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IRRIGATION PROTOCOL OF GRAPES IN NORTHEN ISRAEL, IRRIGATION HANDLING SYSTEM

(Irrigation survey in northern Israel)

Agrostudies 2011-2012

DEPARTMENT OF

NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF LIFE SCIENCES

INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, NORAGRIC

MASTER THESIS 30 CREDITS 2006

Challenges and Possibilities of Drip and Canal Irrigation in

Northern Sudan

Osman Ali Osman ELmakkiCHALLENGES AND POSSIBILITIES OF DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION IN

NORTHERN SUDAN

BY

OSMAN ALI OSMAN ELMAKKI

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR

THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL

RESOURCES AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AT THE NORWEGIAN

UNIVERSITY OF LIFE SCIENCES.

May, 2006 ii

The Department of the international Environment and Development studies, Noragric, is the

international gateway for the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB). Eight Department,

associated research institute and Norwegian college of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established

in 1986, Noragrics contribution to international development lies in the interface between

research, education (Bachelor, Master and PhD programmes) and assignments.

The Noragric Master Theses are the final theses submitted by students in order to fulfil the

requirements under the Noragric Master programme Management of Natural Resources and


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Sustainable Agricultural (MNRSA) Development Studies and other Master programmes.

The findings in this thesis do not necessarily reflect the view of Noragric. Extracts from this

publication may not be reproduced after prior consultation with the author and on condition that

the resource is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation contact Noragric

Osman Ali Osman ELmakki, May 2006

[email protected]

Noragric

Department of International Environment and development Studies

P.O. Box 5003

N-1432 s

Norway

Tel: +47 64 96 52 00

Fax: +47 64 96 52 01

Internet http://www.umb.no/noragric iii

DECLARATION

I, Osman Ali Osman ELmakki, do hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and has

never been submitted for a degree at any other university. All the sources of the information have

been duly acknowledged.

Signature

Place..

Date iv

DEDICATION

To my great father Ali and wonderful mother Darelsalam

To my beloved wife Nada

To my sons Ahmed and Awab


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To my daughter Aya

To my brothers & sister

I dedicate this thesis v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost I would like to record my appreciation and thanks to my supervisor Dr. Jens B.

Aune for his continuous follow up, guidance, support and valuable critique, that makes my on the

right track. I am also grateful to my local supervisor Dr. Ahmed Ali Salah for his time and

guidance in the field work. My deep thanks to Ingeborg and Lief, the wonderful librarians, for

their great search for references and books for my thesis.

I would like to thank NORAD for granting the scholarship and make my dream come true.

I am sincerely grateful to Dr. Kjersti Larsen at Oslo University and Grete Benjaminsen at Dry

Land Coordination Group (DCG) for their guidance and support from the very beginning.

I would like also to acknowledge my friends Hassan Guyo Roba, Ahmed Hussein, Bilijana

Kostovska, Geoffrey Gilpin, for their comments and assistances.

My heartily gratitude goes to Fadul Bashir, the director of Umjawasir project, ADRA/SUDAN,

for his logistic and moral supports. Deep thanks to Alex Murray the field coordinator for his

supervision of the drip trial during my stay in Uganda and also for his technical supports.

My incommensurately appreciation goes to Umjawasir project staff, Hyder Ashri, Ramson Duku,

Kabashi Mahmoud, Sadiq Sharif, Adam Yahiya, Musa Mohammed, Musa Abdallah, Hyder

Hussen, Jouis Ayoub, Eptihag Fathelaleem, Sara Kamal, Sulafa Mohammed, Majda Sirelkhatim,

Hawa Fadlalah, Hassan Fadilelnabi and Ismayel Elbalol for their cooperation and assistance. My

deeps thank goes to the Hawaweer community at Umjawasir for their cooperation and

participation. My heartily gratitude goes to my Parents, my wife and my kids for their support,

encouragement, and patient during my stay in Norway and in the field work.


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Osman Ali Osman ELmakki

UMB, s, Norway

May, 2006 vi

Abstract

Canal irrigation is the corner stone for agricultural activities in Northern Sudan. Irrigation has

traditionally depended on the Nile water or, in areas where there is no access to Nile water,

cultivations depended on underground water.

Several mechanical and biological problems are encountered in canal irrigation. These problems

make canal irrigation costly. Drip irrigation is considered as a possible solution to the

challenges facing canal irrigation.

This study aims to identify the challenges facing canal and drip irrigation in Northern Sudan and

to assess these possibilities for sustainable irrigation, with respect to the future benefits when

growing date palms.

Data was gathered from both canal and drip irrigation projects in Northern Sudan. A drip

irrigation trial was completed at the Umjawasir project. Prices of vegetables were gathered over

a six month period from the Khartoum market. Agricultural inputs and dripping kit prices were

gathered from markets. Data concerning date palms was collected in relation to canal and drip

irrigation.

The investment cost for 1ha of date palm in drip irrigation was US$12,068, while US$2,338 for

the canal irrigation. The NPV for drip irrigation for 1ha of date palm, was US$-7,140, while

US$4,168 for the canal irrigation with 10 % discount rate. The IRR for drip irrigation was 6 %

and for canal irrigation was 16 %. The profitability of date palm in drip irrigation could not

compete with date palm cultivation utilizing canal irrigation. For drip irrigation to compete

financially with canal irrigation, the investment cost should not exceed US$4,214


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Several crops can be intercropped with date palm utilizing canal irrigation such as alfalfa, okra

and tomato. Intercropping date palm with other crops is difficult in drip irrigation. Drip can be

the only way to irrigate land that is not possible to irrigate with canal irrigation.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ...........................................................................................................................III

DEDICATION ...............................................................................................................................IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..............................................................................................................V

ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................VI

LIST OF TABLES ..........................................................................................................................X

LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................................XI

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... XII

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................1

1.1 BACKGROUND....................................................................................................................1

1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND JUSTIFICATION ................................................................2

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................2

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................3

2.1 AVAILABILITY OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION ..............................................................3

2.2 CANAL IRRIGATION ..........................................................................................................3

2.3 DRIP IRRIGATION...............................................................................................................4

2.3.1 Concepts ..........................................................................................................................4

2.3.2 Global trend ....................................................................................................................6

2.3.3 Economical effects...........................................................................................................6

2.3.4 Ecological impact............................................................................................................7

2.3.5 Limitation of drip irrigation............................................................................................8

2.4 DATE PALM..........................................................................................................................8


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2.4.1 Date palm irrigation........................................................................................................9

2.4.2 The economic of date palm production .........................................................................10

2.4.3 Dates marketing problem..............................................................................................10

CHAPTER III: MATERIAL AND METHODS............................................................................11

3.1 SELECTION OF THE STUDY AREA ................................................................................11

viii

3.2 BACK GROUND OF THE STUDY AREA.........................................................................11

3.2.1 Soil.................................................................................................................................13

3.2.2 Irrigation .......................................................................................................................14

3.2.3 Climate ..........................................................................................................................14

3.2.4 Agricultural activities....................................................................................................15

3.3 DATA COLLECTION .........................................................................................................16

3.3.1 Primary data .................................................................................................................16

3.3.2 Secondary data..............................................................................................................18

3.4 DATA ANALYSIS ..............................................................................................................18

3.4.1 Primary data .................................................................................................................18

3.4.2 Secondary data..............................................................................................................19

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...........................................................................21

4.1 CANAL IRRIGATION ........................................................................................................21

4.1.1 Farming system .............................................................................................................21

4.1.2 Problems of canal irrigation .........................................................................................22

4.1.3 Labour use.....................................................................................................................25

4.1.4 Comparison between cemented and traditional............................................................26

4.1.5 Intercropping in canal irrigation ..................................................................................27

4.2 DRIP IRRIGATION.............................................................................................................29

4.2.1 Overview of drip irrigation system................................................................................29


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4.2.2 Crops grown in drip irrigation......................................................................................30

4.2.3 Labour use.....................................................................................................................31

4.2.4 Drip irrigation trials in Umjawasir ..............................................................................33

4.2.5 Lessons learned from drip irrigation trials...................................................................35

4.2.6 Economics of drip and canal irrigation ........................................................................37

4.2.7 Date palm life cycle.......................................................................................................38

4.2.8 Future benefits...............................................................................................................40

4.2.9 Date palm net income....................................................................................................43

4.3 ECONOMICAL SUSTAINABILITY OF DRIP IRRIGATION..........................................45

4.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION......................................46

4.5 DRIP IRRIGATION TRENDS ............................................................................................48

ix

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION......................................................................................................49

REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................50

APPENDIXES ...............................................................................................................................57

APPENDIX 1: AGRICULTURAL INPUTS PRICES FOR CANAL AND DRIPPING KITS............................57

APPENDIX 2: VEGETABLE PRICES AT KHARTOUM MARKETS........................................................57

APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FARMERS USING DRIP IRRIGATION.........................................58

APPENDIX 4: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FARMERS USING CANAL IRRIGATION ....................................61

APPENDIX 5: FORM FOR DATA COLLECTION IN THE EXPERIMENTAL AREA...................................63

APPENDIX 6: GENERAL OBSERVATION GUIDE LINE......................................................................64

APPENDIX 7: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION .....................................................................................64

APPENDIX 9: VEGETABLE PRICES IN US$/ WEEK IN KHARTOUM MARKET....................................65

APPENDIX 10: FAOSTAT DATA BASE FOR DATE PALM IN SUDAN ..............................................65

x

LIST OF TABLES


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TABLE 1: APPROXIMATE LENGTH / M FOR CEMENTED AND TRADITIONAL CANAL .......................14

TABLE 2: METHODOLOGY FOR DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS.............................................20

TABLE 3: CROP PROFITABILITY FOR YEAR 2004 AT UMJAWASIR PROJECT ..................................22

TABLE 4: NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS OBSERVING DIFFERENT PROBLEMS IN CANAL PERFORMANCE22

TABLE 5: FARMERS HIRE LABOUR AND SELF DEPENDANT IN RELATION TO CANAL PERFORMANCE25

TABLE 6: COMPARISON BETWEEN CEMENTED CANALS AND TRADITIONAL CANALS....................26

TABLE 7: INTERCROPPING CONTRIBUTION TO DATE PALM ..........................................................27

TABLE 8: AVERAGE PRODUCTION COST FOR DIFFERENT CROPS...................................................28

TABLE 9: OVERVIEW OF DRIP IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN NORTH SUDAN......................................29

TABLE 10: OPINION AMONG RESPONDENTS ON DRIP IRRIGATION ...............................................30

TABLE 11: INITIAL COST FOR THE TWO DRIP IRRIGATION TRIAL FOR 250 M

2

EACH......................33

TABLE 12: COMPARISON BETWEEN THE TWO DRIP IRRIGATION TRIALS AT UMJAWASIR .............34

TABLE 13: INVESTMENT COST OF 1HA OF DATE PALM IN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION .............37

TABLE 14: PRODUCTION OF DATE PALM IN CANAL IRRIGATION..................................................39

TABLE 15: DATE PALM PRODUCTION IN DRIP IRRIGATION...........................................................39

TABLE 16: SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR DATE PALM PRODUCTION IN DRIP IRRIGATION...............41

TABLE 17: SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR DATE PALM PRODUCTION IN CANAL IRRIGATION ...........42

TABLE 18: ECONOMICAL COMPARISON BETWEEN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION........................45

TABLE 19: COMPARISON BETWEEN DRIP IRRIGATION AND CANAL IRRIGATION ..........................46

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1: UMJAWASIR PROJECT LOCATION................................................................................12

FIGURE 2: UMJAWASIR PROJECT LAYOUT...................................................................................13

FIGURE 3: MAXIMUM & MINIMUM TEMPERATURE IN


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0

C ...........................................................15

FIGURE 4: MAP OF SUDAN SHOWS LOCATION OF DRIP IRRIGATION PROJECTS.............................17

FIGURE 5: TRADITIONAL IRRIGATION FIGURE (A) AND CEMENTED CANAL FIGURE (B) ................24

FIGURE 6: CANAL PROBLEMS AT UMJAWASIR PROJECT IN FIGURE (C) AND (D)...........................24

FIGURE 7: LABOUR TASK OF DRIP IRRIGATION PROJECTS ............................................................32

FIGURE 8: THE TWO DRIP IRRIGATION TRIALS AT UMJAWASIR PROJECT IN FIGURE (A) AND (B)..35

FIGURE 9: OKRA GERMINATION IN THE 2

ND

DRIP IRRIGATION TRIAL ...........................................36

FIGURE 10: DATE PALM FRUITS...................................................................................................43

FIGURE 11: NET INCOME FOR 1HA OF DATE FRUITS IN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION IN 30 YEAR44

xii

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADRA/SUDAN Adventist Development and Relief Agency/ Sudan

Acre Area Unit, of 4,840 square yards

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FAOSTAT. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Statistic

database.

Feddan Area unit of 4,200 square meter.

ha Hectare; area unit of 10,000 square meter.

IRR Internal Rate of Return

NORAD Norwegian Agency for development Cooperation

NGOs Non Governmental Organizations

NPV Net Present Value

N. State. Northern State.


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SDR Social discount rate

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences

yr Year

0

C Degrees Celsius 1

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Irrigation plays a significant role in the agricultural production in Sudan. The total area irrigated by

canal in Sudan is two million ha out of seven million ha (Abdel Rahman 1990). The performance

of canal irrigation in Sudan was not satisfactory, due to the deterioration in the canal

infrastructures, which leads to decline in the total production (Guvele et al. 2001). Drip irrigation

was introduced to Sudan 5-6 years ago, in small areas, to solve problems related to canal irrigation.

The efforts to initiate the dripping projects were being individuals. In Northern Sudan at

Umjawasir project, which is an agricultural project run by ADRA/SUDAN

1

, where certain

problems have been encountered with the canal irrigation such as; cracks, weed problems and sand

burying the canals.

Labour demand was high in canal maintenance, while in drip irrigation a skilled labourer was

needed for the maintenance and operation.

Drip irrigation offers an extensive range of solutions to the problems that were encountered for

canals irrigation. Private companies and NGOs started to introduce drip irrigation in Northern

Sudan to protect big investments in the desert, such as oil pipelines, highway roads and agricultural

scheme.

The initial cost for drip irrigation is higher than canal irrigation. This is due to the high cost of


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equipment and installation.

Date palm cultivation is the most profitable crop in North Sudan. Date palm is extensively grown

near the Nile. Several crops are intercropped with date palms in canal irrigation. Alfalfa, okra and

tomato increase the profitability of date palm cultivation when intercropped.

Date palm cultivation in North Sudan has been prolonged for more than 3,000 year with the

utilization of canal irrigation. While the cultivation of date palm using drip irrigation was not

known as it was initiated only 5-6 years ago. The future benefit of date palm cultivation using

canal irrigation was positive, however, concerning drip irrigation, certain factors determine the

future benefits e.g. the social discount rate, market prices for date fruits and equipments prices.

Research was proposed to; identify the challenges that are facing the canal and drip irrigation in

North Sudan, and to identify the future possibilities concerning a sustainable irrigation use.

1

ADRA/SUDAN refers to Adventist Development & Relief Agency/ SUDAN. Is a humanitarian,

International,

development and non government organization. 2

1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND JUSTIFICATION

Canal irrigation in North Sudan has played an economical role in keeping the date palm cultivation

and different crop production sustainable for such a long time. Several problems were encountered

concerning the performance of canal irrigation. In the Umjawasir project, problems involving the

canal started with the establishment of the irrigation system at the site. The canals at the Umjawasir

project was not properly functioning due to the problems encountered such as cracks in the canal,

excessive weed growth in the canal and sand filling the canal from sandstorm.

Private companies and NGOs established several projects which are irrigated by drip irrigation.

These companies and NGOs were satisfied with performance of the drip irrigation. The economical

future benefit for the drip irrigation project was not considered when establishing these projects.


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Drip irrigation provides a solution to most of the problems faced with canal irrigation. Advantages

and disadvantages of drip and canal irrigation were studied which would facilitate a clear

assessment of economical future benefits.

This research is aimed at clarifying challenges and possibilities of canal and drip irrigation in

North Sudan. Date palms cultivation was chosen in this study for it is historical, social and

economical value for the communities of Northern Sudan. The entire drip irrigation projects in

Northern Sudan have the same ecological features as at the Umjawasir project. The common

problems involved with canal irrigation in Northern Sudan are presented at the Umjawasir project.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To identify the advantages and disadvantages of canal and drip irrigation in Northern

Sudan.

2. To assess the profitability of canal and drip irrigation when growing date palm in Northern

Sudan.

3. To assess the future benefit of date palm cultivation using canal and drip irrigation in

Northern Sudan. 3

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 AVAILABILITY OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION

According to the 1959 Nile agreement, Sudans share of water was set at 18.5 billion cubic meters

per year (Jobin 1999). Sudan has therefore exhausted their share of the Nile water agreement,

consequently through expanding in agriculture scheme, thus a new strategies concerning the

irrigation policies is required.

Sudan has different water resources for irrigation. The White Nile, the Blue Nile and the river Nile

are considered the back bone for irrigation in Sudan. (Abdel Rahman 1990).

In the areas where there is no access to River Nile or its tributaries, 75 % of the population depend

on groundwater and rainwater for their domestic water use (Ayoub 1997). With the current


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consumption of water in Sudan, there are signs of a water shortage (Abdel Rahman 1990) and

(Guvele et al. 2001).

In Sudan, underground water has come to attention due to low rainfalls in arid and semi arid areas

coupled with difficult access to the Niles water in areas with high populations (Farah et al. 1997b).

The northern Part of the Sudan is an arid and semi arid area of low rain fall. However, where there

is no access to river Nile water, the main water sources is from the Nubian sandstone aquifer

(underground water), which is capable of providing about 1.26 X 10

13

m

3

y

-1

(Farah et al 1997a).

The hydrological system in northern Sudan consists of two aquifers; the upper and the lower

aquifer. The lower aquifer is more suitable for domestic and agricultural uses than the upper one

(Farah et al. 1997a).

In northern Sudan, agricultural activities are concentrating along the Nile bank in a very small strip

of land. The cultivation of date palms is the main sources of income, along with cereal crops

(Reyad et al. 1997).

2.2 CANAL IRRIGATION

In many developed countries, irrigation plays a very important role in crop production.

Governments are spending millions of dollars each year in order to maintain and rehabilitate the

canal systems to meet their agricultural production requirements (Ghezae 1998).

4

Sudan has three agricultural sectors: irrigated, mechanized rain-fed and traditional rain- fed

(Guvele et al. 2001). However, two million ha are irrigated by canal out of the total seven million


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ha which are traditional /mechanize rain-fed (Abdel Rahman 1990). Intensive canal irrigation is

becoming a major cornerstone for agricultural activities (Jobin 1999). The government of the

Sudan, through expansion in canal irrigation, leads to severe implication of water use. The

performance of large scale projects in Sudan has been recognized as disappointing at the best

(Guvele et al. 2001). The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Gezira board

carried out research on water management practices on selected areas in the Gezira scheme. The

performance of all lower level canals was poor due to the physical deterioration of the structure of

the canals (Merry 1997). The high costs of canal irrigation and the low crop prices have made the

investment in new irrigation schemes increasingly unappealing (Postel 1999). In addition, farmers

irrigation performance has lead to a reduction in crop yield in certain parts of Sudan. A study was

done at the Gezira research station and it was found that a reduction in sorghum yield was related

to water mismanagement (Farah et al. 1997a).

An important mistake in many early irrigation systems has been the attempt to justify investing in

an expensive reservoir and irrigation site by proposing multiple crops and high intensities of

irrigation (Jobin 1999, p.14)

If such proposal was made in areas with poor drainage and where farmers have no experiences on

intensive irrigation, the proposal would be rejected. Traditional irrigation systems are the opposite

of the intensive irrigation, and have existed for generations (Jobin 1999).

2.3 DRIP IRRIGATION

2.3.1 Concepts

Drip irrigation is defined as a method of irrigation where the water is directed to the plants zone

(Suryawanshi 1995). Drip irrigation, refers to as trickle or low-flow irrigation to provide near

optimal soil moisture as a continuous basis while conserving water (Smith 1997) p 89. Drip

irrigation is categorized as micro-irrigation (MI), where water is irrigated according to the plant

water requirement (Phene 1995a; Suryawanshi 1995). 5


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There are two types of drip irrigation; surface and subsurface drip irrigation. The subsurface type

uses a buried emitter which has the potential to save irrigation water by reducing the amount of

water added to the plant (Evett et al. 1995).

Both surface and subsurface drip irrigation use the same mechanism for delivering water to each

individual plant.

Drip irrigation is different than sprinkling irrigation. Sprinkling irrigation is the emission of water

through the air with a predictable pattern and radius (Smith 1997). Sprinkling irrigation is widely

used for the irrigation and freezing protection of young citrus trees in the USA (Davies 1995).

The main features of drip irrigation are; the deep percolation of water into the soil, negligible sign

of water losses due to evaporation and no surface water run off (Postel et al 2001).

Drip irrigation has been used for the cultivation of valuable trees (Smith 1997). One of the

overlying benefits of drip irrigation, is that can secure food, even during periods of drought

(Chigerwe et al. 2004). The adoption of drip irrigation began in areas that have traditionally

suffered from water shortages (Srivastava et al. 1998).

Due to the high investment cost, drip irrigation is most commonly used by wealthy farmers. (Postel

1999). In recent years, new drip irrigation technology has been developed, for home garden

cultivation. A bucket, a few meters of tubes and nozzles, is all that is needed to grow vegetables for

home consumption. The bucket can be filled manually, from a nearby water source (Sahin et al

2005).

The application of water, in drip irrigation, can be precisely controlled, when compared to furrow

and sprinkling irrigation. These advantages can increase yield and revenue, and decrease overall

cultivation costs when compared to the other irrigation methods (Hanson et al. 2006).

Drip irrigation is often chosen over other irrigation methods. The advantages of drip irrigation are

water application efficiency and reducing the water losses. In addition, drip irrigation offer very

low surface evaporation and deep percolation (Rajput et al 2006).


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The unique feature of drip irrigation is the ability to apply small and frequent amount of fertilizer

and the potential for applying it uniformly to minimize the loss of soluble nutrients (Phene 1995a)

6

2.3.2 Global trend

The tendency in recent years has been to shift from surface irrigation to drip irrigation. World wide

in year 2000, three million hectares were cultivated using micro irrigation. This represents 2 % of

the total irrigated land in the world (Ayars et al. 1999). Drip irrigation is recognized to be a more

efficient water delivery system, along with its ecological advantages (Sezen et al 2006). Drip

irrigation has become more favourable due to it is advantages which appear in the production,

fertilizer application, the control of water application, as well as the deep percolation (Postel et al.

2001; Ayars et al. 1999).

Countries which have adopted drip irrigation technology are either suffering of problems of water

scarcity, or poor quality water (Srivastava et al 1998). China is an example of a country with water

shortages. The government is encouraging farmers to adopt drip irrigation, (Wang et al. 2006).

Several studies have shown that, the area under drip irrigation is increasing. The spread of drip

technologies are gaining momentum, e.g. India reported more than 70,000 ha under drip irrigation,

which account for 3.97 % of the total area irrigated by drip irrigation systems world wide

(Srivastava et al 1998).

.

One reason why people are moving towards drip irrigation is the increasing awareness that water

resources are finite and perhaps are even declining (Phene 1995a). Drip irrigation can save up to

50-75 % of the irrigation water when compared to canal irrigation. Easily control of the water

application in drip irrigation, along with reduced weeds growth, easy fertilizer application has led

to increases the yield from 30-100 % (ELawadi 1999; Suryawanshi 1995)

For the areas with a narrow and irregular landscape, drip irrigation offers a wide range of solutions

to maximize the land use without runoff. These being easy delivery of fertilizers and maximum


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control of the irrigation water (Bressan 1995).

2.3.3 Economical effects

The investment decision for shifting to drip irrigation depends upon many factors; including cost

of cultivation, productivity, yield gain factor, cost of producing electricity prices, depth of

groundwater and irrigation requirement. These parameters vary from crop to crop, place to place,

size of plot, and farmer to farmer.(Sirvastava et al 2003, p.79)

7

Drip irrigation is now available to all, but it is too expensive and sophisticated for small farmers to

adopt (Postel et al 2001). In order for drip irrigation to become more profitable than other irrigation

methods, the costs of watering along with agricultural input must be less than the total income

(Hanson et al. 2006).

Ecological and geographical criteria determine the cost and benefits concerning the investment in a

drip irrigation system (Sezen et al. 2005).

A model for investment decision for drip irrigation system was made by Indian scientists. The

model is generated using computer software; all concerns the installation of a drip irrigation

system, crop selection, as well as crop diversification. The model is suitable for both canal and drip

irrigation with respect to those factors which determine decisions concerning which crops is

grown. The model utilizes a wide range of mathematical and economical equations to enhance the

decision concerning the possibilities of using drip irrigation (Sirvastava et al 2003).

A cost benefit analysis at the farm level was made, for converting olive grown using surface

irrigation to drip irrigation. The net present value (NPV) was used in this analysis. The NPV was

positive for drip irrigation, given the high prices paid for the olives at the market (Cetin et al.

2004).

An economic analysis was done to compare drip irrigation and a pivot sprinkling system in

Western Kansas, USA, on a Corn field. The surface drip irrigated more area and generated a

greater return than did the centre pivot sprinkler system, (Dhuyvette et al. 1995).


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A field study was done in California, USA, to compare furrow, surface drip, and sub-surface drip

irrigation on Lettuce yield. The drip irrigations profitability was uncertain and the revenue did not

increase by converting from furrow to drip irrigation (Hanson et al. 1997).

2.3.4 Ecological impact

Management of agro-chemical for crop was one of the environmental issues identified during the

design of the Rahad project in Sudan, which use a canal for irrigation, where intensive and

extensive use of insecticides, herbicides, defoliants, fungicides and rodenticides. The use of these

agro-chemicals had a negative effects on human and animals in the area (Ghezae 1998)

In Sudan malaria, diarrhoea, and schistomiasis are diseases associated with canal irrigation in the

agricultural communities along the Blue Nile River, and this is due to water logging, (Ghezae

1998; Jobin 1999). 8

By using drip irrigation, it reduces the negative impacts related to canal irrigation, such as water

born diseases and excessive use of agro-chemical. Agricultural research showed that drip irrigation

provided enough soil moisture and a significant affects on the yield, without using large amount of

fertilizer and pesticides (Smith 1997; Sezen et al 2006).

Researchers summarize the advantages of the drip irrigation as; drip save water up to 50-75 %,

yield increase up to 30-100 %, while fertilizers can be saved up to 25- 30 % and reduces the weed

growth (Suryawanshi 1995; Zaid 1999). Drip irrigation is also reducing the incidence of crop

diseases, by creating unsuitable habitat for insects to regenerate, through low humidity (Skaggs

2001).

2.3.5 Limitation of drip irrigation

In spite of the numerous advantages of drip irrigation, it has a number of limitations that varies

from place to another.

Drip irrigation system is identified as high investment cost (US$1000 to US$ 3000 per acre). It

requires a big investment capital and a high skilled labour (Barth 1995; Skaggs 2001).


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about 81.4 % from the total date palm area in Sudan. The numbers of date palm trees in Sudan are

about 8 million in 1996, which produces about 240 thousand tons of date fruits (Reyad et al. 1997).

2.4.1 Date palm irrigation

Different methods where used to irrigate date palms, at different water requirement even within the

same country (Liebenberg et al. 1999). The oldest methods are flood irrigation, and furrow basin

irrigation. Furrow basin is a redesign of flood irrigation (Liebenberg et al. 1999).

Flood irrigation method has several advantages. It has low operational cost and easy to apply. The

disadvantages of the flood irrigation are high labour requirements, difficult to achieve a high

efficiency rate and it is not suited for sandy soil (Liebenberg et al. 1999). Drip irrigation is the

latest methods used for date palm irrigation. The control of water in drip irrigation is easy to

schedule and manage. The topography is not a limitation for drip irrigation, as it is not influence by

a wind or dust storm and its not labour intensive (Liebenberg et al. 1999). In summer season the

water requirement through flood irrigation for date palm are almost double the amounts of water

needed in winter season, which constitutes

1

/3 of the annual water consumption (Liebenberg et al.

1999). 10

2.4.2 The economic of date palm production

In the Northern and river Nile state date palm is intercropped with wheat, broad beans and fodder.

It is difficult to calculate the cost of each crop in this intercropping system. In Sudan, statistical

data showed that the cost of production of 1 ha of date palm range between US$114 in 1992 to

US$ 130 in 1995 (Reyad et al. 1997).

A study of the date palm cultivation in the North Sudan found that; in 1995 the cost of production

of 1 ha of date palm intercropped with different crop is higher in the Northern state than in the

River Nile state. In the Northern state the cost was US$ 286, and US$ 232 in the River Nile state.


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Therefore the agricultural input transportation cost to the Northern state is higher than the River

Nile state (Reyad et al. 1997).

2.4.3 Dates marketing problem

The marketing problems of the date fruits in Sudan were summarised in four main points by

(Reyad et al. 1997)

1- The date fruits are packed in traditional bags known as shawal which is susceptible to pests,

and that lead to low price.

2- The storage of date fruits is in traditional rooms built by mud which is suitable for pests to

regenerate.

3- Transportation means is not designed for date fruits or any other crop.

4- Dry varieties of date fruits is produced in Sudan, which has low prices in the international

market. 11

CHAPTER III: MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1 SELECTION OF THE STUDY AREA

In order to carry out the study on drip and canal irrigation system, three states were selected;

Northern, River Nile, and Khartoum states. River Nile and Northern states were selected both for

the location of the drip irrigation projects. Six drip irrigation projects were recognized for data

gathering; two in the River Nile and four in the Northern state.

Khartoum was selected in order to gather information from market, government offices and

research institutes.

The Umjawasir agricultural project was selected as the main study area for collecting the canal

irrigation data, along with a drip irrigation trial.

3.2 BACK GROUND OF THE STUDY AREA

The Umjawasir area is located approximately 200 km North West of Khartoum city in the Bayoda


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desert of Northern Sudan along the wadi ELmugaddam

2

, (figure 1). The Hawaweer tribe are the

inhabitants of Umjawasir, and have secured their livelihood mainly through pastoralism (Larsen et

al. 2001). In the early 1980s, drought and famine hit the Umjawasir area as well as other places in

the Sahel region. The Hawaweer lost most of their livestock and some of them migrated to other

places in the northern state and the Khartoum state (Larsen et al. 2001). ADRA/SUDAN started the

agricultural project in Umjawasir to ensure food security for the Hawaweer people and to

rehabilitate the environment that had been affected by the drought.

2

Wadi ELmugaddam is a dry tributary of the river Nile stretching from Kordofan in Western Sudan and

join the River

Nile in Korti in Northern Sudan. (Larsen et al. 2001) 12

Figure 1: Umjawasir project location

Source: Google Earth.

The Umjawasir agricultural project started in 1991 with a pilot phase (phase zero) (figure 2). The

main objective was to discover the possibilities of growing different crops. The project started with

four bore holes using turbine pumps and a diesel engine to irrigate an area of 38 ha. In the first

agricultural season on 1991 different crops were grown, and it was reported as a success.

The first phase (phase 1) started in 1995 with 6 bore holes to irrigate 130 ha. The direct

beneficiaries were 72 families, each with 1.68 ha. The objective of phase 1 was to insure food

security in the area and to rehabilitate the environment.

Phase 2 started in 2000 and 151 ha was brought under irrigation. Direct beneficiaries were 90

families who were involved in the agricultural activities. The land was irrigated from 6 bore holes.


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All the three phases were funded by NORAD and implemented by ADRA/SUDAN.

13

Figure 2: Umjawasir project layout

3.2.1 Soil

The soil in Umjawasir was deposited during the annual flood, which took place during various

geological periods. The soils depth is 180 cm, with a clay content between 48 -50% and a

yellowish brown colour in the top 70 cm and a dark yellowish-brown profile on the bottom

(Mustafa 2003)

Over all, the soils showed neither salinity nor alkalinity during the first growing season. Generally,

the soil of the area is good for agricultural purposes, but due to aridity, the organic matter content

is very low along with nitrogen deficiency (Mustafa 2003). The soil of some surface areas is salty;

however, this disappears by leaching to deeper zones in the first cultivation season. (Mustafa 2003)

14

3.2.2 Irrigation

The main source of water for irrigation in Umjawasir project is the underground water from the

Nubian sandstone aquifer. The project drilled four bore holes in phase zero (130-150 meters

depth), six bore holes in phase one, and another six bore holes in phase two (149 180 meters

depth).

Monitoring the underground water levels showed a negligible decline of a few meters during

operations. (Mustafa 2003) All of the 16 bore holes from the three phases, irrigate 330 ha in

Umjawasir. The irrigation area is distributed among 210 families.

Irrigation is done through canal net work stating from the bore hole to the farms site. Canal is

divided into two types, main canal, which is cemented and sub main canal, which is erected by soil

only. Table 1 summarize the total approximate length of each type of canal

Table 1: approximate length / m for cemented and traditional canal

Project # Cemented canal Traditional canal


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Phase zero 00 01,360 m

Phase one 3,690 m 15,330 m

Phase two 4,200 m 18,900 m

Total 7,890 m 35,590 m

3.2.3 Climate

The temperature in Umjawasir varies between the average 27

0

C minimum to 45

0

C maximum

(figure 3). Low humidity and high evaporation are the general climatic features in the area. The

evaporation increases when the temperature increases.

The Annual rain fall is 50 mm/yr however; the area can flood in case of ample rain in the high land

of northern Kordofan.

The summer season extends from April to July, and winter is from October to March. The period

from August to September is considered the rainy season.

15

0

10

20

30

40

50

Sep-95

Nov-95


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Jan-96

Mar-96

May-96

Jul-96

Sep-96

Nov-96

Jan-97

Mar-97

May-97

Jul-97

Month

0

C

Maximum C

Minimum C

Figure 3: Maximum & Minimum Temperature in

0

C

Source: Umjawasir project

3.2.4 Agricultural activities

Subsistence farming is the agricultural activity in the project area. Farmers grow different summer

and winter crops. The main crops grown in winter are wheat and broad beans along with alfalfa. In

the summer season sorghum grain, fodder and okra are grown.

Wheat is considered the main crop, and almost all inhabitants depend on it as their main source of


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food. Broad beans in the recent years are grown for commercial purposes and some domestic

consumption. Many farmers in the project grow alfalfa to generate high incomes. Date palms are

also grown in the project area intercropped with alfalfa.

By growing date palms farmers secure a future for the succeeding generations, and can claim rights

to the land.

Limited crops are grown in the summer season and most of the inhabitants tend to grow Okra for

its high income. 16

Sorghum grain and sorghum fodder are grown in small areas on the farm. The operational costs of

growing sorghum are higher compared to wheat and broad beans. The reason for this is the intense

demand on irrigation, which demands more fuel and spare parts.

3.3 DATA COLLECTION

Primary and secondary data were collected through quantitative and qualitative methods. The

qualitative method, consists of semi structured and unstructured interview with close and open

ended question, as well as general observation for the study area and a focus group discussion with

the informants

The quantitative methods consist of the drip irrigation trial at Umjawasir project and questionnaire

survey.

A detailed description of how data was collected and analysed is presented in the following part.

3.3.1 Primary data

Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to collect primary data on both the irrigation

systems and market prices of vegetables and agriculture inputs.

In order to identify the advantages and disadvantages along with the labour use and the future

benefit of the canal irrigation, a qualitative method were used through semi structured and

unstructured interview


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The interviews conducted in Umjawasir project included 39 farmers (31 male and 8 female) out of

50 farmers who were cultivating during the survey time. The selection was done randomly from a

list obtained from the project administration and a calculator was used to select randomly.

Focus group discussions were carried out with four groups, seven persons each. The groups were

purposefully selected from Umjawasir projects field office, to represent young, middle, old age

farmers, and labourers.

For the drip irrigation projects (figure 4), semi structured and unstructured interviews were

conducted with the manager/ owners of the farms, to identify the advantages and disadvantages,

also the labour use, as well as to identify the profitability and the future benefits. One drip

17

irrigation owner would name another drip irrigation project, such that in the end it turned out to be

snow ball sampling (Bryman 2001).

Figure 4: Map of Sudan shows location of drip irrigation projects

Qualitative methods were used to collect prices for six types of vegetables in Khartoum market

through structured interviews. The structured interview consist of a list of vegetable, agricultural

inputs and dripping kit to identify the prices

From a list of vegetable traders, a random sample of 20 traders was selected using a random

numbers.

Prices of agriculture input for both drip and canal irrigation were collected from companies and

drip irrigation dealers through a check list of specific items.

To test the effects of drip irrigation on Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), two trials were conducted

at two locations of Umjawasir project. The first trial was established on 250 m near the farms in

phase #2, with 520 plants per nozzle at spacing between plants of 50 cm and 80 cm between rows

18

(the plant spacing is according to the extension unit at Umjawasir project). Okra (Abelmoschus


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esculentus) was selected, for its fast growth rate and high commercial value (Camciuc et al. 1996).

Water requirement for the trial was set at 3 lit per plant per day. Further adjustment of water

requirement was done during the trail. However, the trail had to be abandoned after three weeks

because of pump breakdown.

The second trial was conducted in phase # 0 of the project, which has more sand content. A water

tank was erected to ensure availability of water in case a pump breaks down. The trial was done

with the same equipment as in the first one, and the same plant spacing. The water requirement as

the first trial was applied to the second trial, beside the cultural practices (fertilizers, and

pesticides).

The second trial started in the 2

nd

week of October till the 3

rd

week of December. Few data were

gathered from the second trail due to animals invasion.

3.3.2 Secondary data

Secondary data were collected from Ministry of irrigation, Arab Organization for Agricultural

Development (AOAD), Forestry research institute, Shambat research institute and ADRA/

SUDAN.

Structured interview was used to identify the policies and strategies for irrigation in Northern

Sudan, along with the future plan for drip irrigation investment in Sudan.

Part of the reports on irrigation was collected from Arab Organization for Agricultural

Development (AOAD) also part of the date palm information was collected from the reports at

Shambat research institute in Khartoum state.

3.4 DATA ANALYSIS


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3.4.1 Primary data

Descriptive analysis was used through cross tabulation from SPSS computer software to identify

different features for canal and drip irrigation such as the advantages and disadvantages, crop

grown per area, labour use, and to compare between traditional and cemented canal, as well as to

compare between canal and drip irrigation. 19

Simple calculation was used to identify the cost of production, total income in US$ and

profitability for each crop when intercropped with date palm

Net present Value (NPV) for 10 % Social Discount Rate (SDR) was calculated for the Dates fruit

production for one hectare for drip and canal irrigation, in order to identify the future benefits from

the standpoint of the present (Pearce et al. 1990). Internal Rate of Return (IRR) was calculated for

both systems when growing date palm. The investment in drip and canal irrigation that correspond

to the IRR was calculated by using goal seek function in the Excel program.

Part of the data that could fit into the statistical package was treated separately in different spread

sheet e.g. focus group discussion and the general observation.

3.4.2 Secondary data

Secondary data were used as a back ground to under stand the attribute of different irrigation

systems in Northern Sudan.

Information was gathered for date palm (phoenix dactylifera) for both canal and drip irrigation

systems. The reason was, all of the drip irrigation projects included in this study are growing date

palm, in addition to that dates is the main valuable crop grown in the Northern and Nile state

(Reyad et al. 1997)

Table 2 summarizes the methodology of data collection and analysis, for the study. The summery

tend to simplify the methodology and the purpose of the analysis.

20


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Table 2: Methodology for data collection and analysis

Sites Methods for data

collection

Methods for analysis Purpose of the analysis

Canal irrigation Individuals

interview.

Focus group

discussion.

General observations

Descriptive statistic.

Net present value (NPV).

Internal rate of return (IRR)

To identify the advantages and disadvantages.

To assess the profitability of date palm when intercropped with

different crop and vegetable.

To identify labour role in irrigation management.

To discover future benefit of dates production.

Drip irrigation Individuals

interview

General observation

Descriptive statistic.

Net present value (NPV).

Internal rate of return (IRR)

To identify the advantages and disadvantages of drip irrigation.


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To assess profitability of date palm when irrigated by drip.

To identify labour role in irrigation management.

To compare between drip and canal irrigation in term of

profitability.

To discover future benefit of dates production.

Khartoum

Markets

Interview guide to

discover the prices of

vegetables,

agriculture inputs and

dripping kit

Mathematical calculation To discern the highest and lowest prices of vegetables.

To compare between the drip and canal inputs prices when

growing 1ha of date palm trees.

Drip irrigation

trial

Field trial Descriptive analysis To identify lesson learned from the trials.

21

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 CANAL IRRIGATION

4.1.1 Farming system

In the Northern Sudan winter and summer are the principle cultivation seasons. Wheat, broad


32/84

beans, vegetables and alfalfa, are grown in winter. Sorghum grain, fodder and okra are grown in

summer season. Winter season extend from October to March and summer season is from April

to July.

In Umjawasir project wheat and broad bean are the main crops grown along with vegetables.

Wheat is considered as the main source of food, while broad bean is grown for commercial

purposes and for home use in case of surplus. Alfalfa is grown as animal fodder and it has a high

commercial value, (Table 3).

In the summer season, farmers tend to grow okra as a commercial crop (high generating income)

and for home consumption. Sorghum grain is grown in small areas due to the high operational

cost and the low income gained. Sorghum is grown as animal fodder and it has high prices in case

of low rainfall. The straw of sorghum is used in traditional house construction in Umjawasir for

the nomad communities.

Farmers in the summer season tend to grow few crops in small area of their farms due to the high

operational cost in summer, which require more fuel and spare parts.

Agricultural activities depend on the underground water from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer. A

borehole was established for irrigation and the water is extracted by turbine pump. In the project

area there are 16 boreholes that can irrigate 330 hectares. Each family at Umjawasir is allotted

1.68 ha of irrigated land.

22

Table 3: crop profitability for year 2004 at Umjawasir project

Crop name Total income US$/ha Production cost US$/ha Profit US$/ha

Wheat 768 440 328

Broad beans 590 320 270


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Alfalfa 2755 818 1,937

Okra 1,536 732 804

Sorghum grain 451 266 185

Sorghum fodder 360 182 178

Total 6,460 2,758 3,702

Source: Umjawasir project 2004

4.1.2 Problems of canal irrigation

Each borehole irrigates an area of 20-25 ha through canal network. In Umjawasir project there

are two types of canal, cemented and traditional canals. The cemented canals are constructed by

stones and cements, (Figure 5 a). Traditional canal is constructed by soil only, (Figure 5 b).

Three main problems are encountered within the canal irrigation. The most common problems

are the mechanical damages (cracks) in the canal, followed by sand filling the canal and the last

one is the excessive weeds interference in the canal. Table 4 shows how farmers respond to canal

problems.

Table 4: number of respondents observing different problems in canal performance

Problems

of cracks

Problems

of Weeds

Problems of Sand

filling the canal

Number of

respondents

33 17 14


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23

The mechanical damages (crack) of the canal were observed by 33 farmers out of 39 farmers.

Cracks in the canal are due to the clay contents in the sand that mixed with the cement for

construction. Also the stones that is used for construction was not installed properly due to the

uneven shape.

Weed interference in the canal were observed by 17 farmers out of 39 farmers. The weeds

interference is related to crack in the canal. Water leakages in the canal through cracks lead to

weed growth in the canal.

Problems of sand filling the canal during sandstorm were observed by 14 farmers. Mainly the

canals in the Northern side of the project are exposed to sandstorm that blown in the winter

season, as well as the canals of the southern side is exposed to southern sandstorm in summer

season.

24

Figure a: Traditional canal Figure b: Cemented canal with cracks

Figure 5: Traditional irrigation figure (a) and cemented canal figure (b)

Figure c: sand filling the canal Figure d: weeds on canal side

Figure 6: Canal problems at Umjawasir project in figure (c) and (d)

25


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4.1.3 Labour use

In canal irrigation system farmers hire labour for canal maintenance due to the long distances

between boreholes from farms. In order to identify the role of labourers in canal maintenance,

respondents were categorized into two groups; farmers hire labour and farmers who do not hire

labour (self dependant). Table 5 identify number of farmers who hires labour for canal

maintenance and farmers who are self dependent.

Table 5: Farmers hire labour and self dependant in relation to canal performance

Category Satisfied

with canal

performance

Not satisfied

with canal

performance

Total numbers

of

respondents

Farmers hire labour 9 12 21

Farmers do not hire labour ( self dependant) 18 0 18

From 39 respondents of Umjawasir project, 21 farmers were hiring labour, while 18 were not

hiring labour (self dependant).

The reason for dissatisfaction is the water loss in the cemented canals through cracks, which

needs labour force for continuous maintenance.

The nine framers agreed that with the current canal performance in the traditional canal that has

less water loss compare to the cemented canals and the maintenance could be done by soil only

while irrigation is taking place.


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Farmers that do not hire labour (self dependants) were using traditional canals that do not

necessary demand labour for maintenance.

26

4.1.4 Comparison between cemented and traditional

A comparison was made between cemented and traditional canal in order to identify the

advantages and disadvantages of each one.

Four main features were distinguished between cemented and traditional canal (Table 6). The

traditional canal has advantages of low cost of maintenance. The labour payment for canal

maintenance differs from one farmer to another. The payment is negotiable on area not on time

base. The maintenance of traditional canal can be done while irrigation is taking place.

In the cemented canals, a skilled labour is needed for maintenance, as cement and sand is needed

for the maintenance. After the handing over the project to the farmers committee they should

secure fund for cement for maintenance of the cemented canals.

Table 6: comparison between cemented canals and traditional canals

features Constructed canals Traditional canals

Cost of construction High Low

Water delivery Good if it is well built Satisfactory

Labour requirement More labour is needed if it is not

constructed properly

Less labour needed

Maintenance Should be done with cement and

stone ( Costly)

With soil only


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Distances Short canal Long canal

Affordability Wealthy or better off farmer Normal farmers

27

4.1.5 Intercropping in canal irrigation

Different crops and vegetables are grown in Umjawasir in inter cropping systems. Therefore 70

% of farmers in Umjawasir project intercrop alfalfa with date palm. A market survey conducted

from July to December 2005 in Khartoum Markets, to identify prices of vegetables that can be

intercropped with date palm. Table 7 summarize the net profit of intercropping with date palm in

Umjawasir project, when the date palm average net income is US$1,056/yr.

Table 7: intercropping contribution to date palm

Crop/ 1ha Total average production/1ha/yr Total

average

income

(US$)/yr

Average

production

cost

(US$)/yr

Average

profit

(US$)/yr

Average

profit+


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US$1,056

Alfalfa 11cuttingX210

hodXUS$1+US$342 (seeds sale)

2,851 822 2,029 3,085

Okra 45 kgX47 bag X US$0.73 1,551 986 565 1,621

Tomato 600kgXUS$3.5+600kgXUS$0.5 2,400 986 1,414 2,740

Cucumber 2000kgX US$0.60 1,200 986 214 1,270

Eggplant 1900kgX US$0.70 1,330 986 344 1,400

Intercropping of alfalfa with date palm increases the income of 1 ha up to US$ 3085/yr. Tomato

gained the second most profitable crop that increase the date palm hectare net income to

US$2,740. Okra is the third profitable crops when it is intercropped with dates in canal irrigation

which increases the income of 1 ha up to US$ 1621/yr.

In Umjawasir farmers distribute one hectare into 210 parts, each part is know as hod. The size

of hod is 42 m

2

where alfalfa is grown and it is used as a standard sale measure. The average

price ofone alfalfa hod is US$ 1 in addition alfalfa produces 111 kg of seeds which gains

additional income of US$ 432/yr.

28

The prices of alfalfa depend on the rainfall around the project. In case of no or little rainfall, the

prices of alfalfa would increase tremendously and vice versa.

The production cost of alfalfa is less than the production cost of okra, and this due to the

additional cost of transportation, taxetc. for okra, but for the alfalfa is sold locally (Table 8)


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Table 8: average production cost for different crops

Items Alfalfa Okra Tomato Cucumber Eggplant

Cost

US$/ha

Cost

US$/ha

Cost

US$/ha

Cost

US$/ha

Cost

US$/ha

Tillage 39 39 39 39 39

Seeds 173 13 13 13 13

Fertilizers 24 48 48 48 48

Fuel 450 397 397 397 397

Labour 96 49 49 49 49

Lubricant & oil 20 20 20 20 20

Spare parts 20 20 20 20 20

Transportation, tax...etc 00 400 400 400 400

Total production cost 822 986 986 986 986

Total income 2,851 1,551 2,400 1,200 1,330

Profit 2,029 565 1,414 214 344

Vegetables can be grown only in winter season from October to March. Tomato under some

cases can be grown in the summer season if it has good shade from high trees like date palm or


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citrus trees. Tomato gains the highest price in summer, which is US$ 3.5/kg and in winter US$

0.5/kg. Tomato growers started to make use of a certified seed that can be grown in summer.

Okra gains the second highest prices in the market survey and the prices decreases as winter

approach. In Umjawasir farmers, in order to gain high prices for okra they slice it into small

pieces and dry it under the shade. The dried okra can be cocked as food and it is very much

consumed in Umjawasir and Khartoum as well as the whole North region.

29

4.2 DRIP IRRIGATION

4.2.1 Overview of drip irrigation system

Drip irrigation projects in the Northern Sudan are established by private companies and NGOs.

These private companies are petrol oil companies, road construction companies and NGOs such

as ADRA/SUDAN.

The main reason that, oil companies established drip irrigation in Northern Sudan was to protect

the oil pipeline from sand drift when crossing the desert in the river Nile state. Road construction

companies were protecting parts of the highway road that link Khartoum with the Northern state

from sand drift by establishing drip irrigation projects.

ADRA/SUDAN established drip irrigation system for the green belts after facing difficulties in

irrigation by canals. ADRA/SUDAN protects the farms by establishing green belt from

eucalyptus and other trees. The green belt irrigated by canals along with additional extension of

trees irrigated by dripping system.

Table 9: overview of drip irrigation projects in North Sudan

Project Trees and crop grown

name


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Location Area

/ha

Establishment

cost US$/ha

Year of

establishment

Dates palm

Eucalyptus

Acacia

Citrus

Vegetables

Elmerooj N. state 17 8000-13000 2002

Elmarwa N. state 17 8000-13000 2002

Tharwat N. state 17 8000-13000 2002

Umjawasir N. state 1.2 4000-6000 2005 X X

Oil company Nile state 20 5000-10000 2003 X X

Oil company Nile state 20 5000-10000 2003 X X

Grown

X Not grown.

30

4.2.2 Crops grown in drip irrigation

A field survey was conducted to identify different trees and crops that were grown in the drip

irrigation project in Northern Sudan. Table 9 shows the crops and trees that are grown in drip


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irrigation projects.

Based on a field survey, eucalyptus are grown in all drip irrigation projects. Eucalyptus has been

grown as a wind break at the edge of the farm.

All the drip irrigation projects in Northern Sudan are located in remote desert areas, where

sandstorm is a common phenomenon. A need of wind break from eucalyptus is highly prioritized

to reduce the alarming rate of sandstorm in the project.

Date palm is grown in the six projects, as long term investment that can produce after several

years. None of these projects started to produce date fruits, still after 2-4 years. In the drip

irrigation projects, neither cereal crops nor vegetables were grown.

Based on a field survey undertaken in the six drip irrigation projects in the North Sudan, all the

projects respondents agreed that drip irrigation is not cheap.

Table 10: Opinion among respondents on drip irrigation

Project Cheap to

buy

More

efficient

Save

time

Less labour

use for

operation

and

maintenance

Dripping increases

the productive


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Number of agreed

respondents

0 6 6 4 4

Number of disagreed

respondents

6 0 0 2 2

All projects respondents agreed that drip irrigation is more efficient than canal irrigation.

From table 10, it can be seen that respondents agreed that drip irrigation saves time compared to

canal irrigation. In canal irrigation, more time is needed for irrigation depending on the distance

between borehole and farm, as well as the capacity of the turbine pump and engine.

31

Four out of the six respondents from the drip irrigation projects agreed that drip irrigation require

less labour with high payment compare low payment in canal irrigation. The other two

respondents disagreed because number of labour needed depend on the project area.

Four respondents agreed that drip irrigation increases the productivity more than canal irrigation.

The reason is that the agricultural practices such as fertilizers and pesticides application, are done

to individual plant, whereas in canal irrigation, are done to whole area irrigated.

4.2.3 Labour use

In drip irrigation labourers are important for monitoring, operation and maintenance due to the

technical sophistication of the system (Figure 7).

Monitoring consists of follows up of the nozzles, engine and water pump performance. Each

nozzle irrigates one plant, and if several nozzles are not working properly that would lead to poor

growth or death of the plant.


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Maintenance consists of nozzles, valve, along with engine and water pump maintenance. A

skilled labour is needed for the daily maintenance due to the technicality of the system. There are

two types of maintenance, daily maintenance and yearly maintenance. The daily maintenance is a

regular maintenance such as nozzles cleaning, valveetc. The yearly maintenance is the

overhaul of the engine and pump where it consists of changing spare parts, in addition of

renewing the drip system if it is necessary.

Operation consists of engine and water pump operation to fill-in the water tank. In drip irrigation

projects the labour used for maintenance is also responsible for the operating the engine and

pump.

Mainly two labourers are hired for a project size of 16-20 ha for the three above tasks. One

labourer is responsible for operation and the other is for maintenance, while both of them are

responsible for monitoring.

32

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Hiring labour for

monitoring


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Hiring labour for

maintenance

Hiring labour for

W.pump &

enegine

operation

Numbers of projects

Figure 7: labour task of drip irrigation projects

33

4.2.4 Drip irrigation trials in Umjawasir

Two trials were conducted at Umjawasir project, to test the performance of the dripping system

on Okra crop and to identify the initial cost for each trial and to get and overview for the cost, in

addition to identify the advantages and disadvantages of the dripping system.

Table 11: Initial cost for the two drip irrigation trial for 250 m

2

each

Items 1

st

trial Prices (US$) 2

nd

trial prices in (US$)

Dripping Kits 249 0

Fuel 60 40


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Labour 100 180

Seeds 2 2

Assistance 87 87

Fertilizers 0.5 0.5

Total 478.5 329.5

Dripping kits was bought from Khartoum market, the prices was high due to small quantity

requested for the dripping kit. The same dripping kit of 1

st

trial was used in 2

nd

trial.

Fuel cost was high in the 1

st

trail due to pumping water directly into the dripping system; where

in the 2

nd

trial irrigation was done from a water tank

Labour cost in the 2

nd

trial was high due to mobilizing the equipment from the 1

st

trial site to the

2

nd

trial site, in addition to establishing the fence around the second trial beside the reinstallation


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of the system.

34

A comparison was made between the two trials to identify the major differences between the two

dripping system. Table 12 summarizes the differences.

Table 12: comparison between the two drip irrigation trials at Umjawasir

1

st

trial 2

nd

trial

Crop Name Okra Okra

Total area 250 m

2

250 m

2

Fertilizers application 750 gram Urea 1500 gram urea

Amount of seed sown 0.22 kg 0.30 kg

Number of Nozzles 520 520

Plant spacing 50 cm X 80 cm 50 cm X 80 cm

Irrigation time 45-90 minutes/ irrigation 30-45 minutes/irrigation

Irrigation schedule daily daily

Amount of water 750-900 litre per irrigation 500-750 litre per irrigation

Duration of the trial 3 weeks 9 weeks


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Seeds germination After 5 days from the first After 8 days from the first

irrigation irrigation

Growth percentages 85 % 80 %

Amount of fuel 3 litre per irrigation 0.5 litre per irrigation

Methods of water delivery Water pump Water tank

The major different was the growth percentages in the 1

st

trial was 85 %, while in the second trial

it was 80 %. The factor that determines the growth rate was the water application, as well as the

pest that attacked the plants.

Amount of fuel in the 2

nd

trial was less due to the use of water tank, while it is high in the 1

st

trial

due to the use of water pump directly to pump water in the system.

35

4.2.5 Lessons learned from drip irrigation trials

Drip irrigation trials showed that good water management reduces the running cost. Fertilizers

were applied in small quantity to individual plant which reduces part of the operational cost. In

drip irrigation fertilizers are placed after making small hole below the plant, whereby in canal

irrigation fertilizers were broadcast in the whole area. Irrigation directly from water pump is risky

in case of pump break. Nozzles need daily maintenance such as adjustment and cleaning from


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rust and mud. Several dust storms occurred without affecting the performance of the drip

irrigation. The nozzles covered by sand remained working. Continues irrigation creates a suitable

environment for pest. In semi arid areas where the temperature is high, insects seek for a moisture

habitat to survive. A fence is essential for stopping animals from attacking the dripping site and

causing damages to the tubes and nozzles.

Figure a: 2

nd

drip irrigation trial installation Figure b: 1

st

drip irrigation trial

Figure 8: The two drip irrigation trials at Umjawasir project in figure (a) and (b)

36

Figure 9: Okra germination in the 2

nd

drip irrigation trial

Photo by: Jens B. Aune.

37

4.2.6 Economics of drip and canal irrigation

Based on the data collected from the market, prices for dripping kit, depends on quality and

country of origin. All the dripping kit was imported from different countries.


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Table 13 review the investment cost for drip and canal irrigation system for North Sudan.

Table 13: Investment cost of 1ha of date palm in drip and canal irrigation

Canal irrigation Drip irrigation

Item Quantity Cost

/US$

Quantity Cost

/US$

Drip irrigation

kit

0 0

kits and installation 8,000

Water tank 0 0 10,000 litre water tank 1,000

Canal

establishment

&

maintenance

Main canal and sub main

( manually )

200 0 0

Seedling 144seedlingX US$ 10 1,440 144seedling X US$ 10 1,440

Tillage Animal traction 25 By tractor 46

Fuel ( diesel) 48 lit X 24 irrig. X US$

0.32

369 7.35literXUS$0.32 X121

days ( irrigation every 3


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days)

285

Spare parts&

maintenance

Fuel and oil filter etc. 22 Fuel and oil filter. .etc. +

nozzles, tube,

connectors

120

Fertilizers Urea+ organic fertilizer 10 10kg of urea X0.42 $ 4

Pesticides 25 25

Labour prices of hiring labour at

Umjawasir

75 1 labour X US$ 4.29 X

183day

875

transportation every 90 kg will be

transported by US$ 2.14

172 every 90 kg will be

transported by US$ 2.14

274

Total

Investment

Cost

2,338 12,069


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Table 14: Production of date palm in canal irrigation

Life cycle Income status/ 1ha

Year 0 to year 4 Zero income

Year 5 to year 30 Income increases from 11kg/tree to 25 kg/tree

The first stage is from year 0 to year 4 where there is no production from dates. The second stage

is from year 5 to year 30 where farmers identified that the production of 1 ha is between 1500 kg

as minimum to 3500 kg as maximum for the improved variety.

Table 15: date palm production in drip irrigation

Drip irrigation Income status/ha Sources

Year 0 to year 4 Zero income

Year 5 to year 30 Income increases from 14 kg/tree

to 42 kg/tree.

Zaid and Botes (1999)

All drip irrigation projects included in this study did not start to produce date fruits. The

assumption was made for date palm production under drip irrigation, to be more than the

production of the date palm in canal irrigation.

Several authors indicated that the production of crops/trees in drip irrigation increases from 30-

100 %. (ELawadi 1999; Suryawanshi 1995).

Zaid and Botes (1999) calculated the cash flow for 5ha of date plantation, that the date palm

produces 50kg/palm.

40

4.2.8 Future benefits


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The Net Present Value (NPV) for 10 % SDR, for date palm in drip irrigation resulted in US$ -

7,140. This showed a negative return for date palm under drip irrigation, (Table 16). The high

initial and running cost leads to a negative value of NPV beside other factors. The IRR was

found to be 6 % (NPV=0). The production assumption in drip irrigation is between 2,000 to

6,000 kg/yr for prices of US$ 1/ kg, while in canal irrigation is 1,500 to 3,500 kg/ha/yr for the

same price.

In canal irrigation the NPV for 10 % SDR, resulted in US$ 4,168, (Table 17) while the IRR was

16 %. In canal irrigation the IRR is higher than the interest rate which is 10 %. This indicated

that project is economically feasible.

The history of date palm cultivation in Northern region sustained more than 3,000 years under

canal (traditional) irrigation. If investment on canal irrigation was not profitable it would had not

sustain for that long time.

The investment in drip irrigation that correspond to an interest rate of % 16 as in canal irrigation,

was calculated by US$ 4,214 by using goal seek function in the Excel program. A % 65 decrease

in drip irrigation investment will make drip irrigation equally profitable as canal irrigation.

Date palm under drip irrigation is assumed to be more productive than in canal irrigation. The

reasons are; irrigation was directed to the root zone of individual plant, also the agricultural

practices was done properly due to the skilled labour.

41

Table 16: Sensitivity analysis for date palm production in drip irrigation

Drip irrigation

Year Production

kg/ha


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Income US$ Investment

cost US$

Net income

US$

0 0 0 12069 -12069

1 0 0 1583 -1583

2 0 0 1583 -1583

3 0 0 1583 -1583

4 0 0 1583 -1583

5 2000 2000 1583 417

6 2000 2000 1800 200

7 2000 2000 1583 417

8 2000 2000 1583 417

9 2000 2000 1583 417

10 2000 2000 1583 417

11 3000 3000 1583 1417

12 3000 3000 1583 1417

13 3000 3000 1583 1417

14 3000 3000 1800 1200

15 4000 4000 1583 2417

16 4000 4000 1583 2417

17 4000 4000 1583 2417

18 4000 4000 1583 2417

19 4000 4000 1583 2417

20 5000 5000 1583 3417


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21 5000 5000 1800 3200

22 5000 5000 1583 3417

23 5000 5000 1583 3417

24 5000 5000 1583 3417

25 6000 6000 1583 4417

26 6000 6000 1583 4417

27 6000 6000 1583 4417

28 6000 6000 1800 4200

29 6000 6000 1583 4417

30 6000 6000 1583 4417

NPV for 10 % SDR -$7,140.88

IRR 6%

42

Table 17: Sensitivity analysis for date palm production in canal irrigation

Canal irrigation

Year Production

kg/ha

Income US$ Investment

cost US$

Net income

US$

0 0 0 2338 -2338


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1 0 0 638 -638

2 0 0 638 -638

3 0 0 638 -638

4 0 0 638 -638

5 1500 1500 638 862

6 1500 1500 700 800

7 1500 1500 638 862

8 1500 1500 638 862

9 1500 1500 638 862

10 2000 2000 638 1362

11 2000 2000 638 1362

12 2000 2000 638 1362

13 2000 2000 638 1362

14 2000 2000 700 1300

15 2500 2500 638 1862

16 2500 2500 638 1862

17 2500 2500 638 1862

18 2500 2500 638 1862

19 2500 2500 638 1862

20 3000 3000 638 2362

21 3000 3000 700 2300

22 3000 3000 638 2362

23 3000 3000 638 2362

24 3000 3000 638 2362

25 3500 3500 638 2862


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26 3500 3500 638 2862

27 3500 3500 638 2862

28 3500 3500 700 2800

29 3500 3500 638 2862

30 3500 3500 638 2862

NPV for 10 % SDR $ 4,168.49

IRR 16%

43

Figure 10: date palm fruits

Photo by: Jens B. Aune

4.2.9 Date palm net income

The investment cost of drip is US$ 12,069. In year 5 the net income is US$ 417 exceeds the

operational cost. Drip irrigation gain more income as time goes on. In canal irrigation, the net

income starts to exceed the operational cost at year 5, where the net income is US$ 862. Canal

irrigation net income is higher in year 5 due to the high investment (operational) cost for drip

irrigation.

44

-14000

-12000

-10000


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-8000

-6000

-4000

-2000

0

2000

4000

6000

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31

Year

Income in US$

net income US$ for drip

net income US$ for canal

Figure 11: Net income for 1ha of date fruits in drip and canal irrigation in 30 year

In canal irrigation the net income is between US$862 in year 5 to US$2,862 in year 30, while in

drip irrigation is US$417 in year 5 to US$ 4,417. This net income depends on the prices of the

date fruits, which varies from variety to another.

From Figure 11 despite the high production per kg for drip irrigation between years 5 to 13 the

net income for drip irrigation did not exceed the investment cost. This is due to the high

operational cost in this year which did not contest with the production.

45

4.3 ECONOMICAL SUSTAINABILITY OF DRIP IRRIGATION

It is important to asses the economical sustainability of the canal and drip irrigation. The age of


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the canal irrigation specifically for the date palm is more than 3,000 years, while drip irrigation

started in Sudan 5-6 years ago.

Date palm under drip irrigation produces after 5 years with an operational cost of US$ 1,583/yr,

while in canal it is US$638/year. (Table18).

With the current investment cost, date palm under drip irrigation would secure the future benefit

if the production increases more than 6,000 kg/ yr/ha.

If the social discount rate is decreased then the future benefit would be secured for the date palm

investment under drip irrigation.

Table 18: Economical comparison between drip and canal irrigation

Economical characteristic Drip irrigation Canal irrigation

Investment cost US$12,069 US$2,338

Maximum annual income US$6,000 US$3,500

Minimum positive annual income US$417 US$ 862

NPV (10 % SDR) US$- 7,140 US$4,168

IRR % 6 16

Maintenance cost US$ 215 US$62

Operational cost US$1,583 US$638

46

4.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION

Different aspects need to be discussed when comparing drip with canal irrigation. The

comparison was made in table 19 for showing the context and the feasibilities of each irrigation

systems.


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Table 19: Comparison between drip irrigation and canal irrigation

Drip irrigation Canal irrigation

Amount of water use Less water More water

Types of crop Limited All crops and trees

Investment cost High Low

Labour use Less labour More labour

Labour payment high Medium or low

Income high Medium or Low

Spare parts use More use Less use

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