Feldman Child Development, 3/e ©2004 Prentice Hall Chapter 2 Theoretical Perspectives and Research:...

Feldman Child Development, 3/e©2004 Prentice Hall

Chapter 2

Theoretical Perspectives and Research: Asking and Answering Questions on

Children’s Development

Child Development, 3/e by Robert Feldman

Created by Barbara H. Bratsch


• What are the major perspectives on child development?

• What is the scientific method, and how does it help answer questions about child development?

• What are the major research strategies and challenges?


What are Theories??

Theories are explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest,

providing a framework for understanding the relationships among

an organized set of facts or principles


Major Perspectives on Child Development

• Psychodynamic

• Behavioral

• Cognitive

• Contextual

• Evolutionary


Psychodynamic Perspective

Frued’s (1856-1939) psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior

Psychosexual development – a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, is focused on a particular biological function and body part

Fixation – behavior reflecting an earlier stage of development


Three aspects of personality according to Freud:

• Id: raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality present at birth

• Ego: rational and reasonable part of personality

• Superego: the aspect of personality that represents a person’s conscious, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong


Psychosocial Theory

• Erikson’s (1902-1994) psychosocial development encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society

• Erikson suggested that growth and change continue throughout the life span


Behavioral Perspective

Behavioral perspective suggests that keys to understanding development are observable

behavior and outside stimuli in the environment.

If we know stimuli, we can predict behavior


Classical Conditioning

John B Watson (1878-1958) was one of the first American psychologists to advocate a behavioral perspective

Classical conditioning – an organism learns to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response


Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) believed that individuals learn to act deliberately on their environments to bring about a desired state of affairs


Reinforcement a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a

preceding behavior will be repeated

Punishment the introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal

of a desirable stimulus, will decrease the probability that a preceding behavior will occur in the future

Behavior Modification a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors

and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones


Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

Albert Bandura developed an approach to the study of development that emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model.

Bandura named this

social-cognitive learning theory


Cognitive Theory

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) proposed that all people passed in a fixed sequence through a series of universal stages of cognitive development


Children’s adaptation to new information can

be explained by two principles: Assimilation – the process in which people

understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking

Accommodation – the process that changes existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events


Information processing approaches deals with how individuals take in, process and store information – similar to a computer.

This approach assumes that even complex behavior such as learning, remembering,

categorizing, and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual, specific steps.


Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches focus on how brain processes are related

to cognitive activity


Contextual Perspective

considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality and social worlds.

A child’s unique development cannot be viewed without seeing the child in

social and cultural context

Two theories fall into this category:

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory


Urie Brofenbrenner suggested 5 environmental

levels that influence every biological organism:• Microsystem – everyday environment eg. homes,

friends, caregivers

• Mesosystem – connections between aspects of the microsystem eg. child to parent

• Exosystem – encompasses social institutions eg. government, community, schools

• Macrosystem – larger cultural influences eg. society in general, religious systems, political thought

• Chronosystem – underlies all other systems eg. historical events and changes


Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds

as a result of social interactions among members of a culture


Evolutionary Perspective

• a theory that seeks to identify behavior that is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

• 1859 Charles Darwin discusses natural selection in On the Origin of Species

• Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) demonstrated the importance of biological determinants in influencing behavior patterns


Scientific Method and Research Scientific method is the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the collection of data.

Three steps1) Identifying questions of interest – formulate a theory2) Formulating an explanation – develop a hypothesis3) Carrying out research – operationalize hypothesis,

select a research method, collect and analyze data


Two categories of research

• Correlational research – looks for a relationship between two factors

• Experimental research – looks for causal relationships between various factors


Correlational Studies

Correlation coefficient ranges from +1 to –1

Positive correlation = one factor increases, other factor increases

Negative correlation = one factor increases, other factor decreases

Zero correlation = no relationship exists


Types of Correlational Studies

• Naturalistic Observation – observation of naturally occurring behavior without intervention

• Case studies – an in-depth interview with an individual or small group of individuals

• Diaries – participants keep track of their own behavior on a regular behavior

• Survey Research – A group is chosen to represent a larger population and are asked questions about their attitude, behavior, or thinking on a given topic


Experimental Research

• Experiment – a process in which an investigator, the experimenter, devises 2 different experiences for subjects (participants)

• Treatment – A procedure applied by an experimenter based on 2 different experiences devised for subjects (participants)


Treatment group – receives the treatment

Control group – receives no treatment or an alternate treatment

Independent Variable (IV) – the manipulated variable

Dependent Variable (DV) – the variable measured and expected to change as a result of manipulation

Sample – participants chosen for an experiment

Field study – research carried out in a natural setting

Laboratory study – research carried out in a controlled setting so certain variables can be held constant


Two Approaches to Research

• Theoretical Research – research designed to test developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge

• Applied Research – research meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems


Three Strategies to Measure Developmental Change

• Longitudinal Research – behavior of one or more individuals is measured as the subjects age

• Cross-Sectional Research – people of different ages are compared at the same point in time

• Cross – Sequential Studies – a number of different age groups are measured at several points in time


Ethics and Research

• Freedom from harm

• Informed consent

• Use of deception

• Maintenance of privacy

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