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Forward to the Past? Loyalist Paramilitarism in
Northern Ireland Since 1994
Rachel Monaghan
Author post-print (accepted) deposited by Coventry University’s Repository
Original citation & hyperlink: Monaghan, Rachel, and Peter Shirlow. "Forward to the past? Loyalist paramilitarism in
Northern Ireland since 1994." Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 34.8 (2011): 649-665.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2011.583205
ISSN - 1057-610X
Publisher: Taylor and Francis
This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis in Studies
in Conflict & Terrorism on 21st July 2011, available online:
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Forward to the Past?
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Title: Forward to the Past? Loyalist Paramilitarism in Northern Ireland since
1994
Authors: Dr Rachel Monaghan (University of Ulster) and Dr Peter Shirlow (Queen’s
University Belfast)
Short bios:
Rachel Monaghan is a senior lecturer in criminology at the University of Ulster. She
has been researching paramilitary violence in Northern Ireland for the past twelve
years and has published extensively on this topic.
Peter Shirlow is the Director of Education in the School of Law at Queen's University
Belfast. He is co-author of the books Belfast: Segregation, Violence and the City and
'Beyond the Wire': Former Prisoners and Conflict Transformation in Northern
Ireland (both Pluto Press: London).
Forward to the Past?
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This article considers in detail loyalist paramilitary activity in
Northern Ireland since the paramilitary ceasefires of 1994. The
continuing nature of contemporary loyalist violence is
documented with reference to sectarian attacks against
members of the ‘Other’/Catholic community and associated
symbols of that community, violence directed at other loyalists
and the potential for future violence given constitutional
uncertainty regarding Northern Ireland’s position within the
United Kingdom. The article also challenges assumptions
within the broader literature of an inability within loyalist
paramilitary groups to move beyond violence in the post-
ceasefire period with particular reference to their conflict
transformation efforts.
Background
Prior to the 1990s Northern Ireland’s history was characterised by a period of
protracted low-intensity conflict often referred to as the ‘Troubles’, with the advent of
paramilitary ceasefires in 1994 and the signing of the Belfast Agreement in 1998,
Northern Ireland is considered to be post-conflict.1 Ulster loyalism has many
peculiarities and contradictions within it. The main organisations the Ulster
Volunteer Force and Ulster Defence Association (and their nom de guerre the Ulster
Freedom Fighters) mainly targeted civilian Catholics (some 80 percent of all of their
victims) following the vain idea that if they did so they would stop the Irish
Republican Army and its violent campaign to create a united Ireland. However,
members within the same organisations in the 1970s and 1980s aimed for peace,
power-sharing and accommodation with the nationalist (mainly Catholic population).
Unlike Irish Republicans loyalist paramilitary groups were rarely managed in a direct
manner. They tended towards more confederate structures and most certainly had
memberships with variant levels of sectarianism and ideology within them. Much of
their violence was based on their assertion that the British State’s hands were ‘tied’
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by conventional laws of engagement and that their role was to use violence to prevent
the collapse of Northern Ireland’s constitutional position within the United Kingdom.
Yet, despite a political solution to the conflict, political violence albeit on a lower
level than previously experienced still continues. The particular focus of this paper is
loyalist paramilitary activity. Thus the objectives of this paper are to measure and
explain the nature of loyalist violence since the ceasefires of 19942; to examine that
violence at the level of sectarianism, feuding and future constitutional change; to
determine the meaning and rational of such violence; to analyse the form and
potential of conflict transformation and the re-definition of loyalism; and to examine
and challenge the external attitudes directed at loyalists and how this perpetuates
criminalisation and loyalist insecurity.
Peace and Violence
Analysis of post-conflict violence generally examines renewed conflict between
enemies, the rise of dissidents opposed to peace making initiatives and those who
morph into criminal gangs.3 In South Africa and Serbia some paramilitaries sought
the maintenance of status through “punishment” violence, revenge or extensive
criminality. Dowdney argues that such violence maintained lost status while Stedman
and Boyce assert that dissenters aim to ‘spoil’ what they view as unjust peace
accords.4
Such analyses are partly valid with regard to post-ceasefire loyalism.5 Violence,
although declining, continues and criminal activity has grown.6 Sluka contends that
loyalists continue to mount an “insidious campaign of violence against Catholics”
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despite their ceasefires and peace process.7 A perception that loyalist paramilitary
groups are synonymous with criminal gangs is further enhanced by high profile
loyalists’ engagement in criminal activities, examples would include the Ulster
Defence Association’s (UDA) Andre Shoukri and the Ulster Volunteer Force’s (UVF)
Mark Haddock, who was later revealed as a paid agent of the State.8 In addition, the
attitudes of ‘middle’ or ‘political Unionism’ have compounded this perception:
Pro-state paramilitaries usually have a more difficult relationship
with their community of origin than do anti-state paramilitaries –
the latter often being seen as freedom fighters whilst the former are
often seen as ‘thugs’ in a context where the state has played a
primary role representing a community’s interests.9
Therefore, it is not surprising to learn that only 3 per cent of Protestants supported the
prisoner release scheme put in place by the Belfast Agreement and the Democratic
Unionist Party’s response to the scheme stated: “All decent people recoil with moral
contempt at the prospect of the mass release of those who have murdered and maimed
the innocent.”10
However, the present leadership attached to the UVF, Red Hand Commandos (RHC),
UDA and Ulster Freedom Fighters (UFF) sponsor conflict transformation and
reconciliation and have aimed to curb and re-direct the nature of loyalist military
violence. They have, for example, excluded members who perpetuated sectarian and
racist violence and criminality.11 Moreover, the UVF and the RHC in May 2007
announced that they were assuming “a non-military civilianised role” which
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culminated in June 2009 with the decommissioning of arms.12 Similarly, the UDA
issued a Remembrance Day Statement (2007) acknowledging that “the war is over”
and stood down the UFF’s active service units.13 Decommissioning of arms
commenced in September 2009 and was finalised in early 2010.14
Bruce in particular has highlighted the identities, personalities and events that have
driven loyalist violence.15 The vacuum created by the peace process and Bruce’s
prediction that Irish Republican Army (IRA) demilitarisation would create a “hollow
façade” for loyalists is crucial in interpreting post-conflict outcomes.16 The pro-state
character of loyalism undermined political adjustment and is crucial in exploring a
truncated adjustment to peace.
The leadership’s commitment to conflict transformation is important but has been
paralleled by the use of violence especially against those who have undermined
loyalist “authority.” The utilisation of violence against loyalist opponents is
envisaged as a “necessary” removal of a key impediment to loyalist transition. Such
violence highlights the somewhat intangible nature of loyalism and encourages
external renditions that present it as an “idiocy that comes with a fragmented culture
that has lost both memory and meaning.”17
Loyalism is also castigated for “lacking” the capacity to socially transform. As noted
by Alison, “‘liberatory’ forms (Irish republicans) also usually incorporate fairly
wide-ranging goals of social transformation as part of their political programmes
while state and pro-state nationalisms (loyalists) do not.”18 Morrissey bemoans the
existence of a “warlord syndrome” in Northern Ireland whereby organisations
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representing ex-combatants become arbitrary gate-keepers of their respective
communities hindering the ability of the statutory sector to work in working-class
areas.19
Commentators also note the electoral failures of parties directly associated with
loyalist groups.20 The Ulster Democratic Party (UDP) associated with the UDA
formed in 1981 was dissolved in 2001 and had few electoral successes during its
twenty years of existence. Its role has largely been taken over by the Ulster Political
Research Group. The Progressive Unionist Party (PUP) aligned with the UVF had
greater electoral success and in the March 2007 Northern Ireland Assembly elections
secured enough votes to return one elected politician to Stormont. At the local council
level, the party has two councillors on Belfast City Council.21 As Smyth argues “the
political path has not yet provided the political wings of the Loyalist paramilitaries
with a viable alternative to violence, since they failed to parallel the electoral success
of Sinn Féin on the Nationalist side.”22
Thus loyalism is generally represented as failing to determine a social space with a
positive vocabulary regarding the ownership and meaning of its own identity; having
undermined the potential to build social capital; infested with criminals; and divided
between neo-fascism and socialism. Such depictions have worth but are counter-
balanced by those loyalists who in rejecting the efficacy of violence as a strategy in
itself provide a powerful exercise in moral leadership. In challenging negative
portrayals of them loyalist leaders argue that positive presentations of conflict
transformation are generally unmentioned by external commentators; they have done
much to quell elements intent upon a return to conflict; networks have been created
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that encourage dialogue with former adversaries; that they promote the principles of
conflict transformation; and loyalists are building links with statutory agencies in
order to encourage social capital formation.
Positive and negative forms of loyalism have always co-existed and the peace process
is allowing “thinking” loyalism to emerge, if slowly and unevenly.23 With the
exception of Bruce and McAuley the role of “transitional” loyalism is under-
explored.24 In furthering these analyses the research team considered recent violence
and the capacity to shift into progressive and legitimate domains. Such a transition is
crucial with regard to ending victimization, encouraging citizenship and demobilising
threat. Despite the immediacy of such issues it is obvious that the capacity to shift
loyalism forwards has come from within. There has been insufficient external
recognition of positive loyalist leadership within public discourse while much has
been made of its failures. For example, the Alliance Party demanded the end to
loyalist funding following the shooting of a police officer in Carrickfergus while
Northern Ireland’s Social Development Minister, Margaret Ritchie, tried to withdraw
support for a £1.2m project aimed at helping to move the UDA away from violence.25
Despite this and the ad hoc nature of it transitional attitudes and models are being
advanced and their promotion aims to emasculate a loyalism that does not shift
forwards but returns to a de-stabilising past.
Methods
Within social science research it has been recognised that “gaining access and insight
into partially or wholly deviant groups is fraught with difficulties.”26 However,
gaining access was not a problem regarding this study. The research team have
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created strong working relationships with loyalists despite critical assessment of them.
To some extent paramilitary groups are willing to engage if trust has been established.
Key loyalists do not discourage criticism if it is based upon open research criteria that
underlines the aims and objectives of what is being studied and are informed and
shown the material that is to be produced, even if that material is critical and negative
of them.
Trust is generally established over a long-time frame. Among many loyalists there is
recognition that academic research furthers conflict transformation via external
dialogue. The trust built in previous projects allowed greater access than previously
granted. Thus the respondents included two prominent members of the RHC, a
member of the UVF’s Brigade Staff, a UVF Company Commander, two Inner
Council members of the UDA/UFF, and 12 volunteers drawn across these
organisations. Two members of the Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF) were also
interviewed as were political representatives from seven local political parties and
spokespersons from the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats. The Assistant
Chief Constable was interviewed as well as staff from the British-Irish Secretariat, the
former chair of the Loyalist Commission and members of the community sector.
Analysis emerged through a process of snowball sampling, intermediary agencies and
personal contacts. This is a non-probability sample and it is legitimate to question the
quality of data arising from this methodological approach. The research did, however,
triangulate data on loyalist paramilitary violence through semi-structured interviews
with community organisations, and statutory bodies with experience of such violence,
feedback from political parties and secondary data sources (newspapers, community-
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newssheets and police statistics). The nature and types of violence undertaken, the
justifications for its use were independently repeated in the accounts of a number of
interviewees. An “ideal-type” sampling framework simply is not available to
researchers in areas of high sensitivity.27 Liebling and Stanko note that “telling any
story about violence entails a negotiation with norms.”28 Thus the research team make
normative judgements about the types of information gained.
Low ranking members displayed a very localised knowledge concerning loyalist
activity compared to elite members who held wider interpretations. Members of the
same organisation had at times dissimilar motivations and attitudes. In overcoming
these difficulties the research team undertook interviews across a broad spectrum
from “foot soldiers” to leaders. Qualitative work was undertaken with individuals in
order to ensure that respondents spoke without hindrance from other members. In
previous research, some individuals would not dissent when they were interviewed in
the company of others. Younger and more critical voices tended to remain silent.
Personal interviewing encouraged diverse opinions and perspectives to be raised via
specific quotes and broad themes. The identity of these members of illegal
organisations is withheld.
The research also incorporated a measurement of violent events both through the
collation of deaths data and the mapping of these events in Belfast. Postcodes relating
to site of death, especially in the early 1970s and beyond Belfast, are deficient. There
are several indexes regarding politically motivated deaths in Northern Ireland and
criticism of them regarding their accuracy. With regard to this the research team
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undertook the assemblage of their own database via newspaper articles and
information provided by respondents and the police.
A list of deaths in Northern Ireland from 1966 to (May) 2010 was also created. This
was presented to interviewees for comment and in several cases the group responsible
was altered. The post-1994 data was generally agreed but in several circumstances the
status of the victim remained contested. The UVF, for example, contended that two
persons noted as Protestant civilians were members of the LVF, although the LVF
respondents denied this. In order to create standardisation the research team accepted
the organisational claiming of members.
A database of reported loyalist paramilitary “punishments” was also created. Unlike
the available police data, the research team via consultation with respondents were
able to attribute responsibility to respective loyalist paramilitary groups.
Loyalist Violence
In developing a frame within which to analyse loyalist violence Rosenbaum and
Sederberg’s triple-level typology of vigilantism or “establishment violence” was
adopted and developed.29 Such violence “consists of acts or threats of coercion in
violation of the formal boundaries of an established socio-political order which,
however, are intended by the violators to defend that order from some form of
subversion.”30
Accordingly Rosenbaum and Sederberg’s levels of vigilantism involve crime control
vigilantism, social group control vigilantism and regime control vigilantism. Crime
control vigilantism is directed against those individuals believed to be engaged in
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illegal activities, for example “punishment” attacks on suspected criminals or
individuals engaged in anti-social behaviour. Social group control vigilantism aims to
control groups vying for a new social order, for example loyalist sectarian attacks on
Catholics. Regime control vigilantism is establishment violence designed to alter the
regime’s functioning, for example the involvement of loyalist paramilitaries in the
Ulster Workers’ Council Strike, which saw the collapse of the Sunningdale
Agreement in 1974.31
Such “actor-based” violence remains but in fewer incidences. Crime control violence
is commonly identified but is declining. Social group violence, especially with regard
to the activities of the Loyalist Volunteer Force, C Company and the Red Hand
Defenders (a cover name used by C Company), has also been undertaken although
this violence has declined. The capacity to undertake regime change violence has
dwindled. Key loyalists supported the Belfast Agreement or understood their inability
to mobilise against it. The potential of regime change violence still lies in
constitutional uncertainty. There is an additional dimension that is crucial in
undertaking contemporary loyalist violence and that is internal group control based
upon feuding, criminality and dissent.
Loyalists were responsible for 977 deaths in the period between 1966 and the
ceasefires of 1994.32 The majority of victims (74.1 percent) were civilian Catholics.
Loyalist violence in Belfast has been undertaken within a narrow arena that is largely
confined to the Shankill in west Belfast and the interfaces between it and
nationalist/republican places. Other boundary zones between Donegall Pass and the
Lower Ormeau (south Belfast) and Short Strand and Ballymacarrett (east Belfast) are
Forward to the Past?
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important. Few killings took place beyond these interface zones and within the centre
of republican/nationalist communities. UVF bombings produced sites of multiple
casualties most of which were public bars, for example, the bombing of McGurk’s
Bar in Belfast in 1971 which resulted in the deaths of 15 people.
According to the data in the period prior to the ceasefires of 1994 the UVF/RHC were
responsible for 534 deaths or 54.6 percent of all loyalist fatalities. Catholic civilians
constituted 72.6 percent of victims. Only 4.3 percent of all victims were either
republican paramilitaries or Sinn Féin members. A further 3.1 percent were members
of the UVF and 2.8 percent of victims were members of UDA/UFF.
A similar pattern emerges in relation to UDA/UFF violence in the same time period.
This grouping was responsible for some 406 murders with the majority of victims
civilian Catholics (71.4 percent). Additionally, 4.9 percent of victims were members
of the UDA/UFF and 1.1 percent were members of the UVF.
An obvious feature of loyalist violence between 1966 and 1994 was a significant
decline in the death rate after the mid 1970s, especially within Belfast (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Loyalist Attributed Deaths in Belfast from 1966 (By Organisation)33
Forward to the Past?
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A rise in loyalist violence occurred in the 1980s but this growth did not match
previous levels. The rise in violence after 1986 was closely linked to the activities of
the UFF’s C Company and the Mid-Ulster Brigade of the UVF. The emergence of C
Company as dedicated militarists under the leadership of Johnny Adair and the
growing military status of the UVF’s Mid-Ulster Brigade member, Billy Wright was
important with regard to future violence. The formation of the LVF in 1996 was
directly linked to the mid-Ulster UVF, under Wright’s leadership, perpetuating
sectarian murder and being expelled from the organisation by the UVF leadership.
According to the data there have been 98 loyalist killings since 1994 with two-thirds
of these (59) occurring in just four years: 1997 15 killings, 1998 17, 2000 12 and 2001
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15. These deaths can be further classified with regards to victim type and organisation
responsible as detailed in Table 1.
Table 1: Post-Ceasefire Loyalist Attributed Deaths34 (1994-2010)
Group Responsible
Victim
Type
UVF LVF* C
Company
UDA/UFF Unspecified RHC RHD Total
Catholic
Civilian
2 9 2 5 12 5 35
Protestant
Civilian
11 2 2 4 1 1 21
UVF 5 3 1 3 1 13
UDA/UFF 3 3 8 1 15
C Company 1 1
Police 1 1 2
IRA 1 1
RHC 1 1 2
LVF 4 1 1 6
RHD 1 1
PUP 1 1
Total 25 17 9 21 15 2 9 98
*Includes unsanctioned murder whilst LVF members were in UVF.
With regard to social control violence the following can be observed from the data, 35
civilian Catholics were murdered by loyalists in the post-ceasefire period. This
constituted 35.7 percent of all deaths attributed to loyalist paramilitaries. Civilian
Catholics constituted the minority of loyalist murders after 1994, although they
remain as the largest identified group. Of this group 16 (45.7 percent) were murdered
by the LVF, C Company and the RHD. An additional 12 (34.3 percent) were killed by
none of the above organisations. Furthermore, 20 percent of Catholic civilians were
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murdered by the UVF and UDA/UFF. For example, Gary Moore was shot dead in
December 2000 by the UVF while renovating houses on the loyalist Monkstown
estate in Newtownabbey, County Antrim. The UDA shot Daniel McColgan, a postal
worker as he arrived at work in Rathcoole (Newtownabbey) in January 2002. Only
two murders were sanctioned by UFF Brigade members.35 None of these murders
committed by the UVF were according to those interviewed sanctioned at leadership
level.
Other examples of social control violence undertaken by loyalists would include the
use of pipe bombs. These are crudely made improvised explosive devices that are
relatively easy to construct. Such devices can inflict serious injuries and in some cases
cause death.36 The Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) estimate that loyalists
were involved in 702 pipe bombing incidents between 2000 and the end of May
2010.37 Most of these attacks were directed at Catholic communities and targets
included homes, cars, schools, churches, licensed premises and nationalist politicians’
homes and offices. There were 236 attacks in 2001 and 135 in 2002 (65 percent of all
attacks). Attacks have been on the decline from 2003 (43) to a low of 4 in 2006 but
have begun to increase slowly. Security situation statistics record 8 in 2008, 6 in 2009
and 4 thus far for the current year. Interviewees suggested that most of these attacks
were conducted by C Company, RHD and UFF although the security situation
statistics obtained from the PSNI do not provide a breakdown by group and further
note that whilst the incident/devices may be attributed to loyalists based upon
information available to the police they do not necessarily indicate the involvement of
a paramilitary organisation.
Forward to the Past?
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Historically, loyalist paramilitaries have undertaken a policing role in the
communities in which they operate since the early 1970s.38 Initially this involved the
mounting of roadblocks, patrolling the streets and gathering evidence against petty
criminals. Over time a graduated scale or tariff system consistent with the seriousness
of the offence under consideration has developed. This tariff ranges from warnings,
threats, curfew, fines or restitution, placarding, tarring and feathering, beatings,
shootings, exiling and ultimately death. Such crime control violence is in part a
response to community pressure for the organizations “to do something” about crime
in their areas. As a UVF Commander in Belfast explains,
We want to see the end of punishment attacks in the same breath
there is a community out there who is reliant on the UVF to mete
out punishment, because in many cases the PSNI aren’t responding
and in other cases the PSNI are directing people to us knowing
they will get more satisfaction.39
Loyalist paramilitaries also take action against their own members for disobeying
orders or breaching internal codes such as self-gain robberies or misusing the
organization’s name. According to a member of the RHC Brigade Staff,
Well most of it [“punishments”] would be internal. A lot of it would
be anti-social, drug-related or discipline with the paramilitary
ranks…The levels would, if it is a misdemeanor it could be a slap
round the head; if it’s something serious he could get one in the leg;
the very extreme is being shot in the head, which is very unusual.40
Forward to the Past?
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Therefore, the decision by paramilitaries to assume a policing role is also based in
part upon a need for the organizations to ensure their own security and survival.
With regard to crime control violence in the post-ceasefire period, the research team
found that 21 civilian Protestants were murdered, more than half by the UVF. Many
were the result of “punishment” attacks, for example the death of David Templeton in
1997 six weeks after receiving a beating from the UVF while others were innocent
bystanders or misidentified paramilitaries. In terms of “punishment” beatings, the
research team recorded 546 from the ceasefires of 1994 until the end of May 2010.
Nearly half of these are attributable to the UDA and some 40 percent to the UVF.
“Punishment” shootings in the same period equalled 704 with both the UDA and UVF
responsible for 47 percent of such attacks respectively. “Punishment” violence has
declined significantly since 2005 as indicated in Figures 2 and 3.
Figure 2: “Punishment” Beatings Attributed by Organisation
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Figure 3: “Punishment” Shootings Attributed By Organisation
During the course of the “Troubles” loyalist paramilitaries have taken action against
other loyalist paramilitary groups. Feuds resulting from such actions are nothing new
as Bruce contends that “like any two competing organizations, the UDA and UVF
have rarely been on good terms for long.”41 Early disagreements were limited to fist
fights but by the mid 1970s in Belfast this had escalated to bomb attacks against the
homes of both UDA and UVF men.
With regard to internal control, the research team found in the post-ceasefire period
36 loyalists were killed by other loyalists. This constitutes 35.7 percent of all victims.
Nineteen (52.3 percent) were killed in internal feuds and “punishments” and 17 (48.5
percent) were killed in inter-group feuding. The recent murder of Shankill loyalist
Bobby Moffett a RHC member by the UVF has raised the question as to whether the
organisation has in fact handed over all of its weapons when it decommissioned its
arms in June 2009.42 Furthermore, the continued division between the mainstream of
the UDA and the South East Antrim group persists although tensions have lessened.43
The flow of loyalist feud deaths in the post-ceasefire period is illustrated in Figure 4.
Forward to the Past?
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Figure 4: Loyalist Attributes Feud Deaths
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1973 1974 1975 1976 1992 1993 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year
No
. o
f d
eath
s
Number of deaths
An evident peak in internal violence emerged post-1999 as a result of the feud
between C Company and the UVF and the UVF and LVF. Feud deaths grew again
after 2001 due to conflict between the UFF and C Company and the UVF and North
Belfast LVF. Feud deaths in 2005 related to the UVF move to “obliterate” the LVF.
Some 15 (51.6 percent) of loyalist murders were undertaken by or against the LVF, C
Company and the RHD. Two key individuals, Billy Wright and Johnny Adair, are
central in the explanation of that violence. Bruce argues there is little in the way of
theoretical analysis that can be applied to these persons.44 They are understood, by
other loyalists, as psychotic, self-indulgent and encouraged by “shadowy” figures
within the security forces opposed to the peace process.
Forward to the Past?
20
A member of the LVF argued that their rationale was to take “loyalism back to war”
as the peace process “aimed to carry us into a United Ireland.”45 The LVF’s
disbandment in 2005, after UVF violence, was partly based upon ideology but due
mostly to their challenge to UVF authority. The eventual removal of C Company, by
the UFF, was based upon Adair’s desire to control the parent organisation. C
Company’s use of ethno-sectarian violence is understood as an opportunistic display
of status and ability and not a desire to “spoil” peacemaking initiatives.
Without doubt these persons had gained a reputation for ruthless violence and
through their desire for perpetuated status dis-engaged themselves from wider loyalist
discourse. Irrespective of their motivation Kriesberg’s argument that the basis of
conflictual behaviour is “an intention to induce the other side to yield what the
coercer wishes to obtain” is instructive.46 The “other” side with regard to post-
conflict violence were increasingly loyalists. As noted by a member of the UFF Inner
Council:
What motivated Adair and Wright isn’t important anymore.
They’re gone as are others like them. They wanted to keep using
violence to further their own aims. We wanted to build peace but
we had to fight them to get loyalism back onto the track for
peace. Their aims were outta sync with the broader loyalist
community.47
Established leaders claim they struggled to steer a course between promoting non-
violence and utilising violence towards these groups. Furthermore, the removal of
Forward to the Past?
21
these groups was based upon debilitating the desire of others to join them. As noted
the Commanding Office of the RHC:
In other words, if you were having to discipline someone
within your own organisation, tactics became different because
where you once would have expelled someone, you had to be
conscious of what you were doing because them people would
have run and jumped onto this other vehicle, so that vehicle
had to be destroyed once and for all because the LVF, and
there is proof beyond a shadow of a doubt, started five feuds
and the last feud, people were adamant and determined, that
this would be the feud to end all feuds.48
This commentary echoes a definitive argument that the capacity to stop violence
became a problem internal to loyalism. In the past, the main impediment to
“thinking” loyalism was the IRA.49 In the post-1994 era the key obstructions were
internal. The “spoilers” came into opposition with “old friends.” The reaction to
them, although illegitimate, signified a desire to expel and to reduce the potential for
future violence. Militarists are “confident” that the removal of such elements will
provide a more stable arena within which to pursue conflict transformation.
The Future of Constitutional Violence
The issue of a united Ireland presented a contested series of responses even among
military leaders. Most respondents who held elite positions argued that the principle
Forward to the Past?
22
of consent as outlined in the Belfast Agreement would be upheld. As noted by a
senior UVF leader:
Well I spoke earlier about the principle of consent, and there is no
sense in being a hypocrite, if people desire otherwise then so be it. If
it is the will of the people then so be it. Put it this way – I like steak
but if you try to force steak down my throat I will reject it – and this
is the beauty of the principle of consent if people vote that way then
that’s what the people want and it is not forced upon them. If it was
forced upon us then I would reject it.50
Elite members did not accept that a united Ireland is a foregone conclusion. It was
noted that the Irish state had come to disregard the desire for unification and the
British state viewed Northern Ireland as a problem that would be resolved internally.
However, a prominent member of the RHC argued that the position of loyalists was to
oppose Irish unification despite the consent principle. As stated: “The same way we
responded in 1969. The arms would be picked up again. Even if the people voted for
it, you will always get an element that will resist.”51
All non-elite members who were aged under 30, although numbering only 12 persons,
provided a distant view from their respective leaderships. They concluded that the
Belfast Agreement was illusionary and that to accept a united Ireland would be a form
of commonly denoted “enslavement.” As noted by one respondent from the UFF:
Forward to the Past?
23
“We want peace and we will follow our leadership but only up to a point in time. If
there is a threat of a united Ireland then a new generation will take to arms.”52
Such competing perspectives indicate a tension within loyalism and pinpoint a failure
to create a unified voice. The necessary role of loyalist leaders with regard to
transformation into constitutionalism is not beyond doubt.
Beyond Violence
Conflict transformation is interpreted within loyalism as a process of contestation
within and beyond loyalism. It is understood that conflict is also set within a wide
social arena that encompasses suspicion, mistrust and the desire to restrain human
rights development. Additional, interpretations of conflict transformation within
loyalism include the need to transform via an interpretation of equitable social,
cultural and political definitions; that identity construction can both facilitate and
undermine the deliverance of democratic accountability; and that conflict can only be
resolved when adversaries understand the capacity for transformation and the part that
they can play in resolving conflict.
The desire to prevent future occurrences of violent disunity has been divided into two
general perspectives. Firstly, a conflict transformation perspective encourages an
analysis of the antecedents of conflict as a way out of disagreement. Secondly,
seeking out better ways to represent loyalism within a process of capacity building
has also emerged. Additional features include lifting loyalism out of insularity and
into a host of civic and inter-community based relationships; developing better
relationships with government and statutory agencies; promoting restorative justice
Forward to the Past?
24
schemes; creating alternative community narratives which link loyalism into a post-
ceasefire process; and challenging the mythic status of violence and in so doing
diverting youth attention away from paramilitaries and sectarian violence.53
From this perspective, paramilitaries and former paramilitaries involved in
community work and restorative justice programmes seek to reduce tensions and/or
promote reconciliation. There is a sense of the need to create an intersection between
agency and structure via the shift from a military to negotiator role. In 2004, a
strident critic of loyalist violence the Independent Monitoring Commission (IMC)
recognised the potential valuable role community restorative justice programmes
could play in their respective communities so long as they operated “accountably and
to acceptable standards, fully respect human rights, and can demonstrate to people
that they need not look to paramilitaries to deliver reasonable behaviour within their
communities.”54 The following year, the Northern Ireland Office (2005) entered into a
consultation period in relation to community-based restorative justice schemes and in
2007 published a Protocol for Community-based Restorative Justice Schemes
outlining a framework for relations between the formal criminal justice system and
such schemes.55 Five loyalist restorative justice schemes including the Greater
Shankill Alternatives which has the support of the UVF have now secured
government approval. The operation of such schemes is crucial in the delivery of
alternative “policing” methods. Loyalists have also formed inter-community groups to
stop interface violence, provided seminars to youths to promote anti-violent
approaches, worked with republicans on shared history and prisoner issues and
developed links with statutory agencies in order to draw resources into Protestant
communities.
Forward to the Past?
25
Academic and funder-led evaluation of loyalist community engagement has been
positive and in particular praises the promotion of values of non-violence, human
rights and inclusiveness.56
An important factor in the promotion of non-violence is the extent to which the
military leadership offered is found to be credible among the rank and file. Credibility
has been important with regard to dissuading a return to large-scale violence as it
provides legitimacy to anti-violence discourse, but operates as a further example of
the internalised nature of transition. As a senior UFF member concluded:
Look you see if you went with all the goodwill in the world and said
“Lads the reasons for not going back to war are this and that.” They
would listen but not heed you. If I walk in and say “look I whacked
so and so,” the same fellahs would listen. We might say the same
things but you don’t have the stripes like I do.57
A fundamental problem for those involved in such interventionist work is the threats
that are endured. As noted by a UVF member:
You challenge the drug dealers in your own ranks and they could
just shoot your dead. These are the people who don’t give a shit
about the peace process. You see if we have a settled society then
they will have to go. So it is in their interest to de-stabilise
loyalism.58
Forward to the Past?
26
UVF linked persons have been at the forefront of the internal discussions with
republicans which led to the production of working papers concerning respective
constituencies’ attitudes towards truth recovery processes.59 Outside their own
immediate base, loyalist and republican former prisoners have played significant roles
in other truth-focused initiatives. Loyalists have campaigned on a vast range of issues
on behalf of themselves and Protestant communities. These include improved social
services; facilities and rights; the establishment of local job-seeking and social capital
schemes; welfare, education, counselling, advisory and advocacy roles; the creation of
advice centres, family projects, counselling services, children’s activities and social
activities; and campaigning for the rights of former prisoners and their families.
Despite such shifts there remains an antipathy towards loyalism that remains
dedicated to their existence: As noted by Fred Cobain of the Ulster Unionist Party
with regard to the maintenance of paramilitary structures,
I mean the whole raison d’etre for loyalist paramilitaries has
gone and if we are working through a peace process where
there is an end to republican paramilitarism, which they are
telling us it is, that’s what this process is, then there is no
raison d’etre for loyalist paramilitaries.60
According to a republican analysis loyalism, despite developing conflict amelioration
initiatives, remains as a misguided arm of state collaboration that lacks social and
cultural credibility:
Forward to the Past?
27
They don’t have an independent existence in terms of
determining what they do and where they go politically but in
fact their future is bound up with how the British securocrat
system sees the future. Up to this point the British securocrat
system has been using loyalists throughout the peace process and
before that to achieve their objectives.61
However, supportive attitudes are emerging: As contended by Sam Kincaid former
Assistant Chief Constable of the PSNI:
So I see for the first time, certainly in my experience in both sides
[UVF/UFF] a real effort, probably the last time we had anything as
determined as this in some sense would maybe go back to ’94 to the
Combined Loyalist Military Command but even then, I think that
was more to do with PR statements, I think there is genuine effort
being made by key people within organisations to say well the point
of all this has gone.62
Conclusion
The significant decline in political violence in Northern Ireland has been part-guided
by loyalists including former paramilitaries who have played a vital role in conflict
transformation. With regard to loyalist paramilitary violence this has included the
development of alternative modes of thinking that have challenged once dominant
militarist ideologies. The actors involved in these discursive shifts have pinpointed
Forward to the Past?
28
alternative structures and strategies within which to pursue their respective belief
systems via non-violent means. Raising alternative debates has been a key feature of
such actor-group relationships and such discussions have been attached to wider
political shifts that are in turn translated into conflict transformation based activities
and programmes undertaken by former loyalist paramilitaries. From restorative justice
schemes through to former prisoner groups that undertake inter-community social
economy projects there is now a significant body of positive and meaningful non-
violent loyalist paramilitary intervention. This is not to deny the negative impact of
previous violence or to under-estimate the transition of some loyalist paramilitaries
into criminal gangs but there has been an undoubted shift both in terms of practice
and intent within the wider body of loyalism.
Loyalism is caught in bind between progressive and regressive elements. On the one
hand some continue and even expand their criminal empires around extortion and
drug dealing. In such cases this illustrates leadership constraints in terms of
disciplining those who do so. Evidently loyalist leaders have, especially in the past
decade, used such violence to control and discipline. However, when doing so this has
spiralled into feuds and further criminalisation of loyalist violence against their
criminal elements. A central concern of many loyalists is why the police do not
remove such persons as opposed to resting responsibility for them upon loyalist
shoulders.
Whilst on the other hand loyalists are involved in intricate intra and inter-community
work that aims to transform loyalism from a de-stabilising past and potential future.
Those efforts aim to reduce interface violence, challenge the ‘glories’ of loyalist
Forward to the Past?
29
violence and imprisonment and present loyalism as containing a coherent capacity
driven potential. Ultimately, loyalist violence has declined due to not only a removal
of mainstream republican violence but also through engendering ideas and concepts
of transformation and the futility or violence. Problematically there has been
insignificant interest in positive and transformative loyalism and commentary,
especially public, remains negligible. To classify loyalism as a homogenous bloc
undermines much of the realities that explains the falls in violence and the attempt to
maintain non-violent interventions. Essentially, positive loyalism is left out on a limb
by wider narratives of criminalisation and internal ‘spoilers and wreckers’.
The authors wish to acknowledge the support of ESRC funding (RES-000-22-1013)
to carry out this work and the contribution of Dawn Purvis, with aspects of the
fieldwork. This paper has been developed from the End of Award report submitted to
the ESRC. Furthermore, we would like thank the anonymous reviewers for their
suggestions for strengthening the paper. 1 See Marieanne Elliot, ed. The Long Road to Peace in Northern Ireland (Liverpool:
Liverpool University Press, 2007); Chris Gilligan and Jon Tonge, Peace and War?
Understanding the Peace Process in Northern Ireland (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997);
and Aaron Edwards and Stephen Bloomer, eds. Transforming the Peace Process in
Northern Ireland: From Terrorism to Democratic Politics (Dublin: Irish Academic
Press, 2008). 2 The Combined Loyalist Military Command (CLMC) issued a ceasefire statement
ending “operational hostilities” as from midnight on the 13th October 1994. The
CLMC represents the UDA, UVF and RHC. 3 David Keen, “War and Peace – What’s the Difference?,” in Adekeye Adebajo and
Chandra Lekha Sriram, eds. Managing Armed Conflicts in the 21st Century (London:
Frank Cass, 2001), pp. 1-22; Joe Moran, “Paramilitaries, ‘Ordinary Decent Criminals’
and the Development of Organised Crime Following the Belfast Agreement,”
International Journal of the Sociology of Law 32(3) (September 2004), pp. 267-278. 4 Luke Dowdney, Neither War nor Peace: International Comparisons of Children and
Youth in Organised Armed Violence (Rio de Janeiro: COAV, 2005); Stephen John
Stedman, “Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes,” International Security 22(2) (1997),
pp. 5-53; and James K. Boyce, “Aid Conditionality as a Tool for Peacebuilding:
Opportunities and Constraints,” Development and Change 33(5) (November 2002),
pp. 1025-1049. 5 Loyalism is here understood as loyalist paramilitarism and the groups associated
with it. We acknowledge there are wider definitions of loyalism with regard to the
imagined Protestant people of Ulster. See Arthur Aughey, “The Character of Ulster
Forward to the Past?
30
Unionism,” in Peter Shirlow and Mark McGovern, eds. Who Are ‘The People’?
Protestantism, Unionism and Loyalism in Northern Ireland (London: Pluto Press,
1997), pp. 16-33. 6 Christina Steenkamp, “Loyalist Paramilitary Violence after the Belfast Agreement”,
Ethnopolitics 7(1) (March 2008), pp. 159-176. 7 Jeffrey A. Sluka, ““For God and Ulster”: The Culture of Terror and Loyalist Death
Squads in Northern Ireland,” in Jeffrey A. Sluka, ed. Death Squad: The Anthropology
of State Terror (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), p. 149. 8 Peter Shirlow and Kieran McEvoy, Beyond the Wire (London: Pluto, 2008); Office
of the Police Ombudsman, Report on the Police Ombudsman’s Investigation into
Matters Surrounding the Death of Raymond McCord Junior (Belfast: OPONI, 2007). 9 Claire Mitchell, “For God and ... Conflict Transformation? The Churches’
Dis/engagement with Contemporary Loyalism,” in Edwards and Bloomer, eds.
Transforming the Peace Process in Northern Ireland: From Terrorism to Democratic
Politics, p. 149. 10 Cited in Shirlow and McEvoy, Beyond the Wire, p. 11. 11 James W. McAuley, Jonathon Tonge and Peter Shirlow, “Conflict, Transformation,
and Former Loyalist Paramilitary Prisoners in Northern Ireland”, Terrorism and
Political Violence 22 (1) (2010), pp. 2-40. 12 The full statement can be found on the BBC News website at
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/6618365.stm. 13 The full statement can be found on the University of Ulster’s CAIN website at
http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/othelem/organ/uda/uda111107.htm 14 For more details see Report of the Independent International Commission on
Decommissioning, 25 February 2010. Available at
http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/decommission/iicd250210.pdf 15 Steve Bruce, The Red Hand (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
16 Ibid., p. 112.
17 Fintan O’Toole cited in Stephen Howe, “Mad Dogs and Ulstermen: the crisis of
Loyalism (part one),” Open Democracy (September 2005), p. 4. Available at
http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-protest/loyalism_2876.jsp. 18 Miranda Alison, “Women as Agents of Political Violence: Gendering Security,”
Security Dialogue 35(4) (December 2004), p. 453. 19 Mike Morrissey cited in Claire Mitchell, “The Limits of Legitimacy: Former
Loyalist Combatants and Peace-Building in Northern Ireland,” Irish Political Studies,
23(1) (February 2008), p. 3. 20 Marie Smyth, “Demilitarization and the Northern Ireland Peace Process”,
Terrorism and Political Violence, 16(3) (Autumn 2004), pp. 544-566. 21 Progressive Unionist Party website, “What is the Progressive Unionist Party?,”
available at: http://www.pup-ni.org.uk/home/default.aspx. Accessed: 22 October
2010. 22 Smyth, “Demilitarization and the Northern Ireland Peace Process”, p. 556. 23 Steve Bruce, “Turf War and Peace: Loyalist Paramilitaries since 1994,” Terrorism
and Political Violence 16(3) (Autumn 2004), pp. 501-521. 24 Ibid.; James McAuley, “‘Just Fighting to Survive’: Loyalist Paramilitary Politics
and the Progressive Unionist Party,” Terrorism and Political Violence 16(3) (Autumn
2004), pp. 522-543. 25 Alliance Party, “Alliance Leader demands end to loyalist funding after police
shooting”, (23 July 2007). Available at:
Forward to the Past?
31
http://www.allianceparty.org/news/003182/alliance_leader_demands_end_to_loyalist
_funding_after_police_shooting.html. Accessed: 22 October 2010; BBC, “UDA is in
‘last chance saloon’,” (10 August 2007). Available at:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/6939636.stm. Accessed: 22 October 2010. 26 Simon Winlow, Dick Hobbs, Stuart Lister and Philip Hadfield, “Get Ready to
Duck: Bouncers and the Realities of Ethnographic Research on Violent Groups,”
British Journal of Criminology 41(3) (Summer 2001), p. 537. 27 Sharon Pickering, “Undermining the Sanitized Account: Violence and Emotionality
in the Field in Northern Ireland,” British Journal of Criminology 41(3) (Summer
2001), pp. 485-501. 28 Alison Liebling and Betsy Stanko, “Allegiance and Ambivalence: Some Dilemmas
in Researching Disorder and Violence,” British Journal of Criminology 41(3)
(Summer 2001), p. 428. 29 H. Jon Rosenbaum and Peter C. Sederberg, Vigilante Politics (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1976). 30 Ibid., p. 4. 31 The Sunningdale Agreement involved the creation of a devolved power-sharing
executive for Northern Ireland in which unionist and nationalist parties together with
the Alliance Party shared responsibility and presided over an elected assembly. For
more information see Stefan Wolff’s chapter “Context and Content: Sunningdale and
the Belfast Compared”, in Rick Walford, ed. Aspects of the Belfast Agreement
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004). 32 Data extracted from the research team’s deaths database constructed from
newspaper articles and information provided by respondents and the police. 33 The recent murder of Bobby Moffett (28 May 2010) was the first loyalist death in
Belfast since 2005. The Protestant Action Force (PAF) and the Protestant Action
Group (PAG) were cover names used by the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) to avoid
directly claiming responsibility for killings and other acts of violence. 34 Period included all loyalist attributed deaths from the 14th October 1994 until the
end of May 2010. 35 Interviewee A, Inner Council Member UDA/UFF (November 2005). 36 For more information see AJ Gibbons, JN Farrier and SJ Key, “The Pipe Bomb: A
Modern Terrorist Weapon”, Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps 149 (March
2003), pp. 23-26 and James Lucas and Jack Crane, “Fatalities Associated With Home-
Made Pipe Bombs in Northern Ireland,” American Journal of Forensic Medicine and
Pathology 29(2) (June 2008), pp. 93-98. 37 Statistics supplied on request from the Central Statistics Unit, PSNI. Prior to
January 2000, pipe bomb devices were classified as blast bombs or improvised
explosive devices and as such separate figures for pipe bombs are not available for the
years preceding 2000. 38 David Boulton, The UVF 1966-1973 (Dublin: Torc Books, 1973); and Rachel
Monaghan, “The Return of ‘Captain Moonlight’: Informal Justice in Northern
Ireland,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 25(1) (January-February 2002), pp. 41-56. 39 Interviewee B, UVF Commander (November 2005). 40 Interviewee C, RHC Brigade Staff (November 2005). 41 Bruce, The Red Hand, p. 124 42 Brian Rowan, “Decisive day as loyalist politics hits a defining crossroads”, Belfast
Telegraph, 9 June 2010, p. 10.
Forward to the Past?
32
43 International Monitoring Commission, Twenty-Third Report (London: The
Stationery Office, 2010). 44 Bruce, “Turf War and Peace.” 45
Interviewee D, LVF member (November 2005). 46 Louis Kriesberg, Social Conflicts (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1982), p. 32. 47 Interviewee A, Inner Council Member UDA/UFF (November 2005). 48
Interviewee E, Commanding Officer RHC (November 2005). 49
Bruce, The Red Hand. 50
Interviewee B, UVF Commander (November 2005). 51 Interviewee F, Prominent member of RHC (November 2005). 52
Interviewee G, Inner Council Member UDA/UFF (November 2005). 53 Peter Shirlow and Kieran McEvoy, Beyond the Wire: Former Prisoners and
Conflict Transformation in Northern Ireland (London: Pluto Press, 2008). 54 Independent Monitoring Commission, Third Report (London, The Stationery
Office, 2004), p. 36. 55 Northern Ireland Office, Protocol for Community-based Restorative Justice
Schemes (Belfast: NIO, 2007). 56 Kofi Annan, “Learning the Lessons of Peace Building”. The Tip O’Neill Lecture.
Magee College, University of Ulster (18 October 2004); Community Foundation for
Northern Ireland, Taking Calculated Risks for Peace II (Belfast: CFNI, 2003); Neil
Jarman, ed. Human Rights and Community Relations: Competing or Complementary
Approaches in Responding to Conflict? (Belfast: Institute for Conflict Research,
2002); Kieran McEvoy and Harry Mika, “Restorative Justice and the Critique of
Informalism in Northern Ireland,” British Journal of Criminology 42(3) (Summer
2002), pp. 534-563. 57 Interviewee G, Inner Council Member UDA/UFF (November 2005). 58 Interviewee H, UVF Volunteer (October 2005). 59 Eolas Project, Consultation Paper on Truth and Justice (Belfast: Relatives for
Justice, 2003); and EPIC, Truth Recovery: A Contribution from Loyalism (Belfast:
EPIC, 2005). 60 Interview with authors, Fred Cobain, Ulster Unionist Party (November 2005). 61 Interview with authors, Jim Gibney, Sinn Féin (December 2005) 62 Interview with authors, Sam Kincaid, PSNI (February 2006).