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Elements of Aeronautics (13AE32)
Unit-1
Part-2 Introduction to Aircraft
Basic components of aircraft
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The modern aircraft has five basic structural components: fuselage, wings, empennage(tail
structures), power plant (propulsion system) and the undercarriage.
i) Fuselage The fuselageis the main body structure to which all other components are attached.
The fuselage contains the cockpit or flight deck, passenger compartment and cargo
compartment.
While wings produce most of the lift, the fuselage also produces a little lift. A bulky
fuselage can also produce a lot of drag. For this reason, a fuselage is streamlined to
decrease the drag. It has a sharp or rounded nose with sleek, tapered body so that the
air can flow smoothly around it.
ii) Wings The wings are the most important lift-producing part of the aircraft.
Wings vary in design depending upon the aircraft type and its purpose. Most airplanes
are designed so that the outer tips of the wings are higher than where the wings are
attached to the fuselage. This upward angle is called the dihedral and helps keep the
airplane from rolling unexpectedly during flight.
The internal volume of the wings can be used for such item as fuel tanks and storageof the landing gear (the wheels and supporting struts).
iii) Empennage (tail structure)
The empennage or tail assembly provides stability and control for the aircraft. Theempennage is composed of two main parts:
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thevertical stabilizer (fin) to which therudder is attached thehorizontal stabilizer to which theelevators are attached.
These stabilizers of the airplane help to keep the airplane pointed into the wind. Whenthe tail end of the airplane tries to swing to either side, the wind pushes against the tail
surfaces, returning it to its proper place. The rudder and elevators allow the pilot tocontrol theyaw andpitch motion of the airplane, respectively.
iv) Undercarriage
Theundercarriageorlanding gearconsists of struts, wheels and brakes. The landinggear can be fixed in place or retractable.
Many small airplanes have fixed landing gear which increases drag, but keeps theairplane lightweight.
Larger, faster and more complex aircraft have retractable landing gear that canaccommodate the increased weight. The advantage to retractable landing gear is that
thedragis greatly reduced when the gear is retracted. When flying on a commercial
airliner you will notice that the pilot retracts the landing gear very soon after the
airplane leaves the ground. This helps to decrease drag as the airplane ascends.
v) Power plant (propulsion system)
The power plant is simply thepropulsion systemand consists of the engines. The solepurpose of the engines is to providethrustfor the airplane.
There are many different types of aircraft engines including: piston, turboprop,turbojet and turbofan. Turbojet and turbofan are jet engines. Some aircraft, notably
gliders, do not have an engine. To take off they must have another source of thrust -
that is, the tow-plane which pulls them into the air. When the engine is mounted on the wings, they are usually housed in a type of shroud
called a nacelle.
Aircraft Axis system
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In flight, any aircraft will rotate about itscenter of gravity,a point which is the average
location of the mass of the aircraft. We can define a three dimensional coordinate systemthrough the center of gravity with each axis of this coordinate system perpendicular to the
other two axes. We can then define the orientation of the aircraft by the amount of rotation of
the parts of the aircraft along these principal axes.
An airplane is of course a three-dimensional shape, therefore it has three axis:
1. Normal Axis2. Lateral Axis3. Longitudnal Axis
Normal axis (yaw)
The Yaw axis is a vertical axis through anaircraft,rocket,or similar body, about which the
bodyyaws;it may be a body, wind, or stability axis. Also known as yawing axis. The yaw
axis is defined to beperpendicularto the body of the wings with its origin at the center of
gravity and directed towards the bottom of the aircraft. A yaw motion is a movement of the
nose of the aircraft from side to side The rudder is the primary control of yaw.
Lateral axis (pitch)
The lateral axis (also called transverse axis) passes through the plane from wingtip towingtips. Rotation about this axis is called pitch. Pitch changes the vertical direction the
aircraft's nose is pointing. The elevators are the primary control of pitch.
Longitudinal axis (roll)
The longitudinal axis passes through the plane from nose to tail. Rotation about this axis is
called bankor roll. Bank changes the orientation of the aircraft's wings with respect to the
downward force of gravity. The pilot changes bank angle by increasing the lift on one wing
and decreasing it on the other. This differential lift causes bank rotation around the
longitudinal axis. The ailerons are the primary control of bank.
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Normally these axes are represented by the letters X, Y and Z in order to compare them with
some reference frame.
Aircraft motions
A yaw motion is a movement of the nose of the aircraft from side to side.
A pitch motion is an up or down movement of the nose of the aircraft.
A rolling motion is an up and down movement of the wing tips of the aircraft.
Control Surfaces
As aircraft moves in the three dimensions, we need various control devices to control it. The
main control surfaces of afixed-wing aircraftare attached to the airframe on hinges or tracks
so they may move and thus deflect the air stream passing over them. This redirection of the
air stream generates an unbalanced force to rotate the plane about the associated axis.Thereare mainly three types of control surfaces:
i) Ailerons
ii) Elevator
iii) Rudder
i) Ailerons
Aileronsare mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in
opposite directions. When the pilot moves thestickleft, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise,
the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that
wing and a lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing to drop
and the right wing to rise. This causes the aircraft to roll to the left and begin to turn to the
left. Centering the stick returns the ailerons to neutral maintaining thebank angle.The
aircraft will continue to turn until opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero to fly
straight.
ii) Elevator
Anelevatoris a moveable part of thehorizontal stabilizer,hinged to the back of the fixed part
of the horizontal tail. The elevators move up and down together. When the pilot pulls the
stick backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward causes the elevators to go
down. Raised elevators push down on the tail and cause the nose to pitch up. This makes the
wings fly at a higherangle of attack,which generates more lift and moredrag.Centering the
stick returns the elevators to neutral and stops the change of pitch. Many aircraft use a fully
moveable horizontal stabilizer calledstabilatoror all-moving tail.
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iii) Rudder
Therudderis typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part oftheempennage.When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the
right pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left
and causes the nose to yaw to the right. Centering the rudder pedals returns the rudder to
neutral and stops the yaw.
High lift devices:
In aircraf design, high lift devices is a component or mechanism which increases lift
beyond that obtainable from the main aircraft components. The device may be fixed
component or movable mechanism which is deployed when required.
Devices to increase the lift coefficient by geometry changes (camber and/or chord)
and/or boundary-layer control (avoid flow separation).
a) Flaps, trailing edge devices
b) Slats, leading edge devices
a) Flaps
Flaps increase the wing surface or curve generating more lift with the same speed. They arevery used on low speed operations, mainly during landings and take offs.There are several
types of flaps:
Plain Flap
Split Flap
Flap Zap or Slotted
Flap Fowler
Flap Multi-Fowler
b) Slats
Slatsare aerodynamicsurfaces on the leading edge of the wingsof fixed-wing aircraftwhich,
when deployed, allow the wing to operate at a higher angle of attack. A higher coefficient of
lift is produced as a result of angle of attack and speed, so by deploying slats an aircraft can
fly at slower speeds, or take off and land in shorter distances. They are usually used while
landing or performing maneuvers which take the aircraft close to the stall, but are usually
retracted in normal flight to minimize drag.
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Spoilers
A spoiler (sometimes called a lift dumper) is a small, hinged plate on the top portion of awing intended to reduceliftin an aircraft. Spoilers are used to disrupt or "spoil" the flow of
air over a section of a wing.By doing so, the spoiler creates a controlledstallover the portion
of the wing, greatly reducing the lift of that wing section.
When the pilot activates the spoiler, the plate flips up into the air stream. On this figure, the
airplane's right wing spoiler is deployed, while the left wing spoiler is stored flat against the
wing surface (as viewed from the rear of the airplane). The flow over the right wing will be
disturbed by the spoiler, the drag of this wing will be increased, and the lift will decreaserelative to the left wing. Because the forces are not equal, there is a net twist about the center
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of gravity in the direction of the larger force. The resulting motion will roll the aircraft to the
rightt (clockwise) as viewed from the rear. If the pilot reverses the spoiler deflections (right
spoiler flat and left spoiler up) the aircraft will roll in the opposite direction. We have chosen
to name the left wing and right wing based on a view from the back of the aircraft towards
the nose, because that is the direction in which the pilot is looking.
Spoilers differ fromairbrakes,in that airbrakes are designed to increase drag without regard
to affecting the lift, while spoilers reduce lift as well as increase drag.
Types of aircraft
Lighter than air aerostats
Fig. A hot airballoonin flight
Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water.
They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-
density gas such ashelium,hydrogen,orhot air,which is less dense than the surrounding air.
When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same
weight as the air that the craft displaces.
Aballoonwas originally any aerostat, while the termairshipwas used for large, powered
aircraft designsusually fixed-wing though none had yet been built. The advent of powered
balloons, Nowadays a "balloon" is an unpowered aerostat and an "airship" is a powered one.
Heavier-than-airaerodynes
Heavier-than-air aircraft, such asairplanes,must find some way to push air or gas
downwards, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft
upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term aerodyne. There
are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust:aerodynamic lift,andpowered liftin the form of
engine thrust.
Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in
the air by the forward movement of wings, androtorcraftby spinning wing-shaped rotors
sometimes called rotary wings. A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-
section as anaerofoil.To fly, air must flow over the wing and generatelift.Aflexible wingis
a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kiteis
tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be
flexible or rigid, fixed, or rotary.
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With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrustverticallydownward.V/STOLaircraft,
such as theHarrier Jump JetandF-35Btake off and land vertically using powered lift and
transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight.
A purerocketis not usually regarded as an aerodyne, because it does not depend on the air
for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been
powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift
at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case.
Fixed-wing
. The most important wing characteristics are:
Number of wingsMonoplane,biplane,etc.
Wing supportBraced or cantilever, rigid, or flexible.
Wing planformincluding aspect ratio, angle of sweep, and any variations along the
span (including the important class of delta wings).
Location of the horizontal stabilizer, if any.
Dihedral anglepositive, zero, or negative (anhedral).
A variable geometryaircraft can change its wing configuration during flight.
Aflying winghas no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this
is a lifting body, which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control
surfaces.
Wing-in-ground-effecttvehicles may be considered as fixed-wing aircraft. They "fly"efficiently close to the surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during
takeoff. An example is the Russian ekranoplan(nicknamed the "Caspian Sea
Monster"). Man-powered aircraftalso rely on ground effectto remain airborne with a
minimal pilot power, but this is only because they are so underpowered in fact, the
airframe is capable of flying higher.
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Rotorcraft
Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a rotary
wing) to provide lift. Types includehelicopters,autogyros,and various hybrids such
asgyrodynesand compound rotorcraft.
Helicoptershave a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to
create lift. By tilting the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producingthrust for forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors
turned by gas jets at the tips.
Autogyroshave unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is
tilted backward. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it
spin. This spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Rotor
kitesare unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a
static anchor in high-wind for kited flight.
Cyclogyrosrotate their wings about a horizontal axis.
Compound rotorcrafthave wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. They
are nowadays classified aspowered lifttypes and not as rotorcraft.Tiltrotoraircraft (such as
theV-22 Osprey),tiltwing,tailsitter,andcoleopteraircraft have their
rotors/propellershorizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight.
Wing Configurations
Fixed-wing aircraft can have different numbers of wings:
Monoplane:one wing plane. Since the 1930s most aeroplanes have been monoplanes.
The wing may be mounted at various positions relative to thefuselage:
Low wing:mounted near or below the bottom of the fuselage.
Mid wing:mounted approximately half way up the fuselage.
Shoulder wing:mounted on the upper part or "shoulder" of the fuselage, slightly
below the top of the fuselage. A shoulder wing is sometimes considered a sub-type of
high wing.
High wing:mounted on the upper fuselage. When contrasted to the shoulder wing,
applies to a wing mounted on a projection (such as the cabin roof) above the top of
the main fuselage.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_lifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_lifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_lifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailsitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailsitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailsitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20100627_Xenon2_Krakow_1328.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailsitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_lifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter -
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Parasol wing:raised clear above the top of the fuselage, typically bycabane struts,
pylon(s) or pedestal(s).
Low wing Mid wing Shoulder wing
High wing Parasol wing
A fixed-wing aircraft may have more than one wing plane, stacked one above another:
Biplane:two wing planes of similar size, stacked one above the other. The most common
configuration until the 1930s, when the monoplane took over. TheWright Flyer Iwas a
biplane.
Unequal-span biplane: a biplane in which one wing (usually the lower) is shorter
than the other, as on theCurtiss JN-4 Jennyof the First World War.
Sesquiplane: literally "one-and-a-half planes" is a type of biplane in which the lower
wing is significantly smaller than the upper wing, either in span or chord or both.
TheNieuport 17of WWI was notably successful.
Inverted sesquiplane: has a significantly smaller upper wing. TheFiat CR.1was inproduction for many years.
Biplane Unequal-span biplane Sesquiplane Inverted sesquiplane
Triplane:three planes stacked one above another. Triplanes such as theFokker
Dr.Ienjoyed a brief period of popularity during the First World War due to their
manoeuvrability, but were soon replaced by improved biplanes.
Quadruplane:four planes stacked one above another. A small number of theArmstrong
Whitworth F.K.10were built in the First World War but never saw service.
Multiplane:many planes, sometimes used to mean more than one or more than some
arbitrary number. The term is occasionally applied to arrangements stacked in tandem as
well as vertically. The 1907 Multiplane ofHoratio Frederick Phillipsflew successfully
with two hundred wing foils, while the nine-wingCaproni Ca.60flying boat was airbornebriefly before crashing.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasol_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasol_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabane_struthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabane_struthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabane_struthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyer_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyer_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyer_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_JN-4_Jennyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_JN-4_Jennyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_JN-4_Jennyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuport_17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuport_17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuport_17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_CR.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_CR.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_CR.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Frederick_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Frederick_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Frederick_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Frederick_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_CR.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuport_17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_JN-4_Jennyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyer_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabane_struthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasol_wing 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Triplane Quadruplane Multiplane
Aspect ratio
Theaspect ratiois the span divided by themeanor average chord.
Low aspect ratio: short and stubby wing. More efficient structurally and higherinstantaneous roll rate. They tend to be used by fighter aircraft, such as theLockheed
F-104 Starfighter,and by very high-speed aircraft (e.g.North American X-15).
Moderate aspect ratio: general-purpose wing (e.g. the LockheedP-80 ShootingStar).
High aspect ratio: long and slender wing. More efficient aerodynamically, havingless induced drag. They tend to be used by high-altitude subsonic aircraft (e.g.
theLockheed U-2), subsonic airliners (e.g. theBombardier Dash 8)and by high-
performance sailplanes (e.g.Glaser-Dirks DG-500).
Low aspect ratio Moderate aspect ratio High aspect ratio
MostVariable geometryconfigurations vary the aspect ratio in some way, either deliberately
or as a side effect.
Wing sweep
Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forwards, for a variety of reasons. A small degree
of sweep is sometimes used to adjust the centre of lift when the wing cannot be attached in
the ideal position for some reason, such as a pilot's visibility from the cockpit. Other uses are
described below.
Straight: extends at right angles to the line of flight. The most structurally-efficient wing,
it is common for low-speed designs, such as theP-80 Shooting Starandsailplanes.
Swept back(aka "swept wing"): The wing sweeps rearwards from the root to the tip. In
early tailless examples, such as theDunne aircraft,this allowed the outer wing section to
act like a conventionalempennage(tail) to provide aerodynamic stability.
Attransonicspeeds swept wings have lower drag, but can handle badly in or near a stall
and require high stiffness to avoid aeroelasticity at high speeds. Common on high-
subsonic and early supersonic designs e.g. theHawker Hunter.
Forward swept: the wing angles forward from the root. Benefits are similar to
backwards sweep, also it avoids the stall problems and has reduced tip losses allowing a
smaller wing, but requires even greater stiffness to avoid aeroelastic flutter as on
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Dash_8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Dash_8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Dash_8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaser-Dirks_DG-500http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaser-Dirks_DG-500http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaser-Dirks_DG-500http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_configuration#Variable_geometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_configuration#Variable_geometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_configuration#Variable_geometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Dunnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Dunnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Dunnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empennagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empennagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empennagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hunterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hunterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hunterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hunterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empennagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Dunnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_configuration#Variable_geometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaser-Dirks_DG-500http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Dash_8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio -
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the Sukhoi Su-47. The HFB-320 Hansa Jet used forward sweep to prevent the wing spar
passing through the cabin.
Straight SweptForward swept
The angle of sweep may also be varied, or cranked, along the span:
Crescent: wing outer section is swept less sharply than the inner section. Used for
the Handley Page Victor.
Cranked arrow: similar to a compound delta, but with the trailing edge also kinked
inwards. Trialled experimentally on the General Dynamics F-16XL M-wing: the inner wing section sweeps forward, and the outer section sweeps backwards.
Periodically studied, but never used on an aircraft.
W-wing: A reversed M-wing.
Crescent Cranked arrow M-wing W-wing
.
Dihedral:the tips are higher than the root as on theBoeing 737,giving a shallow 'V'
shape when seen from the front. Adds lateral stability.
Anhedral:the tips are lower than the root, as on theIlyushin Il-76;the opposite of
dihedral. Used to reduce stability where some other feature results in too much stability.
Some biplanes have different degrees of dihedral/anhedral on different wings; e.g.
theSopwith Camelhad a flat upper wing and dihedral on the lower wing, while theHanriot
HD-1had dihedral on the upper wing but none on the lower.
Dihedral AnhedralBiplane with
dihedral
on both wings
Biplane with dihedral
on lower wing
In a polyhedralwing the dihedral angle varies along the span.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_737http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_737http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_737http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)#Anhedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)#Anhedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopwith_Camelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopwith_Camelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopwith_Camelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanriot_HD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanriot_HD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanriot_HD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanriot_HD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanriot_HD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopwith_Camelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)#Anhedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_737http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft) 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Gull wing: sharp dihedral on the wing root section, little or none on the main section, as
on thePZL P.11fighter. Sometimes used to improve visibility forwards and upwards and
may be used as the upper wing on a biplane as on thePolikarpov I-153.
Inverted gull: Anhedral on the root section, dihedral on the main section. The opposite
of a gull wing. May be used to reduce the length of wing-mounted undercarriage legs or
allow a larger propeller. Two well-known examples of the inverted gull wing are WorldWar II's American F4U Corsair, and the German Junkers Ju 87 Stukadive bomber.
Cranked: tip section dihedral differs from the main section. The wingtips may crank
upwards as on the F-4 Phantom II or downwards as on the Northrop XP-56 Black Bullet
(Note that the term "cranked" varies in usage. Here, it is used to help clarify the
relationship between changes of dihedral nearer the wing tip vs. nearer the wing root. See
also Cranked arrowplanform.)
Gull wing Inverted gull wing Upward cranked tips Downward cranked tips
Blended bodyor blended wing-bodya smooth transition occurs between wing and
fuselage, with no hard dividing line. Blended wing body(BWB or Hybrid Wing Body,HWB[1])craft have no clear dividing line between the wings and the main body of the
craft. Reduces wetted area (entire surface exposed to airflow) and can also reduce
interference between airflow over the wing root and any adjacent body, in both cases
reducing drag. The Lockheed SR-71 spyplane exemplifies this approach.
Fig. Blended body
Twin boom layout
A twin-boom aircraftis characterised by twolongitudinalbooms (extendednacelle-like
bodies) fixed to its main wing on either side of itscentre line.The booms may contain
ancillary items such as fuel tanks and/or provide a supporting structure for external ancillary
items. Typically, twin tailbooms provide mounting points for one or more tail surfaces,
although on some types such as the Rutan Model 72 Grizzlythe booms run forward of the
main wing. The twin-boom configuration is distinct from twin-fuselagedesigns.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PZL_P.11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PZL_P.11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PZL_P.11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polikarpov_I-153http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polikarpov_I-153http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polikarpov_I-153http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blended_wing_body#cite_note-burl-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blended_wing_body#cite_note-burl-1http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Longitudinalhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Longitudinalhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Longitudinalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacellehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacellehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacellehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked_down.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_inverted_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked_down.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_inverted_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked_down.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_inverted_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked_down.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_inverted_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked_down.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_inverted_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacellehttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Longitudinalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blended_wing_body#cite_note-burl-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polikarpov_I-153http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PZL_P.11 -
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Fig: De Havilland Vampire
Canardrefers to an arrangement in which a small forewing or foreplane is placed ahead of
the main wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. The term "canard" may be used to describe the aircraft
itself, the wing configurationor the foreplane.
Stealth aircraft
Stealth aircraftare designed to avoid detection using a variety of advanced technologies that
reduce reflection/emission of radar infrared,visible light, radio-frequency (RF)spectrum, and
audio, collectively known as stealth technology. Development of stealth technology likely
began in Germany during World War II, the planned Horten Ho 229being described as the
first stealth aircraft. Well-known modern examples of stealth of U.S aircraft include the
United States' F-117 Nighthawk(19812008), the B-2 Spirit, the F-22 Raptor, and the F-35
Lightning II.
Stealth technologyalso termed LO technology(low observable technology) is a sub-
discipline of military tactics and passive electronic countermeasures, which cover a range
oftechniquesused with personnel, aircraft, ships, submarines, missilesand satellitesto make
them less visible (ideallyinvisible)to radar, infrared, sonarand other detection methods. It
corresponds to camouflagefor these parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
STOL aircraft
A short takeoff and landing(STOL) aircraft is anaircraftwith shortrunwayrequirements
fortakeoff and landing.Many STOL-designed aircraft also feature various arrangements foruse onrunwayswith harsh conditions (such ashigh altitudeor ice). STOL aircraft, including
those used in scheduled passenger airline operations, have also been operated fromSTOL
portairfields which feature short runways.
Eg. Zenith STOL CH 701
STOVL aircraft
A short take-off and vertical landing aircraft(STOVL aircraft) is a fixed-wing
aircraftthat is able totake offfrom a short runway (or take off vertically if it does not have a
heavy payload) andlandvertically (i.e. with no runway).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoff_and_landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoff_and_landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoff_and_landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_altitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_altitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_altitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_altitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoff_and_landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology -
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Eg.VTOLjet aircraft (such as theHarrier jump-jet)andtiltrotors(such as theV-22
Osprey), among others.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrier_jump-jethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrier_jump-jethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrier_jump-jethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrier_jump-jethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOL