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Matthew Siler
Modern Military History Dr. Farrar
Final Exam Due August 12 th, 2011
Part I Short Essays
1) Who are the Taliban?
The Taliban are a Muslim fundamentalist group that formed during the Soviet occupation of
Afghanistan that lasted from 1979 to 1989.1 These groups that originated during this period were
coined with the term mujahideen, meaning holy warriors.2 The Taliban received money from
many different countries in order to fund their guerilla war against the Soviets including the United
States, Pakistan, China, Iran, and Saudi Arabia.3 These forces of men that comprised the Taliban
were not yet unified as a whole, however, until 1994.4 Until this time, members of this radical
Islamic group were only organized on a local level. Members of the Taliban have essentially been
bred to hate any country that involves themselves in the business of Afghanistan, and especially
the United States. The Taliban despise not just America but any members of NATO that are
involved with the campaign as well as anyone who does not follow suit with their fanatical
religious beliefs.
After the Soviet Union began removing their troops from Afghanistan, maintaining their
puppet government in Kabul became increasingly difficult as the mujahideen were able to retake
the Afghan capital in 1992.5 Despite the guerrilla fighters instilling their own president to rule
them, Burhanuddin Rabbani6 Afghanistan was encompassed by chaos as the mujahideen fought
against one another in a struggle for power. Rabbanis voice was one of irrelevance as the true
1 Hayes, Laura, and Borgna Brunner. "Taliban Timeline." Infoplease. http://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban-
time.html (accessed August 6, 2011).2 Hayes, Laura, Borgna Brunner, and Beth Rowen. "The Taliban." Infoplease.
http://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.html (accessed August 6, 2011).3 Hayes and Brunner, http://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban-time.html4 Hayes, Brunner, and Rowen, http://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.html5 Hayes and Brunner, http://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban-time.html6 Hayes, Brunner, and Rowen, http://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.html
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power rested with the mujahideen warlords as anarchy ran rampant. No true leader emerged
among the factions until 1994 when Pakistan officials hired a group ofTaliban from Kandahar to
provide security for a convoy that was intended to open up a trade route into Central Asia. The
Taliban was tremendously successful as they kept the convoy safe by battling off would-be
conquerors from rival mujahideen factions. This event made it clear that the Taliban was a force
to be reckoned with and they went on to take control of Afghanistan by capturing Kabul in 1996,
led by Mullah Muhammad Omar.7 Omar instituted strict enforcement of Islamic law amongst the
people, which to an American would seem like an extremely restricted lifestyle. The victory by
Mullah Omar was primarily funded by Pakistan, who figured that the Taliban could be effective in
stabilizing Afghanistan.
Mullah Omar banned any activities or games that he deemed a waste of time and
counterproductive to following the Holy laws. Western ideas were denounced and common
luxuries such as the internet, television, and music became outlawed. Typical public events
included executions and beatings while women are treated as second-rate citizens, as is deemed fit
by the laws of Islam. The brutal standards for Muslim women are supposedly to protect their
honor, but are in fact extremely cruel. The slightest indiscretion by a female could result in
punishment as severe as death; decapitated fingers were commonplace. The Taliban are religion
based, and are well-versed (or claim to be well-versed) in the teachings of Islam. Many of the
Taliban leaders received their religious education in refugee camps after escaping the Soviet
invasion. Despite being devout Muslims, the Talibans primary sources of income happened to be
opium and electronics, before claiming to have cut down drastically on the production of former of
7 Hayes and Brunner, http://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban-time.html
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the two, labeling it as un-Islamic. Despite this label, and the claims of the Taliban, opium and
heroin production increased with the emergence of the Taliban, not the other way around.8
Despite the severity of the Islamic law that was being implemented by the Taliban, citizens of
Afghanistan seemed to actually be generally relieved at the idea of one entity coming to power and
booting out the corrupt warlords. However, just because the complaints of the people were, for the
moment, tempered, did not mean that the Taliban were running a legit operation. Beginning as
early as 19949, the Taliban had been harboring the anti-American terrorist Osama Bin Laden (now
deceased) and his organization, the al-Qaeda. Bin Laden is connected to multiple anti-American
bombings and in 1999 the United Nations demanded that the Taliban hand him over for
prosecution. Bin Laden was wanted in connection to the bombings of the United States embassies
in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998.10 The Talibans refusal of the UNs demand combined with their
reckless destruction of religious statues that were around 2,000 years old11 because they were
deemed anti-Islamic, as Muslims do not worship idols, spurred international disdain leading up
to the infamous World Trade Center attacks in New York City on September 11th, 2001. The
United States and allied coalition forces acted quickly to invade Afghanistan, pushing the Taliban
into retreat across the borders of Pakistan; both Mullah Omar and Osama Bin Laden escaped into
the mountains.
Following the invasion of coalition forces and the United States into Afghanistan, members of
the Taliban were dispersed throughout the territory around the Afghan/Pakistani border. While
Afghanistan sought to reconstruct their government and push their nation towards improvement,
8 Johns, Dave. "Afghanistan - The Other War." PBS: Public Broadcasting Service.
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/afghanistan604/who.html (accessed August 6, 2011).9 Hayes, Brunner, and Rowen, http://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.html10 Johns, http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/afghanistan604/who.html11 Hayes, Brunner, and Rowen, http://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.html
http://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.html -
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the Taliban were regrouping slowly but surely, aided by Pakistans complicity. Attacks by the
Taliban once again became more frequent as Afghan citizens and United States soldiers alike were
targets. Thousands of coalition and United States soldiers were put on the ground in Afghanistan
as the fighting re-intensified following the resurgence of the Taliban. Even today, the Taliban
does not seem to be concerned with the long-term stabilization of Afghanistan and instead are
intent to bring their fanatical beliefs to fruition in the form of death and chaos. In May of 2011,
Osama Bin Laden was killed by United States forces during Operation Neptune Spear, a maneuver
executed by highly-trained Navy SEALs. Most people in America seem to be pleased by Bin
Ladens demise, but it does not make the threat of terrorism diminish whatsoever, and it in fact
could even make the danger more pertinent.
2) Who is David Petraeus?
During the modern era, not many American military officers have become recognizable
household names in comparison to those of prior wars such as World War IIand the Civil War.
Born in Cornwall, New York, in 195212, American Four-Star General Dave Petraeus has become
an exception to this concept. Though not nearly as popular as past American commanders such as
Gen. Robert E. Lee (the Civil War) or Gen. George S. Patton (World War II), Gen. Petraeus has,
over recent years, become the face of the United States Army. Gen. Petraeus career in the Army
extends all the way from his beginning at the United States Military Academy at West Point,
where he graduated in 197413, to the present-day in which he has recently been named the new
Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), for which he is set to take his post in early
September, 2011. Gen. Petraeus led forces in both the Iraq and Afghanistan campaigns as well as
12 Porter, Keith. "General David Petraeus." About.com - US Foreign Policy.
http://usforeignpolicy.about.com/od/defense/p/dpetraeus.htm (accessed August 7, 2011).13 "Biography: David H. Petraeus" The Department of Defense.
http://www.defense.gov/bios/biographydetail.aspx?biographyid=166 (accessed August 7, 2011).
http://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.htmlhttp://www.infoplease.com/spot/taliban.html -
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commanding the two American airborne divisions that were made famous in World War II, the
101st Airborne Division and the 82nd Airborne Division. Though he acquired most of his praise and
merit by commanding American troops, Gen. Petraeus was also a tremendous scholar as he earned
a masters degree and a PhD from Princeton Universitys Woodrow Wilson School of
Government14 and graduated top of his class from the United States Army Command and General
Staff College in 1983.15
David Petraeus career was focused around light infantry as he held positions of leadership not
only in the 101st and 82nd Airborne Divisions, in which he commanded a battalion and a brigade,
respectively, but in other airborne, mechanized, and light infantry units throughout not only the
United States but in Europe and the Middle East as well.16 Petraeus toughness does not come
without reason, as he was shot in the chest during a live-fire training exercise at Fort Campbell
(Lexington, Kentucky) in 1991 while commanding a battalion in the 101 st Airborne Division.17
That wasnt the only scary moment for Gen. Petraeus; he also broke his pelvis after a his parachute
malfunctioned during a training exercise, leaving him to fend for himself while falling sixty feet
down to the ground.18
The earlier part of Petraeus life in the Army was centered around both teaching and learning.
About a year after graduating from West Point and into the infantry in May of 1974, he was sent to
Italy as a Platoon Leader in the 509th Airborne Battalion Combat Team in Vicenza, Italy, where he
14 Erickson, Amanda. "David Petraeus - CIA director." WhoRunsGov.com from The Washington Post - Profiles of
Government Decision-Makers. http://www.whorunsgov.com/Profiles/Gen._David_Petraeus?loadTab=0 (accessed
August 7, 2011).15 Goldenberg, Suzanne. "Can the general deliver?" The Age. http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/can-
the-general-deliver/2007/09/07/1188783491450.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1 (accessed August 8,
2011).16 Department of Defense, http://www.defense.gov/bios/biographydetail.aspx?biographyid=16617 Kiely, Kathy. "Petraeus: Scholar's Intellect, Warrior's Intensity." USATODAY.
http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-09-09-petraeus_N.htm (accessed August 8, 2011).18 Erickson, http://www.whorunsgov.com/Profiles/Gen._David_Petraeus?loadTab=1
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remained stationed for about four years.19 By the time he was to return from Italy, Petraeus had
been promoted twice, taking him from his post-West Point rank of Second Lieutenant up to the
rank of Captain.20 After returning to the United States, Petraeus was stationed at Fort Stewart in
Georgia for several years before deciding to help advance his career by going back to school to
further his education and expand his knowledge. Shortly after leaving Princeton with a PhD and a
Masters Degree in 1985, Petraeus received another promotion, reaching the rank of Major. 21 True
to his scholarly nature, Petraeus spent a few years as an instructor at West Point before moving on
to serve as aide and executive office to the Chief of Staff in Washington, D.C., before beginning
his stint with the 101
st
Airborne Division at Fort Campbell in 1991.
22
Petraeus was heavily
committed to his responsibility of providing proper training for his men while at Fort Campbell, in
Lexington, Kentucky.
Petraeus initial assignments were peace-based missions as opposed to combat maneuvers. In
1995, Petraeus was named the Chief Operations Officer of the United Nations Operation Uphold
Democracy in Haiti, followed by a stint at Fort Bragg in North Carolina as a Commander in the
82nd Airborne Division.23 His hard work did not go unnoticed, and his strong track record in the
field and in the classroom, as well as his previous experience aiding the higher-ups of the Army,
landed him back in Washington as an executive assistant.24 Petraeus reputation amongst his
superiors was spreading like wildfire, and when American President George W. Bush opted to
invade Iraq in 2003 he wanted Petraeus, who had been promoted to the rank of major general on
19 Gericke, Bradley T. David Petraeus: a Biography. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Greenwood, 2011.20 Gericke, David Petraeus: a Biography, xx21 Gericke, David Petraeus: a Biography, xxvii22 Gericke, David Petraeus: a Biography, xviii23 Gericke, David Petraeus: a Biography, xviii24 Gericke, David Petraeus: a Biography, xviii
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January 1st of the same year, to lead his 101st Airborne Division into the chaotic nation. 25 The
campaign in Iraq made the name David Petraeus become more and more recognizable amongst
Americans, desperate for a recognizable name and face to turn to. Petraeus and the men of the
101st were held in high regards during their tour in Iraq as they seemed to help the people of
northern Iraq tremendously by providing them with protection from the torturous attacks between
rival Iraqi factions, in which civilians frequently became expendable to the violent militants.
Perhaps what Petraeus is most known for and most commonly related to is the Surge of Iraq
that was ordered by Pres. Bush, at the behest of Petraeus. The plan, implemented in 2007 (the
same year in which he was promoted to General
26
), came shortly after Gen. Petraeus was named
Commander of the Multi-National Force in Iraq27, replacing Gen. George Casey. The Surge was
to send an additional reinforcement of American troops (five additional brigades 28) to Iraq
following the execution of Sadaam Hussein in order to help provide protection for Iraqi citizens
while they were assisted in setting up their own governments and new, better ways of life than they
had in the past under Husseins influence.
One of David Petraeus most significant contributions to the American Military was his literal
re-writing of the Counterinsurgency Manuel, bringing about a new wave of ideas to a book that
needed vast quantities of updating. In 2010, Gen. Petraeus assumed command of all United States
Forces in Afghanistan, under orders from now-President Barack Obama. A year later, in the
summer of 2011, Gen. Petraeus was unanimously voted in as the new Director of the Central
25 Gericke, David Petraeus: a Biography, xviii26 Gericke, David Petraeus: a Biography, xviii27 Gericke, David Petraeus: a Biography, xviii28 Righter, Rosemary. "How General Petraeus Led Iraq Out of its Darkest Moment." The Times.
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/rosemary_righter/article4776113.ece (accessed August
10, 2011).
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Intelligence Agency. Gen. Petraeus will always be one of the first names to come to American
minds when thinking American warfare in the beginning of the 21st Century. Though he also has
plenty of critics, Gen. Petraeus is a selfless leader who cares deeply about doing the right thing.
3) Explain how combat in Vietnam was different from combat in previous wars.
Aside from the Civil War, no war or military campaign had as great an effect on the
American home-front as the Vietnam War. With no official declaration of war being issued to
commemorate a formal date to use as a marker for the beginning of the war, there are several dates
that are used by people throughout the world depending on which event an individual decides
properly signifies the opening of the War. For this work the date 1955 will be used, the year in
which American President Dwight Eisenhower decided to pledge aid to South Vietnam against the
Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV), which consisted of Vietnamese from all over the nation
that favored a unified Vietnam.29 Many members of the DRV were communist, and Pres.
Eisenhower was not planning on backing down to any allies of the Communist Soviet Union,
whom was at severe odds with the United States since the Cold Warbegan due to post-World War
IItensions. The Vietnam Warwill always be (rightfully) viewed in a negative light in the United
States; it is indeed a black spot on the resume of American military advisors, and especially
General William Westmoreland, who headed advisors in Vietnam. Casualties throughout
Americas longest war were horrific for both sides, rendering 58,000 American soldiers killed in
action to go along with an astounding 2 million dead Vietnamese.30 The Vietnam Warwas vastly
29 Brigham, Robert. "Battlefield: Vietnam." PBS. http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/history/index.html
(accessed August 10, 2011).30 Mintz, S. "The Vietnam War." Digital History. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/subtitles.cfm?
titleID=71 (accessed August 10, 2011).
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different in numerous ways than the popular Allied Victory ofWorld War II, and one of the
Americans military advisors biggest blunders was treating the warfare in Vietnam as if it were the
same as the style of warfare that was featured in the defeat of Adolf Hitler and the Axis Powers.
After the Communist Norths ousting of the French in 1954 at theBattle of Dien Bien
Phu31, the United States government wanted to plug the spread of communism and eliminate the
chances of a domino-effect in Southeast Asia. The American brass knew that if they were to
succeed in implementing a successful anti-communist government in South Vietnam, someone had
to be a leader on the behalf of its own people. Though not the fairest or the wisest of presidents,
and certainly no model of integrity, Ngo Dinh Diem seemed to be the best of a bad bunch from the
American point of view, and aid was sent to both he and the Army of the Republic of Vietnam
(ARVN) in the form of training and equipment. The initial stance of the United States involved
gradual participation in Vietnam without the deployment of more than a handful of troops, with the
intent of training the ARVN in the mold and style of the United States troops. South Korean
Special Forces made formidable soldiers, but the average trooper in the ARVN was not on par with
that of the deadly Viet Cong (an American-made term for the NLF). This is not all the fault of the
ARVN, however, as the Americans were training them in the mold of an army that was ill-
equipped and ill-prepared for the jungle warfare that was to follow.
Ngo Dinh Diems actions as president in South Vietnam did nothing to help the United
States avoid intervening with soldiers. They also did nothing to convince DRV President Ho Chi
Minh or the Viet Cong that a unified Vietnam would be achievable without the use of militaristic
force. Diem upheld strict policies against Southern Vietnamese who harbored NLF members,
including beatings, razing of houses, slaughtering of livestock, and plundering of rice (which is as
31 Brigham, http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/history/index.html
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valuable as gold to a Vietnamese civilian).32 When the North Vietnamese expected a new election
to occur in 1956, as planned, Diem sent orders to have those who are not loyal to him arrested and
placed in prison camps.33 His official targets were communists and socialists, but qualifying for
either one of these two categories was simply a matter of refusing to conform to Diems ideals.
Diem had already alienated the majority of the nation by keeping Frances anti-Buddhist laws
intact while displaying a blatant pro-Catholic trend with his selections for positions of office;
several Buddhist monks burned themselves alive in protest of Diem (this process is referred to as
self-immolation).34 Eventually, in 1963, American President John F. Kennedy, succeeding
Eisenhower, could no longer stand to allow Diem to continue his reign that was so self-destructive
to their own cause. Pres. Kennedy decided to allow Diem to be overthrown and executed by his
own people.35 Ironically, Pres. Kennedy was assassinated in the same year in Dallas, Texas and
would be replaced by Lyndon B. Johnson.
Following in the footsteps of peasant-pleasing Chinese leader Mao Zedong36, the Viet Cong
looked for strong support from native Vietnamese in the South, seeking them out to take up arms
and fight for them. In order to gain this support, the Viet Cong educated the villagers about the
corruption of their land owners and made promises of prosperity in return for their allegiances.
Many landowners were stripped of land and executed, while their former tenants subsequently
prospered. Viet Cong were ordered to treat the villagers as equals and respect their lives and
property, perhaps even helping out with the chores in their village in order to win their support.37
32 Simkin, John. "Guerrilla Warfare." Spartacus Educational.
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/VNguerrilla.htm (accessed August 10, 2011).33 Simkin, http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/VNguerrilla.htm34 Simkin, http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/VNguerrilla.htm35 Simkin, John. "Ngo Dinh Diem: Biography." Spartacus Educational.
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/VNngo.htm (accessed August 11, 2011).36 Simkin, http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/VNguerrilla.htm37 Simkin, http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/VNguerrilla.htm
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American soldiers and ARVN were painted as villains who were invading to steal their land back,
giving villagers a reason to fight. With every Southern village the NLF visited and turned to their
side, the stronger and more deadly the Viet Cong became to their enemies. These villagers were
not very formidable soldiers; they lacked the confidence that made the Viet Cong such a fearsome
adversary and were usually not much older than children. However, the element of surprise would
turn them into a weapon worth fearing, after all.
Allied forces compounded their problems in 1962 by implementing the Strategic Hamlet
Program, further alienating the allies from the native Vietnamese by essentially shepherding them
into new towns controlled by ARVN forces. 38 The intent was keep the NLF from continuing to
recruit the villagers, but the plan was doomed for failure from the start as this operation only fueled
further additions to the ranks of the Viet Cong, as well as a stronger sense of resentment towards
the allied soldiers. If a villager was deciding whether to support the DRV or the anti-Communists,
their selection now became much easier. Those villagers that were under NLF influence were
required to contribute to preparing an intricate network of caves and tunnels (three feet of digging
was required for each villager, daily39) which would prove to be a vital element of the fierce
resistance against the American and ARVN alliance. American soldiers were not trained to defend
against an enemy of the likes of the Viet Cong. These caves allowed for easy movement of NLF
troops, without detection, throughout most of Southern Vietnam, and they were perhaps their most
formidable advantage over the confused American men; Viet Cong squads popped up seemingly
out of nowhere to bring havoc upon unprepared foes. It is tempting to say that warfare must have
evolved over time into the style implemented by the Viet Cong in the Vietnam War, but in fact the
foundation of their guerrilla tactics can be traced all the way back to the ancient teachings of Sun
38 Simkin, John. "National Liberation Front." Spartacus Educational.
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/VNnlf.htm (accessed August 11, 2011).39 Brigham,http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.html
http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.html -
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Tzu (and further), the great Chinese expert on military strategy whose famous book, The Art of
War, is an essential member of any military officers personal library. Sun Tzu advocated
strategies with the intent of maximizing enemy casualties while limited your own, and for an army
as out-manned and out-gunned as the Viet Cong, these concepts were quite useful. As Sun Tzu
would advise, the Viet Cong struck their enemies where they were weak, and only engaged in full-
scale battle when they held a decisive advantage.
Following the assassinations of Pres. Diem and Pres. Kennedy and into 1964, Gen.
Westmoreland and Pres. Johnson sought to regain control of the unstable government in the South.
On August 2nd, the U.S.S. Maddox was attacked by the DRV in the Gulf of Tonkin of the coast of
Northeast Vietnam. This gave Pres. Johnson all the evidence he needed to convince Congress to
pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on August 7th, giving him the power to use military force in
Southeast Asia.40 In March of 1965, Pres. Johnson sent the first soldiers intended to see battle over
to Vietnam. By the end of the year, there were over 200,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam prepared to
enter combat.41 Also early in March, Pres. Johnson launched Operation Rolling Thunder,
constantly bombing Northern Vietnam in hopes of causing permanent damage to the DRVs
economy. What the Americans failed to realize, however, was that the DRV were fighting a war
of independence and they were not going to crumble so easily; mere bombing raids would not
absolve the Northerners will to fight for a unified Vietnam.
While the DRV and the Viet Cong were gaining nationalistic support throughout the
Vietnamese population, the American homestead was displaying a very different set of emotions.
The American propaganda machine was at its peak during the Vietnam Waras anti-war sentiments
rose throughout the nation. Unlike the United States entrance into World War IIsucceeding the
40 Brigham, http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/timeline/index.html41 "Vietnam Timeline." Illinois University. www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htm (accessed August
11, 2011).
http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.html -
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Japanese bombing at Pearl Harbor, there was no brutal attack on America that brought the
population together in support of the decision to pick up arms. The Civil Rights Movementalso
happened to be a prominent part of American growth at the same time that the Vietnam Warwas
waging. The Viet Cong were by no means ignorant to the situation back in the United States, and
(brilliantly) decided to adopt a strategy of protracted war in order to make the United States too
weary to continue a war in which they had nothing clear to gain. This strategy consisted of using
guerrilla tactics to try and cause enough damage to make their enemy, the United States, feel as if
continuing to fight would be a hopeless waste of American blood.
NLF soldiers and recruited villagers created traps capable of killing enemy men and made
vast use of mines. Though the villages were not immensely well equipped, American bombs that
failed to go off made rewarding prizes for the Viet Cong once the dud-explosives had been
refurbished.42 A strategy of protracted war hopes to essentially bleed the enemy dry, sucking them
of life both literally and metaphorically. The complex system of tunnels that the Viet Cong relied
upon caused tremendous confusion for the American soldiers, and casualty rates were high. No
longer were the strategies ofWorld War IIrelevant to the warfare at hand. American forces
depended heavily on air-strikes to drop explosives and napalm upon Viet Cong targets, as well as
chemical weapons such as Agent Orange to disintegrate the plant-life that helped keep the feisty
insurgents both hidden and fed. Within the tunnels were kitchens, first-aid centers for the sick and
wounded, bunks for sleep, and entrances and exits located innumerably across the terrain, allowing
for random attacks on unprepared American and the ARVN. Allied soldiers brave enough to
pursue Viet Cong into the tunnels faced booby traps and land mines for their troubles. Maintaining
a safe headquarters was of top priority to the Viet Cong; these bases also acted as training ground
42 Brigham,http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.html
http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.html -
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and logistics centers.43 Between the intricate Viet Cong tunnel system and the inability to
determine the difference between a friendly or hostile Vietnamese villager, the warfare facing
these young American men was more horrifying then anything they could ever imagine.
On the American home-front, the media was bringing the brutal realities of the Warinto
the homes of citizens via television and newspaper. Without enough volunteers to fight in a
protracted war without any personal meaning, the United States opted to use a draft in order to fill
enough G.I.s boots to go to war. The draft sparked enormous outrage nation-wide. By 1968, anti-
war protests and riots were in full bloom in the United States and added to the troublesome spot
that Pres. Johnson found himself in.44 The leaders of the Viet Cong and the DRV were well aware
of the trouble brewing in the United States. In 1968 Viet Cong and DRV leaders decided that it
was an optimal time to launch theirTet Offensive with hopes of breaking the American psyche
enough to bring an end to the war, and successfully unify their country. Guerrilla assaults were
launched by the DRV and Viet Cong units on nearly every base or garrison controlled by the
Americans and their South Korean allies. The American and ARVN soldiers fought valiantly in
response to the unexpected Tet Offensive, decimating the Viet Congs ability to mobilize and
continue assaulting the Americans.45 Despite the Tet Offensive being a decisive victory for the
United States and their allies, the American homeland did not see it quite the same way and all
over the nation public opinion condemned their participation in the War. After Richard Nixon was
elected as President in 1969 on the campaign promise of ending the war46, American troops slowly
began exiting Vietnam and heading for home. Though American involvement ceased by 1973, the
DRV went on to take the capital of the helpless South, Saigon, in 1975. It would take quite some
43 Brigham, http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.html44 Vietnam Timeline,http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htm45 Simkin, http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/VNtet.htm46 Vietnam Timeline,http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htm
http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index.htmlhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htm -
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time for the American psyche to get over the shock of such a terrifying debacle, and many soldiers
returning from war would not recover from the mental scars they received within the jungles of
Vietnam.
The ferocious style of warfare that took place during the fighting between the Americans,
plus their anti-communist allies of the South, and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, along with
their wilderness-savvy, insurgent Viet Cong troops, was quite unlike anything that the United
States had ever experienced, both in the wilderness of a battlefield and at home. The United States
relied too heavily upon their superior numbers and unsurpassed technological and industrial
innovations and did not grasp the fact that the Vietnamese leaders on the receiving end of allied
gunfire were in fact brilliantly outsmarting the American advisors in Washington; neither Pres.
Johnson, Pres. Nixon, or Gen. Westmoreland successfully handled their decisions regarding the
Vietnam War. Prior strategy of war had to be thrown out the window in order to combat the
guerrilla assaults conducted by the DRV and the Viet Cong. Approaching villages became a
dangerous scenario for allied troops as the Vietnamese villagers all had the potential to become
life-threateningly violent. The tunnel system utilized by the North brought an unfamiliar addition
of terror to the already hellish experience that is war, while the American medias coverage of the
hostilities led to public outrage in the United States. The American people had tremendous
difficulty understanding why their loved ones were dying on the other side of the Earth in a war
that did not directly concern them. No war-inciting tragedy occurred to spark their interest such as
the bombing of Pearl Harbor prior to the United States direct participation in World War II, nor
was there the same sense of danger that was felt in the events preceding theKorean War. The
incident at the Gulf of Tonkin is even reputed by some historians.
http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htm -
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Warfare changed on the offensive for the United States, too, as B-52 bombers were
introduced on bombing raids and helicopters were used to provide covering fire against enemy
infantry units on the ground. Napalm and Agent Zero were used to strike possible Viet Cong
targets and Americans began training in a new type of warfare. The death toll on each side was
staggering, though despite the United States being defeated, they caused far more casualties than
they took. The soldiers of the United States took a heavy blow to the tune of 58,000 dead and
about 300,000 wounded while the Viet Cong was decimated leading to over 700,000 dead
Vietnamese fighting for unification.47 Anti-Communist Southerners likewise faced staggering
levels of casualties with over 250,000 killed and more than 500,000 wounded.
48
Part II Long Essay
1) What do you think the future holds for American involvement in Iraq?
The American campaign in Iraq began with Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003, an invasion
into Iraq by the United States, and ordered by President George W. Bush, with the goal of
spreading democracy to a nation stuck under the regime of uncooperative dictator Saddam
Hussein. The United States claimed several other reasons of motivation for their decision to
launch an invasion. Sadaam Husseins alleged uncooperative behavior regarding the United
Nations inspection of Husseins facilities in search of weapons of mass destruction is an issue that
the United States took exception to. The way that fanatical Muslims in the Middle East treat their
women breaks just about every code of morality that the American repertoire has to offer, striking
a nerve with the American brass. Current President Barack Obama is currently trying to keep
pace with his plans of having all American troops removed from Iraq by the end of the year 2011,
47 Allison, William Thomas, Jeffrey Grey, and Janet G. Valentine.American Military History: A Survey from
Colonial Times to the Present. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007), 319.48 Allison,American Military History: A Survey from Colonial Times to the Present, 319
http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htmhttp://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htm -
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but delays involving disagreements regarding governmental organization of the Iraqis (that the
United States are slowly but surely leaving behind) has prevented Pres. Obamas timeframe from
staying completely on target.49
Though both Iraq and the United States have now agreed to a full withdrawal of American
forces, question marks surround the future of Iraqi affairs, especially their military and police
forces.50 If Iraq is going to hold its own without the aid of U.S. soldiers, they have to be trained
and educated well enough to proficiently be able to keep law and order, and if necessary, provide a
formidable military presence in response to exterior threats. If American forces completely
abandon the Iraqi reconstruction now, its possible that the Sunni, Shiia, and Kurdish factions
could resort once more to war, forcing the newly implanted Iraqi government into irrelevance and
quite possibly squandering the American efforts to spread democracy since Operation Iraqi
Freedom took off eight years ago. Violence continues in Iraq despite the presence of the United
States; as of now, Iraq needs American protection. Iraqi leaders are worried about their survival
without the United States muscle there to support them; as of August 3rd, 2011, the Iraqi
government has decided to open up talks with the United States about keeping some American
forces in Iraq to help defend them from outside assaults while they solidify their government.51
Saddam Husseins reign in Iraq was highlighted by intimidation and violence. Husseins
removal from power (as well as the banishment of the Baath party from participation in the new
American-influenced government) following the successful American takeover of the Iraqi capital,
Baghdad, on April 9th, 200352 did not put an end to these aforementioned characteristics of
49 Healy, Jack, and Michael S. Schmidt. "Iraqi Delay Hinders U.S. Plans for Troop Withdrawal. The New York
Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/16/world/middleeast/16iraq.html (accessed August 11, 2011).50 Healy and Schmidt, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/16/world/middleeast/16iraq.html51 Schmidt, Michael S. "Iraq to Open Talks with U.S. on Troop Presence Past 2011." The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/04/world/middleeast/04iraq.html (accessed August 11, 2011).52 Allison,American Military History: A Survey from Colonial Times to the Present, 349
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corruption, leaving the door open for continued chaos throughout the nation with no formidable
regime in power other than foreign presence of the United States. After successfully invading, the
United States decided that disbanding the Iraqi military as a whole would be a practical step
towards efficiently reconfiguring the nation and government that Saddam Hussein left behind.
This proved to be an ill-fated maneuver by the Americans as they suddenly put tens of thousands
of trained Iraqi soldiers out of jobs and in need of an income in order to feed their families; they
then became very susceptible to joining the American enemy.53
In order for the American democratization of Iraq to succeed, the United States will have to
leave forces in Iraq for a couple more years until its military is strong enough to provide security
against not only domestic disputes but against foreign threats from other nations as well. Though
the United States has already devoted significant time and resources to the mission in Iraq, which
began with President George Bushs decision to invade in 2003, it would not make sense to
withdraw all American troops only to hope that the new Iraqi military is formidable enough to
abstain from relinquishing control to hostile insurgent Sunni, Shiia, or Kurdish Muslims. Muslim
insurgents continue to make Iraq a dangerous country; suicide bombings and other terroristic
assaults orchestrated by fanatics have taken a frightening toll on both Iraqi and American lives.
All too frequently the media is reporting violent atrocities perpetrated by merciless Islamic
guerrillas; atrocities committed within Iraqs borders.
If the Iraq desires to rise above their dependence on the United States and be respected
internationally as a country capable of comfortable independence, their military and government
will have to learn how to be self-sufficient. Not only does this mean providing themselves with a
stable economy, but it also means having the knowledge to deal with a multitude of critical
53 Allison,American Military History: A Survey from Colonial Times to the Present, 352
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situations that could arise. The United States needs to be absolutely positive that Iraqi leaders have
the knowledge necessary to take the correct steps in reacting to any of the innumerous complexities
that are certain to arise in such a chaotic nation. The United States has the resources to continue to
provide elite training for the reconstructed Iraqi forces, and eight years into the campaign it would
be wise to see the job through. The new Iraqi army is improving but still has significant strides it
must take before confidently taking the reins from the forces of the United States; an adequate Air
Force is absolutely imperative to consistent defense, and the Iraqi Air Force is still in the toddler
stages of its post-2003 reconstruction. An Iraqi senior security official has stated: We need
training, heavy artillery training to defend our borders, and we dont have an air force.
54
For these
reasons, I believe that the United States is, unfortunately, a few years of continued Iraqi occupation
away from being able to comfortably leave them in a stable and self-sufficient state.
54 Gutman, Roy. "Many Iraqis Hope U.S. Troops Stay and Teach." The Wichita Eagle.
http://www.kansas.com/2011/07/28/1951247/many-iraqis-hope-us-troops-stay.html (accessed August 12,
2011).
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Work Cited
- Black, Jeremy. Introduction to Global Military History: 1750 to the Present Day. London:Routledge, 2005.
- Allison, William Thomas, Jeffrey Grey, and Janet G. Valentine.American Military History: ASurvey from Colonial Times to the Present. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007.
The Taliban
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- Johns, Dave. "Afghanistan - The Other War." PBS: Public Broadcasting Service.http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/afghanistan604/who.html (accessed August 6, 2011).
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David Petraeus
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7, 2011).
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- Erickson, Amanda. "David Petraeus - CIA director." WhoRunsGov.com from The WashingtonPost - Profiles of Government Decision-Makers.
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The Vietnam War
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(accessed August 11, 2011).
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Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/04/world/middleeast/04iraq.html (accessed August 11,2011).
- Gutman, Roy. "Many Iraqis Hope U.S. Troops Stay and Teach." The Wichita Eagle.
http://www.kansas.com/2011/07/28/1951247/many-iraqis-hope-us-troops-stay.html (accessed
August 12, 2011).