The most commonly applied is one

proposed by Hoogenkamp, which has been used in numer-

ous applications (Ansorena & Astiasaran, 2004; Bloukas &Paneras, 1993; Bloukas et al., 1997; Paneras & Bloukas,

1994; Pappa, Bloukas, & Arvanitoyannis, 2000; Pelser

et al., 2007; Valencia et al., 2006). The pre-emulsion was

prepared by mixing eight parts of hot water (50e60 C)

with one part of sodium caseinate or isolated soy protein

for 2 min. The mixture is emulsified with 10 parts of oil

for another 3 min. Pre-emulsions of olive, linseed, deodor-

ized fish or canola oils have been prepared using this

method (Tables 2 and 3). Generally speaking, sodium ca-

seinate (SC) has been used as an emulsifier in sausage-

type products, whereas soy protein isolate (SPI) has been

used in fermented products (Tables 2 and 3). Pelser et al.

(2007) report that SC appeared not to be suitable for pre-emulsification of flaxseed oil for use in the preparation of

Dutch style fermented sausages; they explain that emulsifi-

cation was inadequate and a film formed between casing

and meat so that the product was not completely dried.

Other pre-emulsion procedures basically entail altering

the proportion of watereemulsifiereoil and the emulsify-

ing conditions. For example, a pre-emulsion of corn oil

was prepared by adding the oil, water and sodium caseinate

(ratio 8:8:1) simultaneously to the bowl chopper and chop-

ping for 5 min (Bishop, Olson, & Knipe, 1993). The olive

oil pre-emulsion used in the preparation of a traditional

Turkish fermented dry sausage was prepared with water,isolated soy protein and olive oil in the proportion 5:1:5

(Kayaardi & Gok, 2003).

Djordjevic et al. (2004) described the preparation of an

oil-in-water emulsion with 25 wt % algal oil or menhaden

oil stabilized by whey protein isolate (WPI) or sodium ca-

seinate and antioxidants (tocopherol and EDTA), at pH 3.

They found that WPI-stabilized algal oil-in-water emul-

sions were stable to oxidation and physically stable at pH

3. On the basis of that procedure, Lee, Faustman, et al.

(2006) and Lee, Hernandez, et al. (2006) prepared an algal

oil pre-emulsion (pasteurized for 30 min at 75 C), which

was used to make fresh ground turkey, fresh pork sausage

and restructured ham.

573F. Jimenez-Colmenero / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 567e578


8/12

Pre-emulsified corn oil with SPI has been incorporated

in the place of animal fat in model comminuted meat

gels (Mourtzinos & Kiosseoglou, 2005). Oil-in-water emul-

sions (30% oil) were prepared by first dissolving soy pro-

tein isolated at pH 6.5, followed by dropwise addition of

corn oil to the continuous phase (1% protein) while mixingwith the aid of a mechanical stirrer. The resulting crude

emulsions were used to prepare the comminuted meat gels.

Pre-emulsions were prepared the day before production

of meat products (Bishop et al., 1993; Pappa et al., 2000) or

on the day of use (Bloukas & Paneras, 1993; Paneras et al.,

1998).

Incorporation as encapsulated oilThe food industry uses microencapsulation for a number

of purposes, such as stabilization of active substances,

controlled release of active substances, or masking an un-

pleasant taste or smell (Kolanowski & Laufenberg, 2006).Microencapsulation of oils facilitates their handling and

incorporation in food products, where they delay/inhibit

oxidation, help to mask undesirable odours or flavours in

final products and improve bioavailability of n-3 PUFAs

(Garg et al., 2006). Most microencapsulated oil products

are based on the formation of fish oil emulsions using pro-

teins, polysaccharides, lecithin and other low molecular

weight emulsifiers. The emulsions are then spray-dried

(the low-cost microencapsulation technology commonly

used in the food industry) to form microcapsules. The

amount of oil that can be delivered in this format varies

from 1% to 30%; the levels of incorporation that can be

achieved with existing technologies are very low and theamount of (long chain) n-3 PUFAs required to meet recom-

mended allowances is impractical in most cases (Garg

et al., 2006).

These technologies have been used to fortify frequently

consumed food (breads, soups, etc.) with reasonable con-

sumer acceptability (Garg et al., 2006), although their use

in meat products has been very limited (Table 3). Encapsu-

lated flaxseed oil and fish oil have been used to replace 15%

of animal fat (pork backfat) in fermented sausages (Pelser

et al., 2007).

Incorporation as solid fatNatural or processed solid vegetable fats have been used

to prepare a number of meat products (Tables 1e3). Some

vegetable fats like palm oil present high consistency at am-

bient temperature because of their high solid glyceride con-

tent. A wide range of functionalities and plasticity can be

achieved in palm oil products by varying the blend of stea-

rin and olein. Palm oils, oleins and stearins blended to-

gether with food additives have been incorporated in

several meat products (Babji et al., 2001). Their specific

physicochemical characteristics can require some variations

in meat processing conditions. For instance, when plastic

fats are incorporated into meat batters during chopping,

higher energy input is needed to sufficiently disperse the

fats, and the heat generated can lead to the formation of

a less stable meat emulsion (Tan, Aminah, Zhang, & Abdul,

2006). Whiting (1987) attributed the poor emulsion stabil-

ity of meat batters containing fats with high melting points

to the limited ability of chopping equipment to disperse fats

sufficiently into small particles. It has been suggested thatmelting of these fats before incorporation into meat batters

could overcome the emulsion breakdown problem, as they

would become viscous enough to be readily mixed into the

meat batters (Tan et al., 2006). It is also the case that the

melting point affects sensory attributes of meat products.

For example, fat which is solid at 35e40 C confers

a waxy texture. If the melting point is below these temper-

atures, there is no undesirable waxy aftertaste, which is

caused by incomplete melting of fat in the mouth and can

affect consumer acceptance (Babji et al., 1998, 2001).

Processes like partial hydrogenation and interesteri-

fication are used to simulate the consistency of high-melting-point fats. To produce a solid form, vegetable

oils are hydrogenated to eliminate double bonds by direct

addition of hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids. It is well

known that the hydrogenation process, in which SFAs e

and particularly the trans fatty acid (TFA) e are formed,

presents various adverse effects on health (Simopoulos,

2002). Partially hydrogenated plant oils (corn, cottonseed

palm, peanut and soybean) have been substituted for beef

fat in lean (10% fat) ground beef patties (Liu, Huffman,

& Egbert, 1991). Also, partially hydrogenated palm oil

has been used in the formulation of beef burgers (Babji

et al., 1998).

Interesterification has been used to modify physico-chemical properties of vegetable oils. In this process, which

can be achieved by either chemical or enzymatic means, the

positions of an acyl group are changed within a triglyceride

or among triglyceride molecules. The result is a higher

melting point, but without any formation of SFAs or

TFAs. Interesterification lacks the adverse effects of hydro-

genation, so that interesterified oils offer an attractive alter-

native as fat replacers in meat products. Interesterified

vegetable oils prepared from different plant sources

(palm, cottonseed and olive) have been used as fat replacers

to modify the fatty acid composition of frankfurters and

semi-dry fermented sausage (Javidipour & Vural, 2002;Javidipour, Vural, Ozen, Ozbas, & Tekin, 2005; Vural,

2003; Vural, Javidipour, & Ozbas, 2004).

Healthier lipid product composition and contributionto fatty acid intake goals

One of the most important aspects of the design of po-

tential functional foods is the scale of the alterations needed

to achieve potential health-promoting functions. One of the

possible limitations affecting fortified products is that large

quantities may need to be consumed to assure recommen-

ded intake levels (Garg et al., 2006). This being so, an

analysis of the different meat products that have been for-

mulated (Tables 1e3) would help to assess the importance



9/12

of the composition changes that have been made and how

they affect intake levels when consumed on a regular basis.

Fresh meat productsNon-meat fat (plant oils and algal oil) in various forms

and concentrations has been used to improve the lipid com-position of various fresh meat products (Table 1). The effort

required to replace animal fat varies widely depending on

the fat content of the meat product. In products containing

low fat (


10/12

type and amount of oil that is incorporated. In general, the

addition of oils raises PUFA/SFA ratios and reduces n-6/n-3

PUFA ratios, bringing values closer to the recommended

goals (Table 3). The range of cholesterol reduction is 4e

35% (Table 3), but fish oil raises the content by 31% as

compared to products with only pork fat (Valencia et al.,2006). One hundred grams of healthier fermented sausages

can supply n-3 PUFA in quantities ranging from 380 to

4720 mg (Table 3), which is a considerable amount in terms

of dietary recommendations (Kolanowski et al., 1999). The

amount of MUFAs is generally between 12 and 18 g per

100 g of edible portion. In the context of a 2000 kcal diet

this means that 5.4e8.1% of energy intake is from MUFAs

and 0.17e2.1% n-3 from PUFAs.

Influence of reformulation on processing and qualitycharacteristics

Various different strategies have been tried to minimizethe consequences of composition change for processing and

product characteristics. One of the main potential problems

posed by these modifications is how they may influence the

rate and extent of lipid oxidation, which in turn affects

quality characteristics and has health implications. There

are a number of factors determining the scale of this

phenomenon. Susceptibility to lipid oxidation can be aug-

mented by an increment in unsaturated fatty acids, particu-

larly polyunsaturated, processing conditions like grinding,

cooking, drying, etc. which entail exposure to high temper-

atures, decompartmentalization of prooxidants and antioxi-

dants or enhanced access of oxygen to the substrate ( Lee,

Hernandez, et al., 2006).The addition of maize oil and essential oils (natural anti-

oxidants) has been found to minimize lipid oxidation in

beef patties (Dzudie et al., 2004). An antioxidant combina-

tion containing a radical quencher (rosemary extract), a

sequestrant (sodium citrate) and a reductant (sodium

erythorbate) incorporated into n-3 PUFA-fortified meat

products (fresh ground turkey, fresh pork sausage and re-

structured ham) effectively minimizes lipid oxidation dur-

ing fresh and post-cooking storage (Lee, Faustman, et al.,

2006; Lee, Hernandez, et al., 2006).

No specific problems have generally been reported in

connection with oxidative stability in gel/emulsion meat-based products formulated with healthier lipid profiles

(Table 2). This fact has been put down to a variety of fac-

tors: the presence of a curing mixture ingredient containing

substances such as nitrite, phosphate or ascorbate which act

as antioxidants (Marquez, Ahmed, West, & Johnson, 1989);

the natural presence of various antioxidant substances

(tocopherols, phenolic compounds) in several of the plant

oils used e for example, olive oil (Bloukas et al., 1997)

or corn oil (Bishop et al., 1993) e or finally the absence

of phospholipids in refined oils (Bishop et al., 1993).

No oxidation problems have been detected in partial sub-

stitution of pork backfat by olive oil (Bloukas et al., 1997;

Muguerza, Gimeno, Ansorena, Bloukas, & Astiasaran,

2001; Severini et al., 2003) or linseed oil (Ansorena &

Astiasaran, 2004; Valencia et al., 2006) in fermented meat

products. Replacing beef fat with olive oil has been reported

to favour lipid oxidation in traditional Turkish dry fer-

mented sausage (Kayaardi & Gok, 2003). Oxidation has

been reported in dry fermented sausage containing fish oilextract during curing (Muguerza, Ansorena, & Astiasaran,

2004), but Valencia et al. (2006) found no signs of oxidation

in products enriched with n-3 PUFAs from fish oil in the

presence of antioxidants (BHABHT). Pelser et al.

(2007) have reported that addition of canola oil and encap-

sulated flaxseed oil in Dutch style fermented sausages did

not reduce the shelf life in terms of lipid oxidation, but

that addition of flaxseed oil and encapsulated fish oil

increased lipid oxidation during storage.

Challenges for formulation of healthier lipid

meat productsIt has been suggested that foods that are strategically ornaturally enriched in healthier fatty acids can be used to

achieve desired biochemical effects without the ingestion

of supplements or changes in dietary habit. As one of the

commonest foods in our diet, meats are an especially suit-

able vehicle for adding healthier lipids. This has not es-

caped the notice of the industry, which has marketed

a wide variety of healthier lipid (MUFA and PUFA) en-

riched foods worldwide, including various meat products

(Jimenez-Colmenero et al., 2006; Kolanoswski & Laufen-

berg, 2006). However, there are a number of aspects relat-

ing to product design, technologies for incorporation of

exogenous lipids, assessment of the consequences of com-position changes from production to consumer, and health

benefits, which need to be taken into account when plan-

ning new developments.

One fundamental requirement of the design and refor-

mulation of these products with a view to potential health

benefits is to assure that the lipid content and profile are op-

timum. The final product should contain enough concentra-

tions of these beneficial compounds so that the quantity of

the product that a person can reasonably be expected to

consume supplies enough of the nutrient to produce the nu-

tritional or physiological effect claimed on the basis of gen-

erally accepted scientific data. This aspect is essential fornutrition and health claims on foods (Regulation (EC) No

1924/2006). These and other considerations may mean

that meat products with very low or high fat content do

not present sufficient merits in terms of the recommenda-

tions for optimal intake. In any event, in order to expand

and improve the possibilities of developing meat deriva-

tives of this kind, better procedures are needed for incorpo-

ration of the various types of healthier non-meat fat in the

right amounts and conditions.

Particular attention needs to be paid to the effect of pro-

cessing, storage, preparation and composition of reformu-

lated products, since significant amounts of specific

components can be lost, and this can limit their potential



11/12

health benefits. At the same time, combined research efforts

are required to demonstrate satisfactorily that regular con-

sumption of a product has a beneficial effect on one or

more specific functions in the organism and that it is there-

fore a functional food.

AcknowledgmentsThis research was supported under project AGL2005-

07204-C02-02 of the Plan Nacional de Investigacion

Cientfica, Desarrollo e Innovacion Tecnologica (IDI),

Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnologa.

References

Ambrosiadis, J., Vareltzis, K. P., & Georgakis, S. A. (1996). Physical,chemical and sensory characteristics of cooked meat emulsionstyle products containing vegetable oils. International Journal ofFood Science and Technology, 31(2), 189e194.

Anandh, M. A., Lakshmanan, V., & Anjaneluyu, A. (2003). Designermeat foods. Indian Food Industry, 22(4), 40e45.

Ansorena, D., & Astiasaran, I. (2004). The use of linseed oil improvesnutritional quality of the lipid fraction of dry-fermented sausages.Food Chemistry, 87(1), 69e74.

Arhiara, K. (2006). Strategies for designing novel functional meatproducts. Meat Science, 74, 219e229.

Ayo, J.,Carballo, J., Serrano, J., Olmedilla-Alonso,B., Ruiz-Capillas,C.,& Jimenez-Colmenero, F. (in press). Effect of total replacement ofpork backfat with walnut on nutritional profile of frankfurters. MeatScience. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2007.02.026.

Babji, A. S., Alina, A. R., Chempaka, M. Y. S., Sharmini, T., Basker, R.,& Yap, S. L. (1998). Replacement of animal fat with fractionatedand partially hydrogenated palm oil in beef burgers. InternationalJournal of Food Science and Nutrition, 49(5), 327e332.

Babji, A. S., Alina, A. R., Yusoff, M. S. A., & Wan Sulaiman, W. I.(2001). Palm oil: healthy fat substitute? Meat International, 11(2),26e27.

Baublits, R. T., Pohlman, F. W., Brown, A. H., Johnson, Z. B.,Proctor, A., Sawyer, J., et al. (2007). Injection of conjugated linoleicacid into beef strip loins. Meat Science, 75(1), 84e93.

Becker, C. C., & Kyle, D. J. (1998). Developing functional foodscontaining algal docosahexaenoic acid. Food Technology, 52(7),68e71.

Bishop, D. J., Olson, D. G., & Knipe, C. L. (1993). Pre-emulsified cornoil, pork fat, or added moisture affect quality of reduced fat bolo-gna quality. Journal of Food Science, 58(3), 484e487.

Bloukas, J. G., & Paneras, E. D. (1993). Substituting olive oil for porkbackfat affects quality of low-fat frankfurters. Journal of FoodScience, 58(4), 705e709.

Bloukas, J. G., Paneras, E. D., & Fournitzis, G. C. (1997). Effect of re-placing pork backfat with olive oil on processing and quality char-acteristics of fermented sausages. Meat Science, 45(2), 133e144.

Chae, S. H., Keeton, J. T., & Smith, S. B. (2004). Conjugated linoleicacid reduces lipid oxidation in aerobically stored, cooked groundbeef patties. Journal of Food Science, 69(8), 306e309.

Djordjevic, D., McClements, D. J., & Decker, E. A. (2004). Oxidativestability of whey protein-stabilized oil-in-water emulsions at pH 3:potential u-3 fatty acid delivery systems (part B). Journal of FoodScience, 69(5), C356eC362.

Domazakies, E. S. (2005). Method for the production of meat productsfrom entire muscular tissue and direct integration of olive oil.Patent GR1004991-B1.

Dzudie, T., Kouebou, C. P., Essia-Ngang, J. J., & Mbofung, C. M. F.(2004). Lipid sources and essential oils effects on quality and sta-bility of beef patties. Journal of Food Engineering, 65(1), 67e72.

Enser, M. (2000). Producing meat for healthy eating. In Proceeding ofthe 46th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology(Vol. I) (pp. 124e129). Buenos Aires, 27 Auguste1 September,2000.

FDA. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2004). Office of NutritionalProducts. Labelling and dietary supplements. Qualified health

claim: letter of enforcement discretion e walnuts and coronaryheart disease. Docket No 02P-0292.

Fernandez-Gines, J. M., Fernandez-Lopez, J., Sayas-Barbera, E., &Perez-Alvarez, J. A. (2005). Meat products as functional foods:a review. Journal of Food Science, 70(2), R37eR43.

Garg, M. L., Wood, L. G., Singh, H., & Moughan, P. J. (2006). Means ofdelivering recommended levels of long chain n-3 polyunsaturatedfatty acids in human diets. Journal of Food Science, 71(5),R66eR71.

Givens, D. I., Khem, K. E., & Gibbs, R. A. (2006). The role of meat asa source of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the human diet. MeatScience, 74(1), 209e218.

Hong, G.-P., Lee, S., & Min, S.-G. (2004). Effects of replacementfor backfat with soybean oil on the quality characteristics of

spreadable liver sausage. Food Science and Biotechnology, 13(1),51e56.

Howe, P., Meyer, B., Record, S., & Baghurst, K. (2006). Dietary intakeof long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: contribution ofmeat sources. Nutrition, 22(1), 47e53.

Hsu, S. Y., & Yu, S. H. (2002). Comparisons on 11 plant oil fat sub-stitutes for low-fat Kung-wans. Journal of Food Engineering, 51(3),215e220.

Hur, S. J., Ye, B. W., Lee, J. L., Ha, Y. L., Park, G. B., & Joo, S. T.(2004). Effects of conjugated linoleic acid on color and lipidoxidation of beef patties during cold storage. Meat Science, 66(4),771e775.

Javidipour, I., & Vural, H. (2002). Effects of incorporation of interes-terified plant oils on quality and fatty acid composition of Turkish-type salami. Nahrung, 46(6), 404e407.

Javidipour, I., Vural, H., Ozen, O., Ozbas, O., & Tekin, A. (2005).Effects of interesterified vegetable oils and sugar beet fibre on thequality of Turkish-type salami. International Journal of FoodScience and Technology, 40(2), 177e185.

Jimenez-Colmenero, F., Carballo, J., & Cofrades, S. (2001). Healthiermeat and meat products: their role as functional foods. MeatScience, 59(1), 5e13.

Jimenez-Colmenero, F., Reig, M., & Toldra, F. (2006). New approachesfor the development of functional meat products. In L. M. L. Nollet,& F. Toldra (Eds.), Advanced technologies for meat processing(pp. 275e308). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & FrancisGroup.

Joo, S. T., Lee, J. I., Hah, K. H., Ha, Y. L., & Park, G. B. (2000). Effect ofconjugated linoleic acid additives on quality characteristics of porkpatties. Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology, 32(1),

62e68.Kayaardi, S., & Gok, V. (2003). Effect of replacing beef fat with olive oil

on quality characteristics of Turkish soudjouk (sucuk). MeatScience, 66(1), 249e257.

Kim, J. S., Godber, J. S., & Prinaywiwatkul, W. (2000). Restructuredbeef roasts containing rice bran oil and fiber influences cholesteroloxidation and nutritional profile. Journal of Muscle Foods, 11(2),111e127.

Kolanowski, W., & Laufenberg, G. (2006). Enrichment of foodproducts with polyunsaturated fatty acids by fish oil addition.European Food Research and Technology, 222(3e4),472e477.

Kolanowski, W., Swiderski, F., & Berger, S. (1999). Possibilities of fishoil application for food products enrichment with u-3 PUFA.International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, 50(1),

39e49.

577F. Jimenez-Colmenero / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 567e578
http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2007.02.026http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/qhcnuts3.htmlhttp://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/qhcnuts3.htmlhttp://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/qhcnuts3.htmlhttp://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/qhcnuts3.htmlhttp://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/qhcnuts3.htmlhttp://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2007.02.026


12/12

Lee, S., Faustman, C., Djordjevic, D., Faraji, H., & Decker, E. A.(2006). Effect of antioxidants on stabilization of meat productsfortified with n-3 fatty acids. Meat Science, 72(1), 18e24.

Lee, S., Hernandez, P., Djordjevic, D., Faraji, H., Hollender, R.,Faustman, C., et al. (2006). Effect of antioxidants and cooking onstability of n-3 fatty acids in fortified meat products. Journal of Food

Science, 71(3), C233eC238.Liu, M. N., Huffman, D. L., & Egbert, W. R. (1991). Replacement of

beef fat with partially hydrogenated plant oil in lean ground beefpatties. Journal of Food Science, 56(3), 861e862.

Luruena-Martinez, M. A., Vivar-Quintana, A. M., & Revilla, I. (2004).Effect of locust bean/xanthan gum addition and replacement ofpork fat with olive oil on the quality characteristics of low-fatfrankfurters. Meat Science, 68(3), 383e389.

Marquez, E. J., Ahmed, E. M., West, R. L., & Johnson, D. D. (1989).Emulsion stability and sensory quality of beef frankfurters producedat different fat and peanut oil levels. Journal of Food Science, 54(4),867e870, 873.

Mattson, F. H., & Grundy, S. M. (1985). Comparison of effects of sat-urated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids onplasma lipids and lipoproteins in man. Journal of Lipid Research,

26(2), 194e202.Mourtzinos, I., & Kiosseoglou, V. (2005). Protein interactions in com-

minuted meat gels containing emulsified corn oil. Food Chemistry,90(4), 699e704.

Muguerza, E., Ansorena, D., & Astiasaran, I. (2003). Improvement ofnutritional properties of Chorizo de Pamplona by replacement ofpork backfat with soy oil. Meat Science, 65(4), 1361e1367.

Muguerza, E., Ansorena, D., & Astiasaran, I. (2004). Functionaldry fermented sausages manufactured with high levels of n-3fatty acids: nutritional benefits and evaluation of oxidation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 84(9),1061e1068.

Muguerza, E., Fista, G., Ansorena, D., Astiasaran, I., & Bloukas, J. G.(2002). Effect of fat level and partial replacement of pork backfatwith olive oil on processing and quality characteristics of fer-

mented sausages. Meat Science, 61(4), 397e404.Muguerza, E., Gimeno, O., Ansorena, D., & Astiasaran, I. (2004). New

formulations for healthier dry fermented sausages: a review. Trendsin Food Science and Technology, 15(9), 452e457.

Muguerza, E., Gimeno, O., Ansorena, D., Bloukas, J. G., &Astiasaran, I. (2001). Effect of replacing pork backfat with pre-emulsified olive oil on lipid fraction and sensory quality of Chorizode Pamplona e a traditional Spanish fermented sausage. MeatScience, 59(3), 251e258.

Okuyama, H., & Ikemoto, A. (1999). Needs to modify the fatty acidcomposition of meats for human health. In: Proceeding of the 45thInternational Congress of Meat Science and Technology (Vol. II)(pp. 638e640). Yokohama, Japan, 1e6 August, 1999.

Olmedilla-Alonso, B., Granado-Lorencio, F., Herrero-Barbudo, C., &Blanco-Navarro, I. (2006). Nutritional approach for designing

meat-based functional food products with nuts. Critical Reviews inFood Science and Nutrition, 46(7), 537e542.

Paneras, E. D., & Bloukas, J. G. (1994). Vegetable oils replace porkbackfat for low-fat frankfurters. Journal of Food Science, 59(4),725e728, 733.

Paneras, E. D., Bloukas, J. G., & Filis, D. G. (1998). Production of low-fat frankfurters with vegetable oils following the dietary guidelinesfor fatty acids. Journal of Muscle Foods, 9(2), 111e126.

Pappa, I. C., Bloukas, J. C., & Arvanitoyannis, I. S. (2000). Optimi-zation of salt, olive oil and pectin for low-fat frankfurters pro-duced by replacing pork backfat with olive oil. Meat Science,56(1), 81e88.

Park, J., Rhee, K. S., Keeton, J. T., & Rhee, K. C. (1989). Properties oflow-fat frankfurters containing monounsaturated and omega-3polyunsaturated oils. Journal of Food Science, 54(3), 500e504.

Park, J., Rhee, K. S., & Ziprin, Y. A. (1990). Low-fat frankfurters withelevated levels of water and oleic acid. Journal of Food Science,55(3), 871e872, 874.

Pelser, W. M., Linssen, J. P. H., Legger, A., & Houben, J. H. (2007).Lipid oxidation in n-3 fatty acid enriched Dutch style fermentedsausages. Meat Science, 75(1), 1e11.

Raes, K., De Smet, S., & Demeyer, D.(2004).Effect of dietary fatty acidson incorporation of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids andconjugated linoleic acid in lamb, beef and pork meat: a review.Animal Feed Science and Technology, 113(1e4), 199e221.

Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 of the European Parliament and of theCouncil of 20 December 2006 on nutrition and health claims madeon foods. Official Journal of the European Union, L404/9eL404/25. 30/12/2006.

Scollan, N., Hocquette, J.-F., Nuernberg, K., Dannenberger, D.,Richardson, I., & Moloney, A. (2006). Innovations in beef pro-duction systems that enhance the nutritional and health value ofbeef lipids and their relationship with meat quality. Meat Science,

74(1), 17e33.Serrano, A., Cofrades, S., Ruiz-Capillas, C., Olmedilla-Alonso, B.,

Herrero-Barbudo, C., & Jimenez-Colmenero, F. (2005). Nutritionalprofile of restructured beef steak with added walnuts. Meat Sci-ence, 70(4), 647e654.

Severini, C., De Pilli, T., & Baiano, A. (2003). Partial substitution ofpork backfat with extra-virgin olive oil in salami products: effectson chemical, physical and sensorial quality. Meat Science, 64(3),323e331.

Shiota, K., Kawahara, S., Tajima, A., Ogata, T., Kawano, T., & Ito, T.(1995). Sensory evaluation of beef patties and sausages containinglipids with various component fatty acids. Meat Science, 40(3),363e371.

Simopoulos, A. P. (2002). The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy,

56(8), 365e379.Tan, S. S., Aminah, A., Zhang, X. G., & Abdul, S. B. (2006). Optimizing

palm oil and palm stearin utilization for sensory and texturalproperties of chicken frankfurters. Meat Science, 72(3), 387e397.

Valencia, I., Ansorena, D., & Astiasaran, I. (2006). Nutritional andsensory properties of dry fermented sausages enriched with n-3PUFAs. Meat Science, 72(4), 727e733.

Valsta, L. M., Tapanainen, H., & Mannisto, S. (2005). Meat fats innutrition. Meat Science, 70(3), 525e530.

Vural, H. (2003). Effect of replacing beef fat and tail fat with interes-terified plant oil on quality characteristics of Turkish semi-dryfermented sausages. European Food Research and Technology,217(2), 100e103.

Vural, H., Javidipour, I., & Ozbas, O. O. (2004). Effects of interesteri-fied vegetable oils and sugarbeet fiber on the quality of frankfurters.

Meat Science, 67(1), 65e72.Wan Rosli, W. I., Babji, A. S., Aminah, A., Foo, S. P., & Abd Malik, O.

(2006). Vitamin E contents of processed meats blended with palmoils. Journal of Food Lipids, 13(2), 186e198.

Whiting, R. C. (1987). Influence of lipid composition on the water andfat exudation and gel strength of meat batters. Journal of FoodScience, 52(5), 1126e1129.

WHO. (2003). Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases.WHO technical report series 916. Geneve.

Wood, J. D., Richardson, R. I., Nute, G. R., Fisher, A. V.,Campo, M. M., Kasapidou, E., et al. (2003). Effects of fatty acids onmeat quality: a review. Meat Science, 66(1), 21e32.


Funcionais-opções para a Substituição de gordura em prod carneos

Documents

Transcript of Funcionais-opções para a Substituição de gordura em prod carneos