FOR TUBERCULOSIS AND OTHER DISEASES

A survey of free-ranging and captive wild ungulates for tuberculosis and other diseasesby Brian Randolph Hood

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science inBiological SciencesMontana State University© Copyright by Brian Randolph Hood (1995)

Abstract:Today, tuberculosis and other diseases are significant problems in the game ranching industry aroundthe world.

The threat of disease and parasites associated with game ranching and their potential impact onwildlife, domestic livestock, and human health has prompted concern among wildlife managers,cattlemen, and the public (Merritt, 1992). An outbreak of tuberculosis in a southcentral Montana gameranch prompted this study to determine whether the disease had been transmitted to surroundingwildlife. A disease surveillance project was conducted on hunter-killed and specially collectedfree-ranging deer and elk in proximity to the game ranch. Specimens from 41 mule deer (Odocoileushemionus) , 3 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) , and one elk (Cervus elaphus nelsonI) weretested for tuberculosis, brucellosis, leptospirosis, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, bluetongue,parainfluenza virus, bovine viral diarrhea, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, and various parasites.Specimens from game-ranched elk and pronghorn (Antilocaprae americana) were also collected andtested for comparison. Methods used for testing included gross and histopathologic examination,bacterial culture and identification techniques, serologic tests, and parasitological exams.Mycobacterial lesions were noted in 2 free-ranging mule deer, and Mycobacterium bovis was isolatedfrom one of these upon culture. This was the first record of tuberculosis in free-ranging mule deer inthe United States. The discovery received widespread publicity and prompted state legislation thatmore clearly defined regulatory responsibility for Montana game farms. Wild deer also revealedantibodies against leptospirosis, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, bovine viral diarrhea, andparainfluenza-3. Parasites identified from free-ranging Cervidae included lungworms, gastrointestinalhelminths, tapeworms cysts, and ectoparasites. Incidental findings in free-ranging cervids includedactinobacillosis-like lesions; lymphosarcoma; parasitic lesions in liver and lung specimens; andSarcocystis sp. in cardiac muscle.

Examination of game-ranched animals revealed giant liver flukes and antibodies to bluetongue virus, inaddition to many of the antibodies, diseases, and parasites found in the free-ranging animals. It issuggested that wildlife disease surveillance continue in regions' where serious diseases are known toexist in captive animals. Surveillance results might be used in preventing disease outbreak in Montana'snative wildlife.

A SURVEY OF FREE-RANGING AND CAPTIVE WILD UNGULATES FOR TUBERCULOSIS AND OTHER DISEASES

byBrian Randolph Hood

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

ofMaster of Science

in xBiological Sciences

MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, MontanaNovember 1995

a/318 H 7U

ii

APPROVAL

of a thesis submitted by

Brian Randolph Hood

This thesis has been read by each member of the thesis committee and has been found to be satisfactory regarding content, English usage, format, citations, bibliographic style, and consistency, and is ready for submission to the College of Graduate Studies.

Dr. Harold Picton,ignature) . i — _______ ^ Date

Approved for the Department of Biology

Dr. Ernest VyseDate

Approved for the College of Graduate Studies

Dr. Robert Brown(Signature) Date

STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master's degree at Montana State University, I agree that the Library shall make it available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

If I have indicated my intention to copyright this thesis by including a copyright notice page, copying is allowable only for scholarly purposes, consistent with "fair use" as prescribed in the U.S. Copyright Law. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this thesis in whole or in parts may be granted only by the copyright holder.

Iii

Signature A. fUmrJ

Date

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was conducted through the support of the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks, Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, and Montana Wildlife Federation. I would like to thank these agencies for funding this project. Also, I would like to thank the employees of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks who helped gather information vital to this study.

This study would not have been possible without cooperation from Harry Allen of Pocket Creek Ranch, and Mike Miller and Scott Stires of Elk Valley Game Ranch. I would like to thank them for their cooperation.

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Harold Picton, the chairman of my committee, for his advice and assistance during the preparation of this manuscript; Keith Aune for both help in the field and review of the manuscript; Dr. Larry Stackhouse and Dr. Marc Mattix of the Montana State Department of Livestock for their help in the laboratory and review of the manuscript; and Dr. Jack Rhyan and other employees of the U.S.D.A. for their laboratory work.

I would especially like to thank Dr. Ryan Clarke of the U.S.D.A. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services and Dr. David E. Worley of Montana State University for their indispensable help in many aspects of this study.

V

TABLE OF CONTENTSPage

ABSTRACT...................... . . ;...........'....... viiiINTRODUCTION..................................... ISTUDY AREA........................................... 4METHODS!...... 7

Specimen Collection.......... 7Gross, inspection.......... 8Histopathology.................... 8

. Bacteriology..........................'......... 9Serology............... ..... '................... 9Parasitology................................... 9

RESULTS.............. '.... .'.................. ...... 14Bovine tuberculosis.........................i ... 14Serology........................................ 16Parasitology................................... . 19Other findings.................. 24

DISCUSSION........... ............................ . .. 2 6Bovine tuberculosis.......... 26 .Brucellosis....................;............... ■ 33Leptospirosis................................ ... 36Hemorrhagic disease............................. 37Respiratory viruses....... 40Parasites.......................... 43Other findings............................'..... ' 61-

CONCLUSIONS... ...................... 63LITERATURE CITED.................. 71APPENDIX........................................... . . 83

Bacteriology report for deer #168......... 84

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page1. Tissues samples collected from Pocket

Creek Ranch deer and Pompey's Pillarelk for tuberculosis survey....................... 14

2. Tuberculosis culture results forPocket Creek Ranch deer and Pompey'sPillar elk.....................■................. 16

3. Serological test results from PocketCreek Ranch mule deer............................. 17

4. Serological test results from PocketCreek Ranch white-tailed deer...................... 18

5. Serological test results from ElkValley Game Ranch elk................ 18

6. Serological test results from ElkValley Game Ranch pronghorn..................... 19

7. Prevalence and intensity of parasitichelminths in mule deer from PocketCreek Ranch...................................... 21

8. Prevalence and intensity of parasitichelminths in elk from Elk Valley GameRanch................... ........................ 22

9. Prevalence and intensity of parasitichelminths in pronghorn from ElkValley Game Ranch................................ 23

10. Prevalence and intensity of bot flylarvae and spinose ear ticks in muledeer from Pocket Creek Ranch..................... 24

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

I. Map of Study Area................................. 6

vii

viii

ABSTRACT

Today, tuberculosis and other diseases are significant problems in the game ranching industry around the world.The threat of disease and parasites associated with game ranching and their potential impact on wildlife, domestic livestock, and human health has prompted concern among wildlife managers, cattlemen, and the public (Merritt,1992). An outbreak of tuberculosis in a southcentral Montana game ranch prompted this study to determine whether the disease had been transmitted to surrounding wildlife. A disease surveillance project was conducted on hunter-killed and specially collected free-ranging deer and elk in proximity to the game ranch. Specimens from 41 mule deer {Odocoileus hemionus) , 3 white-tailed deer {Odocoileus virginianus) , and one elk {Cervus elaphus nelson!) were tested for tuberculosis, brucellosis, leptospirosis, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, bluetongue, parainfluenza virus, bovine viral diarrhea, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, and various parasites. Specimens from game-ranched elk and pronghorn {Antilocaprae americana) were also collected and tested for comparison. Methods used for testing included gross and histopathologic examination, bacterial culture and identification techniques, serologic tests, and parasitological exams. Mycobacterial lesions were noted in 2 free-ranging mule deer, and Mycobacterium bovis was isolated from one of these upon culture. This was the first record of tuberculosis in free-ranging mule deer in the United States. The discovery received widespread publicity and prompted state legislation that more clearly defined regulatory responsibility for Montana game farms. Wild deer also revealed antibodies against leptospirosis, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, bovine viral diarrhea, and parainfluenza-3. Parasites identified from free-ranging Cervidae included lungworms, gastrointestinal helminths, tapeworms cysts, and ectoparasites. Incidental findings in free-ranging cervids included actinobacillosis-like lesions; lymphosarcoma; parasitic lesions in liver and lung specimens; and Sarcocystis sp. in cardiac muscle.Examination of game-ranched animals revealed giant liver flukes and antibodies to bluetongue virus, in addition to many of the antibodies, diseases, and parasites found in the free-ranging animals. It is suggested that wildlife disease surveillance continue in regions' where serious diseases are known to exist in captive animals. Surveillance results might be used in preventing disease outbreak in Montana's native wildlife.

IINTRODUCTION

Activities associated with game farms have increased over the last two decades throughout North America (Essey, 1991) . Producers are supplying venison, antlers, and controlled hunts.

A number of factors described in Miller and Thorne (1993) are conducive to the establishment and dissemination of serious diseases among game-ranched animals. Disease surveillance programs are lacking. Extensive movements of breeding stock provide many opportunities for contamination of healthy animals. Various aspects of the biology and behavior of captive cervids, including social structures and interspecific variations in susceptibility to parasitic and other infectious agents, can create a disease-prone environment. Finally, requirements for maintaining healthy captive herds are not well understood. As a result, poor husbandry practices can contribute to the spread of disease (Krogh and Jenson, 1988).

Game-ranched cervids present a threat to native wildlife of Montana by transmitting disease or parasites (Lanka and Guenzel, 1991). Several recent publications have highlighted potential problems of disease and parasite transmission between game-ranched wildlife and native wildlife (Geist, 1991, Lanka and Guenzel, 1991, Ferlicka, 1991, Thorne et al., 1991). There have been captive cervid

2facilities in Montana quarantined due to outbreaks of bovine tuberculosis (Ferlicka, 1991). The disease can be lethal to wild ungulates (Lanka and Guenzel., 1991) and humans are endangered as well (Fanning and Edwards, 1991).Tuberculosis is only one of several diseases which could be detrimental to native wildlife.

In April 1993, gross and microscopic lesions consistent with tuberculosis were found in elk (Cervus elaphus nelson!) from Elk Valley Game Ranch (R. Clarke, pers. comm.). The ranch is situated northeast of Hardin, Bighorn County, Montana. Culture results were positive for Mycobacterium bovis, the bacterium that causes bovine tuberculosis (J. Payeur, unpubI. data).

A 1967-68 study of mule deer in eastern Montana indicated that cattle and mule deer sharing common ranges could readily exchange parasitic diseases (Worley and Eustace, 1972). Pocket Creek Ranch borders the northern boundary of Elk Valley Game Ranch and includes 700 to 800 head of cattle. The former ranch is also home to large numbers of wild mule deer {Odocoileus hemionus), and smaller numbers of wild white-tailed deer {Odocoileus virginianus) and elk. Because of the concern for spread of tuberculosis from captive cervids to surrounding cattle and free-ranging wildlife, a disease surveillance project examining cervids from land adjacent to the game ranch was conducted.

The primary objective of the study was to determine

3whether bovine tuberculosis had been transmitted to surrounding wildlife populations. A secondary objective was to survey for other diseases and parasites in a free-ranging mule deer population, and to compare their pathogens with the kinds and numbers found in the captive ungulates of the Elk Valley Game Ranch.

The study was conducted through cooperation with the Departments of Biology and Veterinary/Molecular Biology at Montana State University, the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks (MDFWP), the Montana Department of Livestock Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (MVDL),■and the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services (APHIS). Funding was provided by the MDFWP, the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation (project no. MT93214), and the Montana Wildlife Federation.

4STUDY AREA

Elk Valley Game Ranch is located in southcentral Montana, northeast of Hardin (45°55,N, 107°32,W). Animals are held in captivity by a single woven wire fence, 3.5 meters in height. The ranch consists of two pastures totaling 1,050 hectares and a 650- hectare shooter pen where fee-based hunting is conducted (Rhyan et al, 1995) . In 1993, the game ranch was home to approximately 150 elk, 16 bison {Bison bison), 19 pronghorn {Antilocapra americana) , and 10 mule deer (Rhyan et al., 1995).

Pocket Creek Ranch is a privately owned cattle operation and borders the entire north end of Elk Valley Game Ranch. Its western border lies along the Bighorn River. An aerial survey revealed an estimate of 5.4-7.7 mule deer per square mile (MDFWP, unpubI. data). Smaller numbers of white-tailed deer were present in riparian habitat along the Bighorn River. Surveillance was conducted on approximately 10 square miles immediately north of the game ranch.

Both Pocket Creek Ranch and Elk Valley Game Ranch consist of central grassland and eastern Montana ponderosa pine forest vegetative rangeland types (Payne, 1973) with breaks and badlands-type terrain. Climate is semiarid continental with warm summers and cold winters. The annual - mean temperature is approximately 7 °C, with extremes

ranging from -5.5 °C for January and 23 °C for July (NOAA, 1993). Yearly precipitation averages 33 centimeters.

5

6

Treasunstone

Bighorn County

;ket CreekRahch

outh Forl

Elk VaThey

2 km

Figure I. Map of study area.

7METHODS

Specimen CollectionField work began in the fall of 1993 and continued

through the year 1994. Field specimens from Pocket Creek Ranch were collected from hunter-kills or by direct collection methods as permitted by MDFWP. In October and November of 1993, 2 white-tailed deer and 8 mule deer were collected by hunters. A special collection of 30 mule deer and I white-tailed deer took place on December 10, 1993. A second special collection of 3 mule deer took place on January 28, 1994. Thirty-five additional deer samples were taken during a third special collection in August of 1994. January 15, 1994, one elk was collected by MDFWP personnel 4 miles east of Pompey's Pillar, northwest of Pocket Creek Ranch. f

Specimens from 39 captive elk and 10 captive pronghorn were collected from within Elk Valley Game Ranch for comparative evaluations from November 1993 to November 1994.

Sampling of hunter-killed cervids was accomplished by supplying hunters with collection kits. Each kit consisted of two garbage bags, one for the head and neck and one for the abdominal and thoracic viscera. The kit also included a numbered tag for each garbage bag and three numbered blood tubes. One tube contained the anti-coagulant heparin. Another contained the anti-coagulant EDTA. The last tube

8was a serum-separator tube containing no anti-coagulant. Pick-up of hunter-killed specimens was accomplished on a regular basis. Direct collection methods were similar to hunter-killed collections, and was assisted by the USDA veterinary medical officer in Billings, Montana Department of Livestock veterinarians, and MDFWP personnel. Samples were placed in Rubbermaid Rough-neck containers and transported to the MDFWP Wildlife Laboratory where they were inspected.

Gross inspectionHeads and necks were dissected and tonsils and lymph

nodes removed. Lymph nodes collected were the medial and lateral retropharyngeals, mandibulars, and parotids. Lungs were inspected for surface lesions, palpated, and dissected to expose lesions that could exist underneath the surface. From the thorax, samples of lung and heart were collected. The tracheobronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes were also collected. From the abdomen, the hepatic and mesenteric lymph nodes, spleen, liver, and kidneys were collected.Each tissue specimen was sliced with a scalpel and inspected thoroughly for gross lesions. Following inspection, half of each tissue specimen or lesion was placed in 10% neutral buffered formalin and half was frozen in a plastic bag.

HistopathologyLymph nodes of the head fixed in formalin were sent to

the USDA National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSh)

9for processing and histologic examination by methods described in Rhyan et al. (1995).

Formalin-fixed tissues of the thorax and abdomen were routinely processed and embedded in paraffin at the MVDL. A microtome was used to cut five micrometer sections which were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. All sections were examined with a compound microscope and lesions recorded. Special stains were used as needed.

BacteriologyFrozen specimens of tonsils, head and thoracic lymph

nodes, and lungs were sent to the USDA NVSL for mycobacterial isolation attempts by methods described in Payeur et' al. (1993) . In some cases, attempts were also made to culture gross lesions observed at post-mortem examination.

SerologyAll blood samples were submitted to the MDVL for

testing. Whole blood was subjected to biochemistry and hematology evaluation. The tube without anti-coagulant was centrifuged to separate blood serum from cellular components. Serum was then tested for antibodies to brucellosis, leptospirosis, bluetongue, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, bovine virus diarrhea, and parainfluenza virus 3.

ParasitologyThe meninges of the brain and the brain cavities were

10examined grossly for the presence of adult parasitic nematodes. The terminal 25 centimeters of the common carotid arteries and in some instances the proximal portion of the internal, maxillary arteries were opened with surgical scissors and the lumina examined for adult nematodes.Often, auditory canals and nasal cavities were exposed to reveal arthropods. Specimens were placed in 70 percent ethanol for later study.

Ear ticks were identified according to the descriptions by Thorne et al. . (1982). Identification of nose bot larvae genera was based on physical appearance and location of the parasite. Species identification of second and third-stage larvae was based on number of rows of spines on dorsal and ventral cuticular segments, on the number of spines in the upper row of the anal patch, and on the total number of spines on the anal patch (Bennett and Sabrosky, 1962).

The pleural surface of the lungs was examined externally for cysts or other abnormalities. The trachea was opened and examined. Air passages in all lobes of the lung were opened and examined. Cysts found on the surface of the lungs were opened by incision with a scalpel.Encysted tapeworm larvae were removed with forceps and fixed in a mixture of 95 parts 70 percent ethanol and five parts glycerin. At a later date, larval scolices were dissected and examined under a Leitz Ortholux compound microscope, where hooks could be counted and measured for identification

11(Verster, 1969). Lungworms were removed from air passages, counted, and fixed in glycerine-alcohol. Preserved lungworms were cleared in glycerine and examined under an Ortholux microscope for specific identification (Ransom 1911).

Livers were serially incised and visually examined for scarring or pigmented lesions suggestive of fluke infection. Liver surfaces were also examined for tapeworm cysts.Flukes were removed from the liver with forceps and fixed in 70 percent ethanol. Adult trematodes were identified by location in host, length, and morphology (Thorne et al.,1982). The spleen was examined in a similar manner to the liver.

Regions of the gastrointestinal tract inspected for parasites were the abomasum/ small intestine, and large intestine. The contents of each area were washed separately onto 24-, 60-, or 80-mesh screens. Gastrointestinal epithelium was also scraped to remove attached worms.Ingesta were then placed in labeled jars, and 10 percent formalin was added for preservation. Later, washed ingesta were examined in illuminated trays to recover worms. Recovered nematodes were separated by sex, counted, cleared in glycerin, and examined with an Ortholux compound microscope for identification.

When male nematodes were found, genus and species were identified by physical appearance, total worm length.

12location in host, esophagus length, spicule length, and other distinguishing morphological characteristics such as cervical papillae or cuticular striations. In cases where only female nematodes were found, identification was often only possible to genera level. Identification of female worms was based on physical appearance, total worm length, location in host, egg size, esophagus length, length from vulva to tail tip, length from anus to tail tip and other unique characteristics such as vulvar shape, cervical" papillae, and cuticular morphology. Three references were used in nematode identification; Thorne et al. (1982),Ransom (1911), and Gibbons and Khalil (1982).

Adult tapeworms were examined under a dissecting scope for identification. Cestodes were identified by worm size and proglottid morphology (Thorne et al., 1982).

The kidneys were also briefly scanned for parasites. Following inspection of the surfaces, kidneys were sliced in halves, exposing the renal pelvis. In some instances, other external parasites and tapeworm cysts found in the omentum were collected in addition to the usual postmortem material. Identification of ticks was based on the number of festoons and appearance of the spiracular plate (Thorne et al.,1982). Identification of deer keds was based on coxa and abdominal morphology (Furman and Catts, 1970) .

Fecal samples were collected during post-mortem examination. Samples came from the rectum and varied in

13weight from 5-30 grams. To extract larvae, the feces were subjected to the Baermann technique (Baermann, 1917). Fecal samples were retained in the Baermann apparatus for at least 12 hours, ensuring complete larval migration. Larva suspensions were withdrawn into a Petri dish and counted under a dissecting microscope. Identification at the generic level was accomplished using the dissecting microscope. In some instances, species was determined by measuring the larvae under an Ortholux compound microscope.

A modified Lane centrifugal flotation technique (Dewhirst and Hansen, 1961) was used to detect nematode and cestode ova, and coccidian oocysts in fecal samples. A saturated sodium chloride solution (sp. gr. 1.18-1.20) was used as the egg flotation medium. Eggs were identified and counted using an Ortholux compound microscope.

14RESULTS

Bovine TuberculosisFrom October 1993-January 1994, tissue samples from 44

free-ranging deer collected from Pocket Creek Ranch, and one free-ranging elk collected near Pompey's Pillar, were tested for tuberculosis (Table I).Table I. Tissues samples collected from Pocket Creek Ranch deer and Pompey's Pillar elk for tuberculosis survey.

Survey Head Thorax Abdomen TotalHunter-killedWhite-tailed deer I 2 2 2Mule deer 4 8 4 8Special CollectionWhite-tailed deer. I I I IMule deer 32 33 31 33Elk I I I ITotal 39 45 39 45

At necropsy, lesions suggestive of tuberculosis were observed in 2 adult female mule deer. Gross lesions were visible in hepatic and thoracic lymph nodes of deer #168.The most evident changes occurred in the right tracheobronchial lymph node which was enlarged by approximately two times. Upon incision, the node was gritty in consistency and grayish yellow in color. . Changes in this lymph node were diffuse. All other lesions visible in deer #168 were focal, ranged from 1-8 millimeters in size, and were also gritty upon incision. Gross lung lesions werenot observed in this deer.

15In deer 210, grossly visible lesions suggestive of

tuberculosis were found in the right parotid and mandibular lymph.nodes. These lesions were small (about 2 mm) in size, yellow, and also gritty upon incision. Gross lung lesions were not present in deer 210.

Histologic examination revealed microscopic lesions morphologically consistent with tuberculosis in sections of palatine tonsil, retropharyngeal lymph nodes, thoracic lymph nodes, and a hepatic lymph node from deer 168 (Rhyan et al., 1995). Rare, acid-fast bacilli were scattered in necrotic material, macrophages, and multinucleate giant cells of all. lesions (Rhyan et al., 1995) . Microscopically, the head lymph node lesions from deer 210 were examined and pyogranulomatous lymphadenitis was diagnosed. Lesions contained club colonies morphologically similar to those of Actinomyces bovis and Actinobacillus lignieresi in cattle (J. Rhyan, pers. comm.).

Also noted on histologic examination was a single microgranuloma suggestive of tuberculosis in one head lymph node of deer 173. However, acid-fast bacilli were not demonstrated in the lesion (Rhyan et al., 1995).

Mycobacterium bovis was isolated from pooled head lymph node specimens and from pooled thoracic lymph node specimens from deer 168 by methods described in Payeur et al. (1993) (Table 2). Attempts to culture M. bovis from all other deerwere unsuccessful.

16Table 2. Tuberculosis culture results for Pocket Creek Ranch deer and Pompey's Pillar elk.

Species # positive/# examined % positiveMule deer 1/41 2.4White-tailed deer 0/3 0.0Elk 0/1 0.0Total 1/45 2.2

SerologyFrom November 1993 to November 1994, blood serum was

collected from animals taken from Pocket Creek Ranch and Elk Valley Game Ranch and tested by the MVDL for the presence of antibodies against brucellosis, leptospirosis, bluetongue, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, bovine virus diarrhea, and parainfluenza virus 3 (Tables 3-6). Approximately one-third of Pocket Creek Ranch mule deer had antibodies to epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus, bovine virus diarrhea, and parainfluenza virus 3. The most prevalent antibodies detected in Pocket Creek Ranch white-tailed deer were against L. interrogans serovar tarassovi. Elk Valley Game Ranch elk had antibodies against epizootic hemorrhagic disease, bovine virus diarrhea, and parainfluenza virus 3. Most pronghorn collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch possessed antibody titers against epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus or L. interrogans serovar tarassovi. Animals from Elk Valley Game Ranch and Pocket Creek Ranch did not

17present antibodies against infectious bovine rhinotracheitis.

When considering information from serologic studies, the reader is cautioned to be mindful that seropositive animals are not necessarily infected and that interpretation of serologic findings are subject to certain restrictions (Shotts, 1981). The demonstration of antibody from serum collected from an animal may mean that the animal is in the early stages of the disease or that the antibody noted represents a residual titer from a previous exposure. Antibodies against certain organisms may remain for several years.Table 3. Serological test results from Pocket Creek Ranch mule deer.

Disease # positive/# tested % positiveBrucellosis 0/130 0Leptospirosis— autumnalis serovar 3/130 2

Leptospirosis— tarassovi serovar 3/130 2

Bluetongue 0/130 0Epizootic hemorrhagic Disease 29/95 31

Bovine viral diarrhea 11/35 31Parainfluenza virus 3 13/35 37

Table 4. Serological test results from Pocket Creek Ranch white-tailed deer.



Bluetongue 0/12 0Epizootic hemorrhagic disease 0/11 0

Bovine virus diarrhea 0/1 0Parainfluenza virus 3 0/1 0

Table 5. Serological test Ranch elk. results from Elk Valley Game



Bluetongue 3/39 8Epizootic hemorrhagic disease 6/26 23

Bovine viral diarrhea 12/39 31Parainfluenza virus 3 5/39 13

19Table 6. Serological test Ranch pronghorn. results from Elk Valley Game

Disease # positive/# tested % positiveBrucellosis 0/7 0Leptospirosis— autumnalis serovar 0/7 0Leptospirosis— tarassovi serovar 4/7 57Bluetongue 0/7 0Bovine viral diarrhea 4/7 57Parainfluenza virus 3 1/7 14

Two elk collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch were suspect reactors for brucellosis using the standard plate agglutination test. However, both elk were negative on the rivanol and rapid card tests.

Blood sera collected from both Elk Valley Game Ranch and Pocket Creek Ranch were tested for 8 serovars, or subgroups, of Leptospira interrogansi > Animals from Pocket Creek Ranch and Elk Valley Game Ranch did not test positive for the serovars pomona, hardjo, grippotyphosa, icterohaemorrhagiae, canicola, or bratislava. Therefore, only test results for the serovars autumnalis and tarassovi are presented in the tables.

ParasitologyHeads, carotid arteries, lungs, livers, mesenteries,

and gastrointestinal contents from mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, and pronghorn were examined to detect the presence of parasitic helminths (Table 7-9). All deer were

20collected from Pocket Creek Ranch. Elk and pronghorn antelope were collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch.

Pocket Creek Ranch mule deer were infected with lungworms, gastrointestinal nematodes, and tapeworm cysticerci; the most prevalent parasitic helminth was Taenia hydatigena cysticerci. Worm burdens were generally low.Elk Valley Game Ranch elk were infected with small numbers of giant liver flukes and gastrointestinal nematodes. Ostertagia sp. and Oesophagostomum venulosum were most prevalent in sampled elk. Pronghorn collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch were infected with lungworms and large numbers of gastrointestinal nematodes. The most common parasitic helminth collected from pronghorn was Haemonchus contortus.

21Table 7. Prevalence and mean numbers of parasitic helminths in mule deer from Pocket Creek Ranch.

Parasite Location % Infected Mean no. worms (Range)

Protostrongylus macrotis

Lungs 4 (3/78) 1.0 (-- )Dictyocaulus viviparus

Lungs 6 (5/78) 14.0 (1-46)Ostertagia sp. Abomasum 20 (6/30) 2.0 (1-5)Haemonchuscontortus

Abomasum 7 (2/30) 6.0 (2-10)Marshallagiamarshalli

Abomasum 3 (1/30) 1.0 (-- )Cooperiaoncophora

Smallintestine

11 (3/28) 8.0 (1-22)Nematodirus sp. Small

intestine7 (2/28) 1.5 (1-2)

Trichuris sp. Largeintestine

10 (3/31) 1.0 ( — )Oesophagos tomum sp. Large

intestine3 (1/31) 24.0 (-- )

Thysanosomaactinioides

Smallintestine

7 (2/28) — (-- )Moniezia sp. Small

intestine14 (4/28) — ( — )

Taeniahydatigenacysticerci

Liver,mesentery 26 (10/39) 2.0 (1-4)

Taenia omissa cysticerci Lungs,

mesentery 5 (2/39) 4.5 (1-8)

Additionally, thirty-one mule deer and one white-•taileddeer examined from Pocket Creek Ranch were not infected withthe meningeal worm, Parelaphostrongylus tenuis. Twenty- eight mule deer and one white-tailed deer examined from Pocket Creek Ranch were negative for Elaeophora schneideri,

22the arterial worm. Liver flukes were not found in any of 36 mule deer and 2 white-tailed deer examined from Pocket Creek Ranch. Intestinal contents from 2 white-tailed deer contained no parasitic helminths. Three white-tailed deer collected from Pocket Creek Ranch did not show evidence of infection with adult lungworms.Table 8. Prevalence and mean numbers of parasitic helminths in elk from Elk Valley Game Ranch.


Fasci o I o I des magna

Liver 8 (2/26) 5.5 (4-7)

Ostertagia sp. Abomasum 33 (2/6) 3.0 (1-5)Oesophagostomum venulosum

Largeintestine 33 (2/6) 14.5 (20-29)


17 (1/6) 2.0 (-- )

23Table 9. Prevalence and mean numbers of parasitic helminths in pronghorn from Elk Valley Game Ranch.


Protostrongyl us macrotis

Lungs 10 (1/10) 1.0 (-- )Ostertagiabullosa

Abomasum 20 (2/10) 141.0 (43-239)

Haemonchuscontortus

Abomasum 80 (8/10) 42.0 (7-197)

Marshallagiamarshalli

Abomasum 30 (3/10) 12.0 (3-24)

Trichostrongylus colubriformis

Smallintestine

10 (1/10) 21.0 (-- )Nematodire 11 a antilocaprae

Smallintestine

60 (6/10) 559.0 (6-1242)

Cooperiaoncophora

Smallintestine

10 (1/10) 8.0 ( — )Oesophagostomum venulosurn

Largeintestine

50 (5/10) 12.0 (1-25)


30 (3/10) 2.0 (-- )

Eighteen elk collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch werenot infected with P. tenuis, and two elk were negative forelaeophorosis. Air passages of lungs from 11 elk collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch did not contain adult lungworms.

None of ten pronghorn collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch harbored liver flukes or tapeworm cysticerci.

Throats and nasal cavities of Pocket Creek Ranch mule deer were examined for the presence of bot fly larvae [Cephenemyia sp.), and auditory canals were examined for spinose ear ticks (Otobius megnini) (Table 10).

24Table 10. Prevalence and intensity of hot fly larvae and spinose ear ticks in mule deer from Pocket Creek Ranch.

Parasite Location % Infected Mean no. parasites (Range)

Cephenemyia sp. Nose and throat 13 (4/32) 13 (1-35)

Otobius megnini Auditorycanal 3 (1/35) 7 (-- )

All of thirty-one deer collected from Pocket Creek Ranch on December 10, 1993, were parasitized by numerous deer keds. A sample of 12 keds from two deer were collected and identified as Lipoptena depressa or Neolipoptena ferrisi. In addition, 10 ticks were collected from 3 Pocket Creek Ranch mule deer and identified as Dermacentor albipictus, the winter tick.

Nymphs of Otobius megnini were found in the ear canals of two of thirty-one (6 percent) elk collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch. Elk #110 contained 21 nymphs in the left ear canal, and 22 nymphs in the right ear canal. Another elk contained one nymph in the right ear canal. Cephenemyia sp. were not found in any of the nine elk examined from Elk Valley Game Ranch.

Other findingsAt post-mortem examination, one free-ranging elk (#148)

possessed white tumor nodules about 1-2 centimeters in diameter in the pericardium and throughout the liver. One solid tumor in the neck area, probably an enlarged lymph

25node, was about 12 centimeters long and 6 centimeters wide. Mediastinal lymph nodes were also enlarged.

On histologic examination, architecture of lymph node, liver, and skeletal muscle from elk #148 was obliterated by a neoplastic process. MVDL diagnosis was disseminated lymphosarcoma.

Also on histologic examination, hepatic and pulmonary lesions were observed in three Pocket Creek Ranch mule deer, and consisted of clusters of lymphoid follicles containing giant cells surrounding an eosinophilic granuloma. These types of lesions are suggestive of parasitic, migration (M. Mattix, pers. comm.)

Microscopic examination revealed Sarcocystis sp. in numerous heart muscle specimens taken from Pocket Creek Ranch mule and white-tailed deer, and Elk Valley Game Ranch elk. Myocarditis, myocardial fibrosis, epicarditis, nephritis, lymphadenitis, and hepatitis were also occasionally noted-in collected specimens.

26DISCUSSION

Bovine Tuberculosis' Tuberculosis is an infectious disease of man and

animals caused by bacilli of the genus Mycobacterium. The three main types of tuberculosis-causing bacilli are M. tuberculosis, M. avium, and M. bovis. They are aerobic, facultative, intracellular parasites (Thoen and Hines,1982). Mycobacterium bovis has the greatest host range of the three main types. It is pathogenic to all mammals, including man. The nomenclature, identification, structure and cultural characteristics of this acid-fast bacterium have been reviewed by Pritchard .(1988) .

Mycobacteria grow slowly, dividing every 12 to 24 hours. Generally, disease-causing mycobacteria survive only a few weeks outside a host’s body because they cannot tolerate prolonged exposure to heat, direct sunlight, or dry conditions. HoweVer, under cold, moist conditions, the organism can survive longer. Williams and Hoy (1930) demonstrated that M. bovis, artificially mixed with cow• faeces and exposed on pasture land, survived for at least 35 weeks in winter, 28 weeks in autumn, and 14 weeks in summer. Survival times increased if the organism was protected from direct sunlight. '

Transmission of tubercle bacilli may occur by a variety of ways. Infection most commonly occurs either by

27inhalation of infectious droplets which are aerosolized by coughing, or ingestion of feed or water contaminated with urine or fecal material from diseased animals (Pritchard, 1988). Thoen and Hines (1981) point out the importance of crowding in the spread of tuberculosis and that the disease is common among animals kept in close contact in pens or barns. Calves may become infected by nursing tuberculous dams.

Tubercle bacilli that are inhaled usually locate in alveolar spaces, where they are ingested by alveolar macrophages (Thoen, 1994, and Thoen and Hines, 1981). Deer and elk react to mammalian tubercle bacilli similarly to cattle (Dannenberg, 1978). Development or elimination of disease depends on the virulence of the ingested bacilli and the microbicidal activities of the ingesting macrophages. A virulent bacillus in a weak alveolar macrophage seems to be able to multiply and initiate the disease, but a weak bacillus in a strong alveolar macrophage seems to be readily destroyed or inhibited before multiplication can occur (Dannenberg and Rook, 1994). If the alveolar macrophage fails to destroy or inhibit the inhaled organisms, the bacilli multiply until the phagocyte lyses, resulting in the development of a microscopic tubercle. Cellular debris from the degenerated macrophage then sensitizes lymphocytes which secrete cytokines that draw other macrophages to the lesion site. Hence, phagocytoses of bacilli by macrophages

28continues to occur, as does bacilliary multiplication, and the lesion grows. Disease may be arrested after tubercles become enclosed by a fibrous connective tissue capsule.

Wild mammals found to have tuberculous lesions at necropsy after natural death are usually without prior suspicion of tuberculosis (Thoen, 1994, and Thoen and Himes, 1981). Gross lesions may be extensive, involving entire organs of one or both body cavities; however, the anatomical sites of lesions and the extensiveness of pathologic involvement are not usually different from those seen in domestic animals (Dannenberg, 1978). Tubercles can be found in the lung, liver, spleen, body cavities, and mediastinal, bronchial, and portal lymph nodes (Thoen and Himes, 1981). Gross lesions are often caseous and yellowish in color. The center of a lesion is usually necrotic and may be mineralized (Thoen, 1994) .■

Tuberculosis caused by M. bovis infection is a subacute or chronic disease. Clinical signs are described in Clifton-Hadley and Wilesmith (1991). Some animals may express significant symptoms within six months, while others may survive for much longer without symptoms. If lesions are localized to internal lymph nodes or small areas of lung, clinical signs may not appear during the animal's life. However, if lesions are extensive and generally distributed, emaciation, dyspnea, and anorexia may be

29present. When lesions involve the lungs, a bronchopneumonia may be present and coughing will occur.

The most reliable and practical method available today for diagnosis of tuberculosis in Cervidae is application of the single cervical tuberculin skin test (Thoen, 1991). Infected animals respond to tuberculin injected intradermally in the cervical area by development of a delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction. The reaction is characterized by local inflammation within 72 hours. A comparative-cervical tuberculin test has been used to differentiate between infection with M. bovis and M. avium, a species which is rarely pathogenic to most mammals and may induce false-positive reactions. Diagnosis of tuberculosis is confirmed only by isolating the etiological agent by culture.

Uncertainties exist about whether the skin test can be accurately applied to captive Cervidae (Griffin and Cross, 1989). Animals which are skin test negative may later develop the disease and animals with advanced tuberculosis may become anergic and fail to respond to the test.

Griffin and Cross (1989) stated that the single cervical skin test had a sensitivity of 85 percent, and its specificity was much lower. As a result, both falsenegative and false-positive reactions are not uncommon.

The comparative cervical skin test is much more specific than the single cervical test. However, that

30advantage is concurrent with a significantly lower sensitivity (Griffin and Cross, 1989). The test is not used, then, in herds where M. bovis is known to exist. The result is use of the single cervical skin test and subsequent loss of stock due to false-positive reactions.

Still another problem with the skin tests for tuberculosis in captive cervids is the requirement of a 90- day test interval, because of post-skin test immunosuppression (Griffin and Cross, 1989). If tuberculosis is present in a herd during test intervals, it may spread rapidly, making it nearly impossible to eradicate the disease.

Because the tuberculin skin test requires confinement of the test animal, diagnosis of tuberculosis in free- ranging cervids is very difficult or impossible.

New diagnostic tests for detecting tuberculous Cervidae have been reported. British efforts have concentrated on an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test that uses monoclonal antibodies. It has been shown that this test can detect animals with serious disease that sometimes show a negative response to the skin test due to anergy (Bringans, 1991). However, it is less liable to pick up early M. bovis infections when antibodies have not yet been produced. Because it is economical and simple, ELISA has been used in New Zealand and the United Kingdom to screen skin-testnegative animals for reassurance.

31An in vitro blood test (BTB) which use's lymphocyte

transformation, ELISA, and inflammatory cofactors, has been evaluated by Griffin and Cross (1989). The authors reported a significantly higher sensitivity and specificity, 95 percent and 92 percent, respectively, than the single cervical or comparative cervical skin tests. However, Thoen (1991) states that its efficacy has yet to be determined.The BTB assay is intricate and expensive.

Tuberculosis may be controlled from three approaches; test and slaughter, test and segregation, and chemotherapy. If chemotherapy is used there are dangers of relapse after the drug is withdrawn, refractory cases, and emergence of drug-resistant strains. Therefore, the treatment of bovine tuberculosis in cattle in the USA is not allowed.

Vaccination with BCG does not completely prevent infection in cattle or captive animals. Moreover, vaccinated animals react to the tuberculin skin test, making eradication of disease impossible.

On March 30, 1993, ten cow elk owned by Elk Valley Game Ranch were subjected to single cervical skin tests for tuberculosis as required for shipment to Missouri (R.Clarke, pers. comm.). One of the ten elk reacted positive to the skin test. Following euthanasia, post-mortem examination revealed suggestive tubercular lesions. Mycobacterium bovis was cultured from tissues collected from this specimen at the USDA NVSL, in Ames, Iowa. From April

321993 to August 1994, the Elk Valley Game Ranch elk herd was subjected to numerous skin tests for tuberculosis and positive animals were slaughtered. According to USDA officials, infection rate appeared to be about 11 percent (R. Clarke, pers. comm.). Depopulation of the herd began August 24, 1994, and was completed by February 15, 1995.

Tuberculosis caused by M. bovls was confirmed in one of 44 free-ranging deer collected from Pocket Creek Ranch. Previous reports of tuberculosis in free-ranging cervids in the continental United States are limited to four occasions (Rhyan et al. 1995); twice in 1933 (Levine, 1934), once in 1937 (LeDune, 1937-cited in Friend, 1963) , and once in 1961 (Friend, 1963). All reports were in white-tailed deer. It is noteworthy that all four of these deer were taken from the same area of New York, and the area maintained a large population of dairy cattle in which M. bovis-infection was present. The discovery of tuberculosis in a Montana mule deer unassociated with infected cattle, then, is unique.

In Canada, tuberculosis was diagnosed in a free-ranging white-tailed deer in Ontario in 1958 (Belli, 1962). Gross lesions suggestive of the disease was also reported by Hadwen (1942) in 73 elk, 6 moose, and 2 mule deer killed in National Buffalo Park near Wainwright, Alberta in 1939 and 1940. The park contained a reservoir of the disease in bison.

Following the discovery of bovine tuberculosis in this

33wild mule deer, a herd plan was developed by the Montana Departments of Livestock and Fish,. Wildlife, and Parks, to reduce the density of deer surrounding the game farm in hopes of decreasing the potential for spread of the disease. Tissues from free-ranging deer, elk, pronghorn, coyote, and small mammals would also be tested for tuberculosis to further evaluate the prevalence and distribution ,of the disease. The plan established a 4-mile perimeter surrounding the game farm as a control area (K. Aune, pers. comm.).

To date, more than 150 deer have been sampled as part of the control effort (K. Aune, unpubI. data). Samples from coyote, porcupine, elk, pronghorn, and rabbit have also been collected and examined. Mycobacterium bovis was not cultured from deer. However, a coyote was culture-positive for the bacteria (K. Aune, pers. comm.).

Efforts are currently being made to increase the sample of coyotes from the area surrounding the game ranch. Also, hunter-kill surveys will be conducted during the fall months of 1995 and 1996 (R. Clarke, pers. comm.).

BrucellosisBrucellosis, also called Bang's disease, is a

contagious disease of man and animals caused by bacteria of the genus Brucella. Brucella sp. are gram-negative, aerobic, facultative intracellular coccobacilli.Brucellosis in Cervidae and Bovidae is usually caused by

34Brucella abortus. Brucella are slow growing organisms, and exposure to direct sunlight kills them within hours.However, Brucella can survive up to 2 months in a cool, damp environment, and for 7 months or longer when frozen (Rinehart and Fay, 1981).

Natural transmission of B. abortus usually occurs by ingestion of organisms present in aborted fetuses, the placenta, or vaginal exudates (Thorne et al., 1982). The route of invasion is usually through the mucous membranes of the mouth.

Clinical signs of brucellosis in elk are described in Thorne et al. (1982) and include abortion, premature birth, or birth of nonviable calves. An elk infected with brucellosis will likely remain infected for life. Most females will abort only once or twice and bear normal offspring thereafter, even though infection persists.

Clinical signs of natural or experimental brucellosis have not been described in mule deer (Thorne et al., 1982). Baker et al. (1962) inoculated two pregnant white-tailed deer with B. abortus. One deer did not produce fawns the first year after infection, but produced a healthy fawn the following year. The other deer produced twins. However, one of the twins was born dead arid the other died shortly after birth.

Deer sera taken from Pocket Creek Ranch did not contain antibodies against B. abortus. The negative findings on

35Brucella in deer were similar to those in western Nebraska (Johnson et al., 1986), Colorado (Adrian and Keissz 1977), and a western National Parks survey (Aguirre et al., 1995).A survey by Aune (unpubI. data) reported no positive reactors to brucellosis in Montana mule deer. However, Aune did discover a .14 percent seropositive rate in Montana white-tailed deer. Recent reports of brucellosis in deer in the United States are rare, probably because of intense national efforts to eradicate the disease in domestic animals.

Though elk sera collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch contained no positive reactors, 2 elk possessed titers considered suspect reactors. These suspects reacted at the 1:25 dilution and 1:50 dilution on the standard plate agglutination test. Both were negative on the rivanol and rapid card tests. According to Thorne et al. (1982), a low titer (25 or 50) on the standard plate agglutination test with a negative rapid card test, negative rivanol test, and negative or low complement fixation titer probably indicates a very recent exposure. Thorne et al. (1982) stated that such a cow tested in the winter during mid-gestation, probably stands at least a 50 percent chance of reproductive failure during her current pregnancy.

Serologic survey results for brucellosis in free- ranging elk in the United States, with the exception of the Yellowstone National Park area, also have shown low or zero

36prevalence (McCorquodale and DiGiacomo, 1985) .

LeptospirosisLeptospirosis is a zoonosis caused by members of the

genus Leptospira. The etiology of leptospirosis is described in Shotts (1981) . Contaminated urine from infected animals often plays a role in transmission, and the disease is often water-borne because the organisms can survive in surface waters for prolonged periods. The organisms may penetrate abraded skin or mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and mouth. Trainer et al. (1963) hypothesized that because leptospirosis is a disease of the urogenital tract, transmission among deer might frequently occur during the rutting season. Little is known about the clinical signs of leptospirosis in wild mammals (Shotts, 1981).

A major concern about leptospirosis in wildlife is the possibility of transmission to domestic livestock (Thorne et al., 1982), since pregnant cattle with the disease have aborted (Shotts, 1981). Domesticated animals can be vaccinated.

Five percent of mule deer and 33 percent of whitetailed deer collected from Pocket Creek Ranch presented antibodies against the autumnalis or tarassovi serovars of L. interrogans. Ten percent of elk and 57 percent of pronghorn taken from Elk Valley Game Ranch also presented antibodies against these serovars. Aune (unpubI. data)

37reported 3 percent of Montana mule deer and 11 percent of Montana white-tailed deer possessing titers against serovars of leptospirosis in 1992. The same data reported a seropositive prevalence of 27 percent for Montana elk.

Trainer et al. (1963) felt that leptospirosis was of minor importance to non-pregnant white-tailed deer, though pregnant does were shown to abort when infected with pomona serovar. Although clinical signs of leptospirosis in pronghorn fawns have been reported, the disease is not believed to be a major factor limiting populations (Thorne et al., 1982). Clinical signs have not been reported in mule deer or elk (Thorne et al., 1982).

The reason for a higher percentage of white-tailed deer possessing Leptospira antibodies than mule deer collected in this study can be hypothesized. Leptospira require a moist environment for survival, which is concurrent with whitetailed deer riparian habitat. Most or all of white-tailed deer sera sampled in this study were collected from riverbottom areas of the Big Horn River. The mule deer habitat found in the boundaries of Pocket Creek Ranch may be too dry to sustain conditions favorable to Leptospira species.

Hemorrhagic diseaseBluetongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease (EHD) are

arthropod-borne, infectious and non-contagious viral diseases of wild and domestic ruminants. The etiologic

38agents for both diseases require a biting knat, Culicoides variipennis, for transmission (Feldner and Smith, 1981). Feldner and Smith.state that in Montana, bluetongue and EHD epizootics occur in late summer and early fall when warm nights provide an opportunity for Culicoides breeding. A large number of infectious gnats and concentration of susceptible hosts favor the odds for an outbreak of EHD and/or bluetongue. There is evidence that cattle and mule deer may serve as reservoirs for EHD virus and bluetongue virus because they often experience lengthy viremias, but do not develop overt signs of disease (Feldner, 1980).

Bluetongue and EHD viruses are introduced into a susceptible host and multiply in capillary endothelial cells (Thorne et al., 1982). The replication results in degeneration of the endothelium and thrombosis, subsequently causing hemorrhage and tissue necrosis.

Clinical signs of hemorrhagic "disease in wild ruminants, described by Thorne et al. (1982), are variable. Loss of appetite due to high fever, depression, and dehydration have been reported. The linings of the.eyes and mouth often swell and become reddened, and in prolonged cases, there may be ulceration of the dental pad, hard palate, and tongue.

EHD is a serious threat only to white-tailed deer (Thorne et al., 1982), with mortality rates being reported at 90 percent (Feldner and Smith,- 1981) . Mule deer are more

I

39resistant to EHD virus and build up a solid and durable immunity (Feldner, 1980). Other wildlife species are also partially or completely resistant to the virus (Thorne et al., 1982).

Hemorrhagic disease occurs frequently, but its severity and distribution are variable. In eastern Wyoming, an outbreak of bluetongue in 1976 caused the deaths of at least 3100 pronghorn and 1000 deer (Thorne et al., 1982).

Hemorrhagic disease epizootics in Montana are limited to the eastern part of the state, and have occurred in the late summer and early fall, indicating transmission by an arthropod vector (Feldner and Smith, 1981). About one-third of a Dawson County white-tailed deer population probably died from hemorrhagic disease in 1977 (Swenson, 1979).

Sera collected from Pocket Creek Ranch deer did not possess antibodies against bluetongue virus. However, 8 percent of elk sera collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch presented antibodies against bluetongue virus. Because game farms often move animals extensively, it is possible the 3 positive elk were exposed to the virus while on a game farm in another location. Outbreaks of hemorrhagic disease are common in the southeastern United States.

Thirty percent of mule deer sera collected from Pocket Creek Ranch presented antibodies for EHD virus. However, white-tailed deer sera collected from the same area were EHD virus seronegative. Twenty-three percent of elk sera

40 )

collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch presented antibodies against EHDV. It is evident that EHD is present in the area to some degree, and mule deer may act as a reservoir host. The fact that all white-tailed deer were seronegative probably indicates the lethality of EHD virus infection for white-tailed deer.

A 1978-1979 serologic survey of EHD in deer and cattle (Feldner and Smith, 1981) reported a prevalence of 73 percent, 5 percent, and 79 percent in mule deer, whitetailed deer, and cattle, respectively, in areas of eastern Montana where hemorrhagic disease had been reported. Bluetongue was reported in 29 percent of mule deer and 3 percent of cattle from these same areas. Neither virus was reported in cattle or deer in western or southwestern Montana, probably because of periodic cool summer nights which prevent Culicoides breeding (Feldner and Smith, 1981).

Respiratory virusesInfectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), parainfluenza

virus 3 (PI3), and bovine virus diarrhea (BVD) are highly contagious viral diseases and are most prevalent in situations where animals are crowded. Vaccines for cattle are available for all three viruses. In general, the disease potential of these agents for deer populations is unknown, and additional studies are needed to evaluate their importance (Richards, 1981),. Karstad (1981) states that PI3 by itself is probably not a serious pathogen, but that

41together with other agents (viral, bacterial, or helminth) it may contribute to respiratory conditions. There is not information documenting disease in cervids from PI3 infection alone (Aguirre et al., 1995). Most BVD infections are subclinical with low mortality rates, though clinical cases in Cervidae have been described (Karstad, 1981) . BVD infection in cattle during pregnancy has resulted in abortion (L. Stackhouse, pers. comm.).

Deer from Pocket Creek Ranch and elk and pronghorn from Elk Valley Game Ranch did not present antibodies against IBR. These results are surprising considering Aune (unpubI. data) found 21-86 percent seropositive rates in Montana elk and deer sera collected in 1992.

Seroprevalence data indicate that infection of BVD is quite common in the area. Thirty-one percent of mule deer taken from Pocket Creek Ranch contained antibodies against BVD. These findings are similar to those found in south central Idaho mule deer (Stauber et al., 1977). Aune (unpubI. data) reported a 74 percent seropositive prevalence of BVD in Montana mule deer collected in 1992. Thirty-one percent of elk and 57 percent of pronghorn taken from Elk Valley Game Ranch contained BVD antibodies. This seroprevalence rate for elk is low compared to the one reported by Aune (unpubI. data) for Montana elk in 1992 (90 percent). A serological study of southeastern Idaho pronghorn (Stauber et al., 1980) reported only a 2 percent

42prevalence of BVD antibodies. A serologic survey of mule deer and elk of western national parks (Aguirre et al.,1995) reported a 22-100 percent prevalence of BVD antibodies.

Thirty-six percent of mule deer, taken from Pocket Creek Ranch were seropositive for PI3. This prevalence is lower than a 68 percent seropositive rate reported in Montana mule deer by Aune (unpubI. data). A serology study of mule deer in southcentral Idaho documented a 95 percent seropositive rate for PI3 (Stauber et al., 1977) . Thirteen percent of elk and 14 percent of pronghorn collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch had antibodies against PI3. Stauber et al.(1980) reported a 76 percent seroprevalehce of PI3 in southeastern Idaho adult pronghorn. A survey of mule deer and elk in western national parks reported 19-80 percent prevalence of PI3 (Aguirre et al., 1995).

It is evident from this study and others that prevalence rates of the respiratory viruses may vary dramatically by geographical area. It is assumed that Pocket Creek Ranch mule deer have contact with domestic cattle throughout the year. Aguirre et al. (1995) point out that most evidence demonstrates the presence of the respiratory viruses PI3 and BVD in areas where wild ungulates have in recent times been exposed to domestic livestock. However, because the viruses are contagious, these disease cycles may sustain themselves without

43reinfection from domestic animals.

ParasitesParelaphostrongylosis is a disease associated with the

parasitic nematode Parelaphostrongylus tenuis. Adult P. tenuis occur in the subdural space and venous sinuses of the cranium of white-tailed deer.

The life cycle of P. tenuis is complex. Adult parasites inhabiting the subdural space often infect the cranial sinuses to lay eggs which are carried to the lungs by venous blood (Anderson, 19-63) . Hatched larvae then move up the bronchial tree and are swallowed and passed with feces.I In the external environment larvae invade the foot of terrestrial gastropods to further develop "(Anderson,1972). Field studies by Lankester and Anderson (1968) reveal that many species of terrestrial snails and slugs allow larval development, thus making them potential intermediate hosts for P. tenuis.

Deer acquire infection by ingestion of infected gastropods on vegetation. After ingestion, the infective ■larvae leave the gastropod, penetrate the gastrointestinal wall, and follow spinal nerves to the vertebral canal where they invade the spinal cord. Finally, larvae enter the spinal subdural space where they mature and migrate to the cranium. The prepatent period is reported to be approximately 82-91 days (Anderson, 1963).

Parelaphostrongylus tenuis is found commonly in its

44reservoir host, the white-tailed deer, throughout the deciduous forest biome and deciduous coniferous ecotone in eastern North America (Anderson and Prestwood, 1981).Though suitable intermediate hosts are present, there have not been reports of P. tenuis in the western United States. Although the grasslands may act as a barrier to the westward spread of the parasite, the aspen-parklands could serve as a corridor-by which the parasite could reach western North America (Anderson, 1972).

Infection with P. tenuis is largely silent in whitetailed deer. A fawn experimentally infected with massive numbers of larvae displayed temporary lameness (Anderson, 1965) . However, naturally infected white-tailed deer rarely show clinical signs.

Clinical signs of P. tenuis infection have been reported in many other hosts including mule deer (Tyler et al., 1980), moose (Anderson and Prestwood, 1981), elk (Fay and Stuht, 1973), domestic sheep (Alden et al., 1975), and domestic goats (Anderson and Strelive, 1969). In most cases infection is extremely pathogenic, resulting in neurologic disease which leads to paralysis and death. There are no reports of parelaphostrongylosis in bovines although worms may reach the central nervous system and die there in an early stage of development (R. C. Anderson, unpubI. data).

Moose population densities in northwestern Ontario and • Minnesota have been related to prevalence of P. tenuis

45larvae in the feces of deer, and in places where prevalence was high, moose population densities were low and visa versa (Saunders, 1973; Karns, 1967). Anderson and Prestwood (1981) state that parelaphostrongylosis has probably been a significant factor in limiting the success of introductions of elk into eastern North America since the extinction of the eastern race over a century ago.

It has recently been shown by Samuel et al. (1992) that there is a continuum of responses to meningeal worm in elk: elk exposed to large numbers of infective larvae die; those exposed to low numbers survive, often without infection; those exposed to intermediate numbers often develop patent non-fatal infections. It was also shown by Samuel et al. that meningeal worm can successfully complete its life cycle in elk and that larvae resulting from such infections are viable and can be the source for subsequent infections in white-tailed deer and other elk.

Recovery and identification of nematodes from the central nervous system is the only reliable method for diagnosing infection by P. tenuis (Anderson and Prestwood, 1981). Fecal examination has not been found to be effective in diagnosing parelaphostrongylosis in white-tailed deer or elk (Slomke et al., 1995, Welch et al., 1991). Both studies found that many infected animals shed larvae intermittently and at low densities.

White-tailed deer thrive in riparian habitats

46throughout many western states. Because suitable intermediate hosts are relatively ubiquitous in distribution, these white-tailed deer populations represent a large potential reservoir for perpetuating P. tenius should it become established by movement of infected animals (Samuel, 1987).

Parelaphostronglus tenuis was not found in 32 deer tested from Pocket Creek Ranch. However, it should be noted that only I of the 32 deer tested was a white-tailed deer. Eighteen elk from Elk Valley Game Ranch examined for meningeal worm were negative.

Aune (unpubI. data) examined 113 white-tailed deer heads, mostly collected from western Montana." As in the current study, all heads examined were negative for meningeal worm.

Elaeophorosis, often referred to as clear-eyed blindness, is a clinical condition associated with the nematode parasite Elaeophora schneideri. This parasite, often called the arterial worm, is usually found in the common carotid or internal maxillary arteries.

Elaeophorosis occurs, with differing manifestations, in mule deer, white-tailed deer, moose, elk, and domestic sheep and goats (Thorne et al., 1982). The mule deer is apparently the normal host because it is the only animal in which adult parasites reach sexual maturity and produce microfilariae in numbers sufficient to perpetuate the

47species (Thorne et al., 1982).

The life cycle of E. schneideri is described in Hibler and Prestwood (1981). Several horseflies are known to be intermediate hosts for E. schneideri (Pence, 1991). Horseflies acquire microfilariae by feeding on the facial region of an infected definitive host. When larvae in the horsefly reach the infective stage, they are transmitted to susceptible animals during feeding and migrate to the common carotid arteries (Hibler and Prestwood, 1981), Mature females then introduce microfilariae into blood supplying the facial epidermis.

Clinical manifestations of E. schneideri infection in mule deer are rare (Pence, 1991) . However, elaeophorosis in elk, moose, white-tailed deer, and domestic sheep and goats can cause neurologic disease, blindness, gangrene of the ears and muzzle, abnormal antler growth, emaciation, and death (Pence, 1991).

Examination of deer taken from Pocket Creek Ranch and elk taken from Elk Valley Game Ranch did not reveal infection with E. schneideri. This may indicate that intermediate hosts are not present in the area. Worley (1975) stated that the occurrence of the parasite may be restricted to localized areas where adequate densities of definitive hosts and suitable arthropod vectors exist concurrently. Cases of elaeophorosis in Montana have been reported in mule deer in Park County, Montana ' (Worley,

481975), and in moose from Park, Gallatin, and Granite Counties, Montana (Worley et al., 1972, and Worley, 1975). Elaeophorosis has not been observed in elk of the northern Rockies except for one instance in Albany County in southern Wyoming by Hibler and Adcock (1971).

Lungworms of the genera Dictyocaulus and 'Protostrongylus infect the lower respiratory tract of domestic and wild ruminants. Both genera are worldwide- in distribution and occur in a variety of domestic and wild z ruminants (Thorne et al.., 1982).

Dictyocaulus sp. has a direct life cycle (Thorne et al., 1982). Animals ingest infective larvae while feeding. Ingested larvae then penetrate the intestinal mucosa and move to the lungs via the lymphatic or circulatory system, where development into adult worms occur in the bronchioles and bronchi. Eggs produced by adult females hatch into larvae and migrate up the respiratory tree where they are swallowed by the host to be shed in feces.

Protostrongylus sp., on the other hand, has an indirect life cycle (Thorne et al., 1982). After being shed in feces, Protostrongylus larvae must penetrate.into certain terrestrial snails to undergo further development. Infected snails are then ingested by feeding animals.

Clinical signs of lungworm infection are variable.Light infections may cause moderate coughing with slightly increased respiratory rates, and heavy infection can result

49in respiratory failure. Dictyocaulus sp. probably is the most important parasite which affects health of elk native to the northern Rockies (Worley, 1978). Worley stated that Dictyocaulus sp. is a serious pathogen and contributes to field morbidity and mortality, especially in herds subjected to severe weather and poor nutrition. Dictyocaulus viviparus is an important parasite of domestic cattle.

Bacteria-induced abscesses occasionally accompany chronic lungworm infections. Pneumonia sometimes causes the death of elk during the winter and spring months which may be related to lungworm infections (Thorne et al., 1982).

Eleven percent of mule deer taken from Pocket Creek Ranch were positive for lungworm. Dictyocaulus viviparus was identified in 6 percent and P. maerotis in 4 percent of collected deer. Forty-six adult D. viviparus infected the lungs of one mule deer, which probably adversely affected the animal's health. It is known that Pocket Creek Ranch deer share ranges with domestic cattle throughout the year. The presence of D. viviparus, mainly a pathogen of cattle, suggests exchange of parasites between Pocket Creek Ranch livestock and deer. A study of helminths in mule deer from Rosebud County, Montana, (Worley and.Eustace, 1972) reported a 16 percent prevalence rate of P. maerotis in collected animals. Dictyocaulus viviparus was not reported in the study.

Ten percent of pronghorn collected from Elk Valley Game

50Ranch were positive for the lungworm, P. macrotis. This figure is close to the findings of Boddicker and Hugghins (1969), where 8 percent of South Dakota pronghorn collected were infected by P. macrotis. However, a 1974 study in Yellowstone National Park revealed a 97 percent prevalence rate of P. macrotis in pronghorn (Greiner et al., 1974).The same study by Greiner et al. reported a zero percent prevalence of the helminth in pronghorn collected from the National Bison Range near Moiese, Lake County, Montana.

The giant liver fluke, Fascioloides magna, is a trematode parasite primarily of wild ruminants. Whitetailed deer and elk are the usual definitive hosts, but accidental transmission to cattle and sheep occurs in enzootic areas where pastures are shared with infected cervids (Thorne et al., 1982).

Herbivores acquire infection of F. magna by ingesting the infective cysts, metacercariae, on vegetation (Foreyt, 1981). In the intestine, the metacercaria excysts and migrates to the liver where it develops to the adult stage. Eggs pass directly into the biliary system and leave the host in the feces. Eggs hatch in water and miracidia must penetrate a snail within 12 to 24 hours, where larval development will occur (Thorne et al., 1982). The existence of flukes in an area depends on the presence of definitive hosts, snail intermediate hosts of the genus Lymnaea, an aquatic environment, and suitable temperature (Thorne et

51al., 1982).

In white-tailed deer and elk, the liver reacts to the adult flukes by enclosing them in a fibrous Capsule. Thorne et al. (1982) stated that the giant liver fluke is welladapted to its wild host and rarely causes debilitation or death in cervids. However, in a 1992 study (Foreyt 1992) six mule deer were inoculated with large numbers of F. magna metacercariae and all died from infection.

Fascioloides magna infection has important implications for domestic animals. It is a serious pathogen of sheep causing severe liver damage and rapid death due to unrestricted migration (Conboy et al., 1988). In cattle the parasite migrates and is eventually walled off, but the liver is condemned for human consumption.i

Free-ranging deer taken from Pocket Creek Ranch and pronghorn taken from Elk Valley Game Ranch were not infected with F. magna. However, 8 percent of elk taken from Elk Valley Game Ranch were positive for the parasite. Livers of these elk contained 5 and 7 flukes, all of which were encysted in fibrous capsules. Hepatic tissue of these animals was blackened, presumably from digested red blood cells.

Infection with F. magna has been reported in limited portions of the Rocky Mountains. In northwestern Montana, sporadic cases have been observed in moose, white-tailed deer, domestic cattle, and captive elk. (D. Worley and S.

52Knapp, unpubI. data). According to Knapp et al. (1992), this may be the first report of F. magna infection in southcentral Montana. Because F. magna has not been reported in the area, and free-ranging deer sampled in this study were not infected, it is probable that the two infected Elk Valley Game Ranch elk were imported with the parasite from another area. However, Lymnea modicella, a snail known to serve as an intermediate host for the parasite, has been reported in Bighorn County (Knapp et al., in press).

Tapeworms of the genera Moniezia and Thysanosoma are parasites of the small intestine, and the small intestine and bile duct, respectively. The life cycle of Moniezia sp. involves free-living, oribatid mites as intermediate hosts , (Stunkard, 1937). The life cycle of Thysanosoma sp. is not fully understood (Allen, 1973) .

Illness and possible deaths in pronghorn and mule deer have been attributed to Moniezia sp. infections (Honess and Winter, 1956). Mostly fawns were infected, and clinical signs were small body size, dehydration, chronic diarrhea, and weakness. The pathogenicity of thysanosomiasis in wild ruminants is not clear, but in sheep the infection is relatively innocuous (Allen, 1973).

Eighteen percent of free-ranging mule deer collectedJ

from Pocket Creek Ranch were infected with tapeworms of the genera Moniezia or Thysanosoma. A study by Worley and

53Eustace (1972) of helminths in 44 Rosebud County, Montana mule deer reported an infection rate of 14 percent with T. actinioides. Moniezia sp. was not revealed in that study. Another study, by Boddicker and Hugghins (1969), of South Dakota big game reported ah infection rate of 17 percent and 10 percent with T. actinioides and Moniezia benedini, respectively, in mule deer. Infections in Pocket Creek Ranch deer seemed to be of low intensity and probably did not significantly affect the health of the animals.

Taenia hydatigena and Taenia omissa are tapeworms found in the gastrointestinal tracts of canids and felids respectively. Ruminants are intermediate hosts for the - larval stages of both tapeworms, called cysticerci.Cysticeri are commonly found attached to abdominal mesenteries or on the surface of the liver or lungs of. the intermediate host..

Cysticerci were found in deer collected from Pocket Creek Ranch. Taenia hydatigena occurred in or on the liver or. omenta of 26 percent of collected deer. Taenia omissa occurred on the lung surface or in the omenta of 5 percent of collected deer. A study by Worley and Eustace (1972) in Rosebud County, Montana, reported only a 14 percent infection rate with T. hydatigena cysticerci, and T. omissa cysticerci were not found. A 1966 study by Ball of mule deer in Idaho revealed an infection rate of 49 percent with T. hydatigena. Taenia omissa was also found in the Idaho

54study, but was much less common.

Infections in this study were light in all cases. According to Thorne et al. (1982), light infections are usually pathologically insignificant, though heavy infections may cause morbid changes to viscera and death.

Numerous gastrointestinal nematodes were collected during this study. Nematode parasites of the family Trichostrongylidae including the genera Trichostrongylus, Cooperia, Ostertagia, Haemonchus, Nematodirus,

Nematodirella, and Marshallagia have similar direct life cycles.

Intensity of clinical signs depends on the number of larvae ingested. Generally, no clinical signs are associated with small numbers of Trichostrongylid nematodes. However, moderate to large numbers of worms may cause mucosal hemorrhages, emaciation, diarrhea, weakness, anemia, and death. Overcrowding during high water levels in the Florida Everglades resulted in extensive mortality among white-tailed deer due to heavy infections of Haemonchus contortus (Eve and Kellogg, 1977) .

Trichuris sp. and Oesophagostomum sp. are parasitic nematodes found in the large intestine. Both nematodes have direct life cycles.

Pathologic effects from infection with Oesophagostomum sp. have not been described in wild ruminants. However, in livestock larvae become encapsulated by an inflammatory

55reaction resulting in nodule formation. Little effort has been made to determine the pathogenicity of Trichuris sp. in wild ruminants. However, both genera are considered to be

k

of little consequence because they are usually found in small numbers (Prestwood and Pursglove, 1981).

The most common of the collected gastrointestinal nematodes from Pocket Creek Ranch mule deer was Ostertagia sp., which infected 20 percent. In a Rosebud County, Montana, study of mule deer by Worley and Eustace (1972), Ostertagia sp. was also the most common trichostrongylid collected. Ostertagia ostertagi infected 66 percent and 0. bisonis 16 percent of Rosebud County mule deer. However, Worley and Eustace reported an average worm burden of 83, higher than that reported in this study. Intensity of all infections in this study were only 2 worms per deer and host health was probably not affected. 0. ostertagi is an important parasite of cattle.

A study by Jacobson and Worley (1969) considered Ostertagia sp. to be an important gastrointestinal parasite of cattle in Montana. The deer collected for this study were taken off a cattle ranch, and 0. ostertagi was identified. This may indicate parasitic exchange between wildlife and domestic animals in the area.

Haemonchus contortus was the most common gastrointestinal nematode of Elk Valley Game Ranch pronghorn and infected 80 percent of animals collected. However,

56average worm burdens for H. contortus in these pronghorn were only 42. Nematodirella antilocaprae was also common, being reported in 60 percent of the specimens. These findings concur with a South Dakota study (Boddicker and Hugghins, 1969) where H. contortus and Nematodirella longissimespiculata had prevalence rates of 68 percent and 80 percent, respectively,, in collected pronghorn.

Average N. antilocaprae worm burdens in this study were high (559) . Two animals contained more than 1200 of these parasites, and another harbored 614. These three infections were likely pathogenic to their hosts (D. Worley, pers. comm.). Cowan (1946) reported N. antilocaprae in British Columbia black-tailed deer, where there are no pronghorn, and stated that when this blood sucking worm is present in .numbers it doubtlessly contributes to the general debility of the host. Thorne et al. (1982) stated that minute hemorrhages have been noted in the duodenum in pronghorns when N. antilocaprae was present in large numbers.

Concurrent infections with two or more species of gastrointestinal nematodes were present in 80 percent of pronghorn. Two pronghorn each contained worms of 5 different genera.

The most common gastrointestinal nematodes collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch elk were Ostertagia sp. and Oesophagostomum venulosum, but average numbers of worms were low. Records of Oesophagostomum sp. in Rocky Mountain elk

57are rare. Kistner (1982) cited two reports of 0. venulosum in Rocky Mountain elk, one by Mills (1936) in Yellowstone National Park, and another by Boddicker and Hugghins (1969) in South Dakota. Reports of Oesophagostomum sp. in pronghorn are more common. In the present study, fifty percent of pronghorns collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch were infected with the parasite. It is probable, then, that there was exchange of parasites between Elk Valley Game Ranch elk and pronghorn.

Members of the nasal bot fly genus Cephenemyia infest only Cervidae (Strickland et al., 1981) and are widely distributed throughout North America (McMahon and Bunch,1989). Migrating larvae cause irritation to "the mucous membranes of the nostrils, resulting in runny noses, impaired respiration, and distress. Rarely, bots accidentally migrate to the brain and cause cerebral abscesses (D. Worley and L. Stackhouse, pers. comm.). Thirteen percent of deer collected from Pocket Creek Ranch were positive for nose bot infestations. It should be noted that only one deer collected during the months of November and December, 1993, showed gross evidence of infection. • However, 3 of 3 deer collected in January, 1994, were positive for nasal bots, and all larvae were large and classified as third-stage. Two of the three January infestations were moderately heavy, consisting of 35 and 26 larvae. During the same month, six mule deer collected from

58a location near Pocket Creek Ranch by a Montana state veterinarian all contained numerous nose bots (H. Sheets, pers. comm.). This evidence suggests that larvae were probably present in deer collected during December, but were too small to readily detect. Nine elk collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch were negative for nose bot infection.

Two studies of bot fly larvae in mule deer have been conducted in the Rocky Mountain region. Senger and Capelle (1959) reported a 75 percent infestation rate, and average number of larvae was 27 in 40 mule deer collected from Missoula County, Montana. A 1985-86 study of Cephenemyia in mule deer from Utah by McMahon and Bunch (1989) reported 100 percent infection rate in 99 sampled mule deer. Mean number of larvae were 46 in 1985 and 23 in 1986. It was believed by the authors that the decrease in mean number of larvae during the drought year of 1986 may have been due to environmental conditions.

Authors are in disagreement as to the pathogenicity of the nose bot. There are reports of deer dying from heavy infestations (35-54) of Cephenemyia sp. in British Columbia and Colorado (Cowan, 1946, and Walker, 1929). In both cases deer were reported as emaciated and having considerable inflammation of the nasopharyngeal mucous membranes. A study by Bennett (1962), however, revealed white-tailed deer possessing as many as 72 C. phobifer which did not appear to severely harm the host. McMahon and Bunch (1989) report

59that the presence of Cephenemyia sp. larvae in healthy deer rarely causes harm to the host.

As a result of the disagreement, Cogley (1987) studied the effects of Cephenemyia sp. on black-tailed deer. Cogley concluded that pathological changes in the retropharyngeal pouches of black-tailed deer occur as a result of infestation with Cephenemyia sp., but severe disease or death was unlikely unless very stressful conditions occur that retard the healing ability of the host.

Because most deer necropsied during the month of January contained numerous nose bots, it is possible that these parasites play a role in winter mortality of deer in this area.

Otobius megnini is a one-host tick which feeds during larval and nymphal stages in the auditory canals of the host (Strickland et al., 1981) . The adult stage is nonparasitic. Man and other animals may suffer severe irritation from ear canal infestations in cattle of the spinose ear tick, and heavily infested livestock lose condition during winter. Heavy infestations in cattle have been reported to cause "head heaviness", loss of appetite, followed by loss of coordination and death (Rich, 1957). Like other ticks, spinose ear ticks are also of importance because their blood feeding makes them efficient vectors of disease-producing agents such as viruses, bacteria, and protozoans (Neitz,1956). The spinose ear tick is a recognized vector of Q-

60fever, tularemia, Colorado tick fever, and Rocky Mountain spotted fever.

Three percent of mule deer taken from Pocket Creek Ranch and 7 percent of elk collected from Elk Valley Game Ranch were infected with 0. megnini. One yearling elk (#110) taken from Elk Valley Game Ranch was severely parasitized with spinose ear ticks. Twenty-one nymphs were found in the left auditory canal and 22 in the right ear canal of this animal. There is little doubt that this number of parasites had a negative effect on the host's health.

The spinose ear tick was reported in two domestic cows in 1959 from Bighorn County, Montana (D. Worley, pers. comm.). The parasite has also been reported from mule deer in Stillwater and Bighorn Counties, Montana, and an elk from Yellowstone National Park (D. Worley, pers. comm). The spinose ear tick has also been reported in deer, elk, and cattle of British Columbia (Rich, 1957).

Dermacentor albipictus, the winter tick, is a one-host tick; larvae, nymphs, and adults develop, molt, and feed on a single host (Thorne et al., 1982). Dermacentor albipictus is most common in the northern and western United States and Canada. - ,

Hair loss and anemia may occur when the winter tick is present in large numbers (Thorne et al. 1982) . Thorne et al. stated that it is an important parasite that may affect

61the health of free-ranging ruminants in the Rocky Mountain region. Although the winter tick was noted on a few animals collected for this study, obvious clinical signs of heavy tick infestation were not observed.

The deer keds Lipoptena depressa and Neolipoptena ferrisi are common blood-sucking ectoparasites of deer. Mating occurs on the host during all seasons, and puparia are found in the haircoat (Thorne et al., 1982). The pathogenicity of deer keds has not been well explained. A western Montana study by Senger and Capelle (1959) reported large numbers of L. depressa and L. ferrisi on mule and white-tailed deer during January and February, small numbers from March to June, and none in late July. A British Columbia study by Cowan (1946) also reported L. depressa and N. ferrisi on 42 of 44 black-tailed deer collected during the months of December and January. All deer collected in December during this study were infested with deer keds, and in a few cases, infestations were heavy (i.e. >several hundred per animal).

Other findingsLymphosarcoma is a malignant proliferation of lymphoid

cells. The etiologic agent of one form of lymphosarcoma in cattle is bovine leukosis virus. However, it is not known if this virus causes lymphosarcoma in Cervidae, and thus the implications for wildlife are unknown (Thorne et al., 1982). The disease has been reported in Cervidae previously (Debbie

62and Friend, 1967).

One free-ranging bull elk (#148) collected by a game warden 4 miles east of Pompey's Pillar, northwest of Pocket Creek Ranch, was reported as emaciated. Histopathologic diagnosis revealed disseminated lymphosarcoma. Thorne et al. (1982) stated that emaciation often occurs with advanced neoplastic lymphosarcoma. Body organs involved were the liver, lymph node, pericardium, and skeletal muscles. .

Numerous Pocket Creek Ranch deer and Elk Valley Game Ranch elk were infected with Sarcocystis spp. Sarcocystis spp. are protozoan parasites of moose, elk, mule deer, white-tailed deer, and domestic animals (Kingston, 1981). Nearly 100 percent of the Rocky Mountain elk in the northwestern United States have Sarcocystis spp. in skeletal or cardiac muscle (Lagerquist et al., 1993). Clinical signs in naturally infected deer or elk have not been reported (Kingston, 1981; Thorne et al., 1982). Foreyt et al. (1995) experimentally infected elk calves with large numbers of Sarcocystis spp. sporocysts. Though depressed weight gain was observed, clinical disease was not produced, and the authors concluded that Sarcocystis spp. infection was not an important disease problem in young elk.

;

63CONCLUSIONS

The occurrence of tuberculosis in a free-ranging mule deer near M. bovis-infected game ranch elk suggests that the disease might have spread from captive cervids to the wild (Rhyan et al., 1995). How the deer acquired the infection is not known. It is possible that it was exposed to M. bovis on the game ranch and subsequently escaped. It also is possible that it was a free-ranging animal which became infected by fence-line contact with a captive animal.Animals have escaped from game farms because of poor fence construction and maintenance (Lanka and Guenzel, 1991).From 1992-1994, 55 animals escaped from Montana game farms (K. Zackheimz pers. comm.).

Fortunately, further surveillance in the Pocket Creek Ranch area by state and federal authorities has not uncovered other infected Cervidae, and it does not appear that tuberculosis has established itself in deer.Additional surveying is needed to determine whether the disease has established itself in coyotes. Cattle tested by state officials were also negative (R. Clarke, pers. comm.).

It is not known whether tuberculosis is contagious enough to become endemic in free-ranging wildlife (Thorne et al., 1991). Some experts believe that bovine tuberculosis has evolved specifically to infect cattle and the disease in free-ranging wildlife populations would be self-regulating

64(Merritt, 1992). Tuberculosis did not establish itself in wildlife in the early 20th century when it was commonly found in cattle. However, when tuberculosis was common in cattle, wildlife populations may have been too small to maintain the disease. There have been dramatic increases in

tthe number and distribution of free-ranging wildlife during the last half of this century, when an eradication program was eliminating tuberculosis in cattle. .Also, human encroachment on wildlife habitat has concentrated populations into smaller areas. Together, these factors undoubtedly favor the possibility of the disease becoming established if introduced into the wild. As shown by Clifton-Hadley and Wilesmith (1991). and Miller et al.(1991), tuberculosis maintains itself in captive red deer (Cervus elaphus) and.elk herds. Free-ranging bison in Wood Buffalo National Park, Alberta, Canada are capable of maintaining tuberculosis (Tessaro, 1986).. Thorne et al. (1991) believe that in large herds of free-ranging elk, density is probably great enough during summer and winter to permit within-herd transmission of tuberculosis. It was also suggested by Thorne.et al. (1991) that white-tailed deer concentrated in yards during winter might exist in numbers high enough to transmit the disease.

Montana's large population of free-ranging cervids makes this state especially vulnerable to disease establishment. The state is home to more than 1.5 million

65wild cervids^ (K. Aune, pens. comm.). A southwestern Montana elk farm is situated in the migratory path of the Northern Yellowstone Elk Herd, the largest herd of free-ranging elk in the world (H. Picton, pers. comm.). The confined elk herd was once tuberculous, and there has been contact between animals from this farm and Yellowstone elk (Lanka and Guenzel, 1991). It is of some comfort that a recent study did not reveal tuberculosis in the free-ranging herd (Rhyan et al., in preparation).

Tuberculosis has established itself in wildlife of New Zealand, Ireland, and the United Kingdom, where it has become a disease of major economic as well as public health importance (Clifton-Hadley and Wilesmith, 1991).Experiences in these countries show that once established in wildlife, the disease becomes virtually impossible to eradicate in cattle.

In New Zealand, the brush-tailed possum {Trichosurus vulpecula) provides a natural reservoir of infection for cattle (Clifton-Hadley and Wilesmith, 1991). It was shown by Walker et al. (1993) that in areas where tuberculosis was present and possums were absent, the disease may have been maintained in wild ferrets. Mycobacterium bovis has also been isolated from wild red deer, farmed red deer, and feral cats in New Zealand (Clifton-Hadley and Wilesmith, 1991) . Plans to eradicate the disease in possums have not been initiated because wildlife and disease experts fear they

66will not work despite a projected cost of $700 million (Merritt, 1992).

In the United Kingdom and Ireland, bovine tuberculosis is considered to be endemic in the badger (Pritchard, 1988). Infected cattle have been postulated as the source of transmission of the disease to wild deer (Clifton-Hadley and Wilesmith, 1991). Over the past twenty years, badger control operations in the United Kingdom have failed to reduce disease among cattle (Brown et al., 1994) . The need to control infected badgers has resulted in a debate between nature conservation on one hand and veterinary public health and farming interests on the other (Dunnet et al., 1986).

The bison in Wood Buffalo National Park represent the largest free-ranging wildlife reservoir of bovine tuberculosis in North America (Tessaro, 1986). The disease was introduced into the park when infected plains bison were moved from Buffalo Park near Wainwright, Alberta. At Wainwright, tubercular lesions were observed in mule deer, elk, and moose that ranged with the infected bison (Hadwen, 1942). Agriculture Canada proposed a $22 million program to eradicate tuberculosis and brucellosis in Wood Buffalo National Park, via the depopulation and replacement of 4,000 bison (Geist, 1991).

If a reservoir of tuberculosis develops among wildlife in Montana, there would be serious consequences (Ferlicka, 1991). Animal health would be reduced and economic benefit

67to the local community from sport hunting would be lost. Also, State and Federal wildlife management options would be affected, as indicated in Thorne et al. (1991), as follows:

The opportunity to use sport hunting as the preferred management tool for controlling populations would be influenced; management options for translocation would not be possible; the multiple-use concept of livestock grazing on public lands would be inhibited. Possibly the worst problem that could arise from a disease outbreak is the conflict it could create between the livestock and wildlife industries. Because tuberculosis is transmissible between wildlife and livestock, the livestock industry could also expect serious consequences.

Still another consequence to the introduction of tuberculosis could be the slaughter of large numbers of wildlife in an attempt to eradicate the disease. An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in California cattle, swine, and deer in 1924 resulted in the killing of 22,000 deer (Hibler, 1981).

It should not be forgotten that bovine tuberculosis is a zoonosis, and thus is a threat to humans. Farmers, veterinarians, meat inspectors, and workers at rendering plants who have contact with infected game-farmed animals are at risk. Fanning and Edwards (1991) studied human contacts with infected game-farmed elk herds in Canada. Of 396 contacts who were skin-tested, 87 were positive. A

68veterinary surgeon who treated a tuberculous animal had open respiratory tuberculosis. If the disease were established in wildlife populations, hunters and trappers would also be at risk of exposure.

Tuberculosis is not the only serious disease that could spread from game farms to wildlife. Today, P. tenuis infects white-tailed deer throughout most of eastern North America (Corner et al., 1991) and the reasons for its absence from western North America are not known (Samuel et al., 1992). An overview of Montana's gastropods written in 1972 reveals that the state is home to known intermediate hosts of P.. tenuis (D. Heetderks and D. Gustafson, unpub I. data.). Zonitoides nitidus was found in the Bitterroot Valley and Lolo Creek area. Zonitoides arboreus was widely distributed, having been reported in the areas of Lewistown, White Sulphur Springs, Gallatin Canyon, the Clark Fork River, Yellowstone Park, the Missouri River, Lake McDonald, and the Big Snowy Mountains east of Lewistown. Deroceras cronkhitei was also found in many of these areas. Because suitable intermediate and definitive hosts are present, P. tenuis has the potential to become established if introduced to Montana via translocation of infected animals.

If P. tenuis becomes established and dispersed through resident white-tailed deer populations, it could have a detrimental impact on Montana's diverse big game fauna.There is no practical method known to control P. tenuis in

69wild populations of white-tailed deer (Anderson and Prestwood, 1981). It has been recommended, then, that hosts capable of shedding infective P. tenuis larvae not be translocated from areas where the parasite is endemic to western North America until a reliable diagnostic test or treatment is available (Samuel, 1987).

Elaphostrongylosis, brucellosis, and foreign animal diseases (eg., rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease) could also be harmful to free-ranging wildlife or livestock. Elaphostrongylus cervi, the etiologic agent for elaphostrongylosis, occur in Cervus sp. in Europe and the Far East, and was introduced to New Zealand with importation of red deer from Great Britain for the purpose of game ranching (Anderson, 1992). Brucellosis is endemic in bison in Yellowstone National Park and has also been reported in elk in that area (Rhyan et al, in preparation). There is fear that B. abortus may infect nearby cattle. Malignant, catarrhal fever is a fatal viral disease of wild and domestic animals and has been responsible for deaths of deer on New Zealand game farms (Beatson, 1985). Rinderpest is a foreign infectious viral disease that has devastated cattle and wildlife around the world (Scott, 1981).

Further research is needed in the area of wildlife health. Wildlife disease surveillance should continue in regions where serious diseases are known to exist in captive animals. This might alert investigators early in an

70outbreak thus prompting management procedures to prevent the establishment of disease in Montana's native wildlife.Also, the information would provide the framework to develop wildlife management recommendations related to disease issues. When sudden mortalities in significant numbers occur in wildlife they should be thoroughly investigated, especially if "die-offs" are in close proximity to game farms.

I

71

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APPENDIXBACTERIOLOGY REPORT FOR DEER #168

Z

84NATIONAL VETERINARY SERVICES LABORATORIES

AMES, IOWA 50010 LABORATORY REPORT

DATE RECEIVED 03/29/94 ACCESSION 94-19005 REFERRAL: 168SUBMITTED BY:AUNE, KEITH/ JACK RHYAN MT DEPT. FWP, MSU CAMPUS BOZEMAN, MT 59715

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COLLECTED BY:TEST FOR: TUBERCULOSIS

DATE COLLECTED:

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