ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF RAPID URBANIZATION AND … · ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF RAPID URBANIZATION...
150
2 4 4 8 9 E N ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF RAPID URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: WATER RESOURCES IN THE URBAN CONTEXT May 15, 1989 NCf. Prepared for the Bureau for Asia and the Near East, U.S. Agency for International Development under WASH Task No. 019
Transcript of ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF RAPID URBANIZATION AND … · ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF RAPID URBANIZATION...
2 4 4
8 9 E N
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OFRAPID URBANIZATION
AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:WATER RESOURCES IN THE URBAN CONTEXT
May 15, 1989
NCf.
Prepared for the Bureau for Asia and the Near East,U.S. Agency for International Development
under WASH Task No. 019
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OFRAPID URBANIZATION
AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:WATER RESOURCES IN THE URBAN CONTEXT
May 15, 1989
by
Carol Lurie, Camp Dresser & McKee Inc.and
David Laredo, Camp Dresser & McKee International
Prepared in support of the development of theEnvironmental and Natural Resources Management Strategy,
U.S. Agency for International Development,Bureau for Asia and the Near East
Under WASH Task No. 019
Water and Sanitation for Health ProjectContract No. 5942-C-(XM085-00, Project No. 936-5942
is sponsored by the Office of Health, Bureau for Science and TechnologyU.S. Agency for International Development
Washington, DC 20523
CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
ACRONYMS vACKNOWLEDGMENTS viiEXECUTIVE SUMMARY ix
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Scope of the Paper 1Magnitude of the Problem 3Outline of Paper 8
II. INTERSECTORAL ASPECTS OF WATER RESOURCES, RAPIDURBANIZATION, AND INDUSTRIAL GROWTH 11
Sector Linkages 11a. Housing 11b. Infrastructure - Water supply, sanitation, and
solid waste disposal 13c. Industry 14d. Agriculture 15e. Health 15
Conclusion 15
III. INDICATORS FOR ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF RAPIDURBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIAL GROWTH ON THE URBANENVIRONMENT 17
Urban/Demographic Indicators 17Economic Indicators 19Social Indicators 19Environmental Indicators 21Data Sources 22
a. A.I.D. (ANE Bureau, Office of Housing andUrban Programs, WASH) 22
b. World Resources Institute (WRI) 22c. World Bank 22d. United Nations and World Health Organization . 23e. Local institutions 23
Data Collection Methodology and Maintenance Needs . . . 2 3Areas for Future Research 24
11
CONTENTS (continued)
CHAPTER Page
IV. COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE 27
Typology of Urbanization 27City Profiles 30
a. Characteristics compared 30Urban Form . 32Housing, Health, and Quality of Life . . 32Environmental Implications 32Urban Management Response 37
b. Case studies 37Cairo, Egypt 37Metropolitan Manila, Philippines . . . . 40Colombo, Sri Lanka 41Jakarta, Indonesia 41Dhaka, Bangladesh 4 3Bangkok, Thailand 44Madras, India 45Karachi, Pakistan 45
Policy Implications 46
V. COUNTRY POLICIES AND APPROACHES TO RAPID URBANIZATIONAND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 49
National Approaches and Policies 49a. National spatial policies 49b. Industrial location policies 51c. National urbanization policies 51d. Environmental policies 51e. Water supply and sanitation policies 52f. Housing strategies 52
Government Expenditures 52Urban/Metropolitan Management Strategies andApproaches 55
a. Sectoral responses 55b. Multisectoral approach . 56c. Alternative responses 56
Conclusions 56
VI. MAJOR DONOR ASSISTANCE EFFORTS 59
U.S. Agency for International Development 59Multilateral Assistance 61
a. United Nations Agencies 61b. World Bank 65c. Asian Development Bank 66d. Other bilateral assistance 66
Ill
CONTENTS (continued)
CHAPTER Page
VII. OPTIONS AND APPROACHES FOR A.I.D 67
Policy Framework 67a. Cross-sectoral linkages 67b. Technical assistance and leveraged
investments 67c. Environmental aspects of program/project
formulation 68Specific Approaches 70
a. Infrastructure development 70b. Institutional development 70c. Human resource development 71d. Land use and housing as a lever for
balanced urban development 72e. Support of private sector and nongovernmental
initiatives 73f. Decentralized operations/community
involvement 73g. Direct help programs 74
VIII. PRIORITIES FOR A.I.D. PROGRAMMING 75
A.I.D. Program Examination 75Program Financing 7 6Program Priorities and Characteristics 77
a. Priorities 77b. Program characteristics 78
Priority Countries 78Conclusions 79
REFERENCES 81
APPENDICES
A. Summary Table of Indicators 91B. Maps of Case Study Cities 103C. National Approaches to Environmental Protection and
the Urban Sector 113
IV
TABLES AND FIGURES
TABLES Page
1. Urban Population Growth in the Asia Near East Region . 42. Cities and Metropolitan Areas with Populations over 10
Million - 1950, 1975, and 2000 . 63 Indicators, Uses and Data Sources 184. Ranking of ANE Countries by Income 285. Climatic Regions 296. Urbanization Patterns/Typology of Cities 317. Urban Form of Selected Cities 338. Housing, Health and Quality of Life 359. Environmental Outline of Selected Cities 3810. Selected Country Approaches to Environmental
Protection, Urban Sector, and Industrial Location . . . 5011. Total National Expenditures on Housing, Health,
Economic Services and Education - 1986 5312. Urban-Related Programs by International Assistance
Agencies 6013. USAID Asia/Near East Funding - Ranked by Total
Support . 6214. Bureau for Asia and Near East - Summary of Funding . . 63
FIGURES
1. Map of Asia Near East Region 22. Urban Population Growth in Selected ANE Countries . . . 53. Percentage of Population Living Below the Absolute
Poverty Level in Selected ANE Countries 74. Urban Population and Workforce in
Industry/Services, 1980 95. Sectoral Linkages 126. Increase in Urban Population and the Workforce in
Industry/Services, 1965-1980 207. Urban-Related Government Expenditures on Housing,
Health, Economic, and Education 54
ACRONYMS
ADB Asian Development Bank
A.I.D. Agency for International Development
ANE Bureau for Asia and the Near East
BMA Bangkok Metropolitan Administration
BMR Bombay Metropolitan Region
CMDA Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority
CPHEEO Central Public Health Engineering and EnvironmentOrganization (India)
GEMS Global Environment Monitoring System
GNP Gross National Product
HABITAT United Nations Center for Human Settlements
JABOTABEK Jakarta, Bogor, Tangra, and Bekasi
MHR Ministry of Housing and Reconstruction (Egypt)
MLGCD Ministry of Local Governments and Community Development(Philippines)
MMC Metro Manila Commission
MMDA Madras Metropolitan Development Authority
MOH Ministry of Health
MOPE Ministry for Population and Environment (Indonesia)
MWWA Metropolitan Water Works Authority (Thailand)
NCEPC National Committee on Environmental Planning andCoordination (India)
NEB National Environment Board (Philippines)
NEDA National Economic and Development Authority(Philippines)
NEPC National Economic Protection Council (Philippines)
vi
NGO Nongovernmental Organization
NPCC National Pollution Control Commission (Philippines)
OCP Office of the Commissioner for Planning (Philippines)
PVO Private Voluntary Organization
UN United Nations
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
WASH Water and Sanitation for Health Project
WRI World Resources Institute
Vll
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper was written under the general direction of FrederickS. Mattson, Task Manager for the WASH Project's contribution toA.I.D.'s Asia and Near East issue papers project. Many peoplecontributed to the effort with ideas and constructive criticism.Special recognition and gratitude are extended to Dr. Daniel A.Okun, who reviewed the many drafts and gave important suggestionsand guidance to the authors.
WASH and the authors wish to thank the World Resources Institutestaff, especially Dan Tunstall, for their assistance with theproject and Molly Kux and Robert F. Ichord, Jr., of A.I.D.'s Asiaand Near East Bureau.
ix
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
OVERVIEW
This paper is one of a series commissioned by A.I.D.'sBureau for Asia and the Near East (ANE) for its use in developingits Environment and Natural Resources Management Strategy. Assuch, it assesses the environmental effects of rapid urbanizationand industrial development in the 15 countries that fall withinthe purview of ANE: Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Jordan, Yemen ArabRepublic (A.R.)/ Oman, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Burma, Bangladesh,Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Thesecountries are greatly diverse in geographic location andpopulation growth, but they have all experienced rapidurbanization and industrial growth over the past 20 years.
Between 1950 and the year 2000 the population in the ANEcountries is expected to triple, from 600 million to 1.8 billion.During the same period, the urban population is expected toincrease sixfold, from about 100 million to more than 600million. The urban population explosion can be attributed tonatural increases in the large urban populations and migrationfrom rural areas to take advantage of the greater employmentopportunities offered in urban areas. An extremely importantproblem caused by urban growth is the rapid increase in thenumber of poverty-stricken urban households. Urban poverty veryoften causes greater hardships than rural poverty, and thecomplex urban situation makes it almost impossible for servicesto be provided without government intervention.
The rapidly changing urban situation has had a detrimentaleffect on the environment of almost every city in the ANE region.Deterioration of water quality has had serious impacts on healthand the overall quality of life for urban dwellers and workers.Air pollution has reached critical proportions in many Asiancities, and industrial and hazardous wastes are being disposed ofindiscriminately, with resultant environmental and public healthconsequences.
Environmental degradation is of concern in the dense urbancore, as well as in the rapidly expanding peri-urban areas in ANEcities. Dense housing of substandard condition, unsuitable landuse arrangements, and municipal and industrial waste disposal allcontribute to a critical need for action to alleviate or addressenvironmental and natural resource protection. Water shortageshave occurred; inadequate wastewater collection has resulted indeplorable sanitary conditions; municipal and industrial wasteshave polluted watercourses; development on fragile lands has madethem prone to excessive flood damage; the overextraction ofgroundwater has caused land subsidence; industrial and vehicular
emissions pollute the air. Public health levels are very low,and the urban poor who are concentrated in densely populatedperi-urban enclaves tend to suffer the most from the degradedenvironment.
This paper focuses on water-related environmental issues.This is not to deemphasize the crucial environmental problemsassociated with air quality and industrial and hazardous wastes.Water is life, however, and one of the key elements on whichurban living relies.
INTERSECTORAL PERSPECTIVE
Water is the natural resource that is central to sustainabledevelopment and, thus, it has broad cross-sectoral relevance.Water resources provide a direct link to all development sectorsand to the sectors that make up the sphere of urban development.The linkages work in both directions—urbanization has impacts onwater and other resources, and those resources play a major rolein influencing urbanization and industrial growth.
Development interventions in any sector—housing, physicalinfrastructure, health, industry, or agriculture—affect waterresources. In the rapidly developing urban environments, theripple effects of poor sectoral programming on water and theenvironment are dramatic. The impact of a compromised watersupply will be felt by individuals as a loss in the quality oflife and by industry and commerce as a degraded input in theproduction process. Decreased health and well-being will in turnhave negative repercussions on productivity. Thus, developmentthat does not protect urban water resources ultimately willforestall economic growth and undermine efforts to achieve theelusive goal of a healthful and sustainable urban environment.
Typically, provision of water supply has preceded provisionof adequate sanitation in the ANE region. Sewerage has seriouslylagged water supply, often diminishing the intended benefits forhealth and quality of life associated with safe drinking water.Sanitation's relevance to water resources and, thus, to thispaper is that proper disposal of wastewater is a major factor inpreventing degradation of the environment and public health, inand outside the cities.
INDICATORS
A major objective of this paper is to present a set ofstrategic indicators for use as guides in formulating urbanpolicy and programs and in monitoring program status. Four
XI
categories of ̂ indicators yere developed based on available data:urban/demographic, economic, social, and environmental. Theindicators included within each of the four categories, uses ofthe information, and potential data sources are summarized inTable l. A number of the indicators are quantified for the ANEcountries in Appendix A.
For most of the ANE countries, a great deal of informationis available or the framework is in place to collect the dataneeded for the indicators. The problem with much of these data isthat they are not ordinarily comparable between countries, orthey are not at the appropriate level of detail for use in makingpolicy decisions regarding urban planning and/or naturalresources. (See Section III for a detailed discussion of theindicators, data sources, and data needs.)
NATIONAL POLICIES AND APPROACHES
Many varied patterns of urban development and environmentalpolicy have been adopted by central governments and various cityand regional entities in the ANE countries (see summary in Table2). Success has been varied, but in general, the urbanenvironmental policies adopted were weak and noncomprehensive,and funding for implementation, monitoring, and regulatorycontrol was low.
In most of the ANE countries, responsibilities for urbandevelopment are badly fragmented among many ministries andagencies. These responsibilities are generally based on laws andregulations that are concerned with parts of problems and thatprevent actions based on comprehensive, long-term considerations.Further, there is very poor coordination among agencies orsectors.
The institutions involved in urban development andmanagement of the environment are in dire need of strengtheningso that comprehensive urban management, including land usepolicy, water resource and supply management, spatial planning,public health policy, and pollution control can be developed andimplemented. Further, heightened environmental awareness must beincorporated and integrated into planning at all levels so thatboth direct and indirect impacts can be identified and addressed.This awareness must be developed both in U.S. funding agenciesand in the ministries and agencies of countries in Asia and theNear East.
x i iTable 1: Indicators, Uses and Data Sources
Type of Data Indicator
Urban/Demographic
Economic
Social
Environmental
• % urban population
• growth rale of urbanpopulation
• absolute number ofurban dwellers
• physical distribution ofpopulation in urban center?
• growth of cities
• Gross National Productper capita
• % labor force in servicesand industry
• poverty levels (ruial/uiban)
• health data such as infantmortality rales, incidence ofwateibome diseases,respiratory diseases, lifeexpectancy
• coverage of infrastructure -wateT, sewers, solid waste
• urban waste generation rates• housing conditions• housing densities
* high-rise/multi-storybuilding types
• location of urban developmentin relation to water resources
• water quality
• land use patterns
Sources: Based on readily available data
Uses of Information
• assesses importance ofurban sector
• indicates scale and magnitudeof urban growth
• identifies potential futureproblem areas
• serves as basis on whichto assess demands forinfrastructure, housing & jobs
• determines appropriateallocation of resources(primary cities or secondary)
• indicator of magnitude ofproblem
• correlates with % urbanized;shows strength of urban areain national economy
• correlates with level ofurbanization, could be basisfor industrial location policy
• increasing industrializationcould have environmentalimpacts
• indicates ability to payfor services
• shows relative attractivenessof urban areas
• symptom of environmentalconditions
• indicates of availability ofsafe drinking water, wastedisposal and treatment, orsanitation
• indicates environmentalconditions
• determines quality of life• measures of population
pressure on land and waterresources
• measures of scarcity of urbanland and high land values
• indentifies marginal areas -possible future problem areas
• indicates success of wastedisposal and treatment, manage-ment of water resources
• identifies possible problemareas such as residentialadjacent to industry
Examples of DataSources
• secondary data such ascensus, international donoragencies
-local planning ministries-World Bank, United
Nations, US A.I.D.• universities and
institutions-HABITAT-data on
human settlements
- secondary data such ascensus, international donoragencies
-World Bank, UnitedNations, US A.I.D.
• universities andinstitutions
- World DevelopmentReport
-World Bank- World HealthOrganization
- Water Supply andSanitation Decade data
- Water Supply andSanitation Decade data
-HABITAT- local ministries andagencies
- field observations- case studies of cities ifavailable
- GEMS, INFOTERRA- urban planning agencies- international donor
agencies, missions, localoffices
Summary Tablein Appendix
Al
Al
Al
A2
A2a
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
AS
Table 2: Selected Country Approaches to Environmental Protection, Urban Sector and Industrial Location
Country National Industrial NationalSpatial Location UrbanizationPolicy Policy Policy
Morocco
Jordan
Sri Lanka
Bangladesh
Pakistan
Egypt E
India E
Nepal
Yemen A.R.
Thailand L
Philippines E E
Indonesia E E
E - Exists (success unknown)L - Limited Success in ImplementationBlank - Denotes no policy or unavailability of data
EnvironmentalRegulations/
Policy
E
E
E
E
L
E
L
E
L
E
E
Water andSanitation
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
HazardousWaste
E
E
E
Health
E
E
E
E
E
E
Housing
E
E
E
E
Comments
Presence of water determines spatial policy
Uncoordinated urban development
Environmental policy not well implemented
Environmental policy in place but not integrated
Spatial policy focused on decentralization
Industrial development not permitted in 5 largest cities
National conservation strategy - not linked to urban areas
Law based on Islamic principles
Decentralization policy ineffective
Spatial policies focus on growth centers
Extensive environmental regulations
XIV
COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE
In an attempt to delineate general urban characteristicsacross the ANE countries, a detailed comparative analysis ofeight cities was prepared based on the following framework:
• Urban form, which identifies the city's profile—high-rise or sprawling, its role in the nationalor regional economy, and the anticipatedpopulation growth.
• The quality of life in the city consideringhousing, health, coverage of water, propersanitation, and municipal solid waste disposalservices.
. The environmental characteristics of the city.
• Management responses and/or governmental organiza-tion in reaction to rapid urbanization.
The comparative analysis indicates that the roost significantproblems across the ANE countries are the following:
• Lack of adequate water supply, sanitation, solidwaste disposal, and drainage. The lack of theseservices is the most critical factor contributingto the degradation of the environment and thequality of life of urban inhabitants.
• Urban land use is driven by high-density develop-ment necessitated by the unavailability of land.This development pattern has had a deleteriousimpact on the environment and has causedincremental destruction of natural resources.
• The response by central and provincial governmentsto the problems of urbanization has generally beenthe piecemeal creation of authorities or organiza-tions with fragmented responsibilities and veryshort-term objectives. Support for these organiza-tions by the central or provincial governmentsoften wanes soon after their creation and theweakened organizations in turn have tended tofocus only on single sectors.
Several policy implications follow from the comparative analyses:
• The ANE countries require stronger, comprehensivepolicy frameworks that contain strongenvironmental components.
XV
Urban policies and programs must focus onstrengthening the management processes within andbetween local and national organizations so thaturban development activities can be carried outbased on long-term objectives that address themultisectoral needs of large metropolitanagglomerations.
Urban government institutions must be upgraded sothey can readily identify problems accompanyingrapid urbanization and industrial growth. Urbandatabases should be developed to provide urgentlyneeded information on the dimensions of urbanproblems and steps being taken to resolve thoseproblems.
Environmental impact cannot be consideredincrementally. Policies and strategies must becomprehensive and fully recognize sectorallinkages.
Urban governments1 highest priorities in terms ofservice provision to mitigate environmentaldegradation should be wastewater collection, watersupply, and solid waste collection and disposal.
MAJOR DONOR ASSISTANCE IN THE URBAN SECTOR
Donor assistance in the urban sector has been primarilydirected toward physical infrastructure, physical planning(including spatial planning), and urban administration andfinance. Environmental issues, if they have been dealt with atall, have usually been part of other programs or sectorstrategies.
A.I.D.
A.I.D.'s efforts for the past 15 years have focused onprojects in rural areas and have largely involved technicalassistance. There have been some notable capital-intensive urbaninterventions, however, mainly in Egypt.
Many of A.I.D.'s programs serve urban populationsindirectly, for example, through health and economic developmentprojects. Environmental factors are considered by evaluating thepotential environmental effects of particular projects ratherthan through specific interventions.
XVI
Several A.I.D. program mechanisms can be used to providedirect assistance to urban areas:
• Direct assistance for provision of urbaninfrastructure, to the benefit of the urban poor.
• Housing guarantee programs (Office of Housing andUrban Programs), which provide credit guaranteesto finance upgrading of infrastructure services inlow-income settlements, development of servicedland sites, municipal management, and finance andland management.
• Economic support and development activities.
• Social service projects in the health, nutrition,population, and educational sectors.
The level of A.I.D. support for the ANE countries varies greatly.Table 3 summarizes A.I.D. funding for different sectors in theANE countries and provides examples of projects and programs. Thetable illustrates, except for Egypt, the rural focus andtechnical assistance nature of ANE's programs.
A.I.D.'s program of housing guarantees in the ANE region forFY 1990 is about $100 million. This program is A.I.D.'s mostpowerful tool for urban development; it provides for millions ofdollars of housing and infrastructure credits at little actualcost to A.I.D. The housing programs supported provide allutilities and other urban services.
Other Assistance
The World Bank's worldwide program in urban development isby far the largest urban program in terms of dollar volume. It isexpected to reach several billion dollars in FY 1990. OtherUnited Nations agencies and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) alsoprovide urban sector assistance, mainly technical assistance.However, the ADB's capital investment projects are growing. Othermajor donors providing bilateral urban development assistance toANE countries, primarily infrastructure development and housing,include the governments of Great Britain, the Netherlands, WestGermany, Canada, Japan, and the Scandinavian countries.
The Government of Japan has become a major donor of foreignassistance over the past few years. Japan's annual worldwideforeign aid budget for FY 1990 is projected to be the largest ofany bilateral aid budget.
Table 3: Bureau for Asia and Near East - Summary of Funding(US (millions)*
Country
Near East:Morocco
1987
198819891990
Timi aI a1 UIU5MI
1987198819891990
Egypt1987198819891990
JOTOSH1987198819891990
Vf-nvn A R198719881989ioon
1987198819891990
Asia:Pakistan
19871988
India1987
198819891990
Total
28.4
32.53Z527.5
17.510.911.312.5
820.0718.0930.0815.0
111.018.115.035.0
23.322.121.0*\ 1 |£1.1
15.013.015.020.0
275.5384.0*>£C A
57.6
23.724.025.0
Health
0.71.0
0.3
4.1
2.91.01 ftl . U
5.0
Jt\J1 ft1 >O
8.0
10.27.07.8
Education/Human
Resources
1.2
9.18.36.6ft Q
n fti J.U1& ft1O>U
0.50.4
SelectedDevelopment
Activities
1.4
0.0
6.2
3.73.35.5
EconomicSupport
Fund
10.020.020.015.0
820.0718.0930.0815.0
111.018.115.035.0
15.013.015.020.0
250.5334.0
£> i J A)?^fi nXJU.U
Other**
15.812.511.811.6
17.210.911.312.5
0.00.00.00.0
25.00.00.00.0
10.110.913.41 1 *51 Ki
0.00.00.00.0
20.050.0
•
43.49.813.211.4
Examples of Projects withUrban Components
Health management improvementAnhi low income housingTetouan Urban DevelopmentWatershed management
Technology transferSmall project assistanceImproved water resources managementScience and technology
Cairo/Alexandria wastewater system expansionIndustrial productionProvincial citiesWater/waste water institutional development
Low cost housing support (1988)Water systems and services managementIndustrial developmentZarqua Ruseif a water and wastewater
Tihama Primary Health CareYemen enterprise supportBasic educational development
Water resources developmentSchool construction
Institutional excellenceDevelopment support training
Development and management trainingAdvancement of commercial technologyPVOs for healthTechnical assistance and support/housing finance
(continued)
Table 3: Bureau for Asia and Near East(US Sm ill ions)*
Summary or Funding / cont
Country
AsiaBangladesh
1987198819891990
Sri Lanka1987198819891990
Nepal1987198S19891990
Banna1987198S19891990
Thailand1987198S19891990
Philippines1987198S19891990
IfluOTtCSlS1987198819891990
Total
84.259.361.355.0
23.526.826.818.0
15.012.512.012.0
8.05.1
21.521.918.6\9.S
237.070.0338.0415.0
85.840.542.043.0
Health
2.01.52.02.3
0.3
3.41.31.51.3
1.5
0.3
4.93.41.33.3
7.29.73.98.6
Education/Human
Resources
3.04.30.22.3
1.00.80.51.2
1.01.5
1.30.41.22.8
3.66.04.42.9
SelectedDevelopment
Activities
1.51.52.51.9
1.44.05.24.6
0.0
3.41.44.5
4.07.63.07.1
EconomicSupport
Fund
235.015.0
298.0160.0
Other**
77.752.056.748.5
21.922.821.613.4
10.610.410.09.5
5.53.60.00.0
21.221.9IS f.
19.5
-4.247.836.2
244.4
71.017.230.724.4
Examples of Projects withUrban Components
Urban volunteer programLocal government infrastructure and serviceEnterprise development
Water supply and sanitation sectorNatural resources and environmental policyRehabitiation assistancePrivate sector policy support
Resource conservation and utilizationPVO co-financing
Emerging problems of developmentScience and technology for developmentrVrfvttraKxHl devpAan IIW it mflnaoru IWJ it
Municipal development fundShelter sector program
Local government lmpiovemeiitBarangay water supply
Local government trainingFinancial institutions developmentHealth sector financingMunicipal finance
* This summary does not include full repotting of Housing Guarantee loans provided by the Office of Housing and Urban Development(For example, . ordan received 535 million in Housing Guarantee loans for land policy change and housing for low income groups.Large HG programs for India, Indonesia and Sri Lanka are not reflected.)
**"Other "includes: Agriculture, rural development, nutrition, population planning, child survival, and AIDS
Source: US A ID. Congressional Presentation Fiscal Year 1990, Annex II - Asia and Near East
<!
XIX
OPTIONS AND APPROACHES FOR A.I.D.
Policy Framework
A.I.D. must develop policy that will guide its urban programactivities. Options and approaches for policy formulation must bebased on consideration of the following elements:
• The cross-sectoral nature of environmental policy,
• Resource constraints, which may limit A.I.D.'scontribution to technical assistance, and
• The need to include detailed environmentalanalyses as an integral component of all projectsand programs in A.I.D.'s assistance portfolio.
The most critical element concerns funding.
Technical Assistance and Capital Investments
The ANE countries will require enormous investments over thenext 10 to 20 years for rehabilitation and/or provision ofphysical infrastructure, including housing, in urban areas. IfA.I.D. practices remain unchanged from those of the past decade,however, it is doubtful that many A.I.D.-sponsored, capital-intensive interventions will be implemented in the ANE regionover the next several years. Thus, A.I.D.'s options for policyand programming may be limited to the provision of technicalassistance. Such low levels of funding may, in fact, force A.I.D.to take a subsidiary role in the ANE urban sector.
A.I.D.'s most significant urban development interventionappears to be its program of housing loan guarantees. Thisprogram offers A.I.D. two options for providing high levels ofcapital for urban development: (1) increase the total programsize or (2) expand on the housing guarantee concept to encompassloans to finance general urban development projects. Suchguarantees could provide funds for "seed" money for locallyfunded projects, credit at beneficial interest rates, andcontributions to national or regional development banks.
XX
SPECIFIC APPROACHES
Infrastructure Development
For A.I.D. to be a major donor in urban development,interventions will be necessary to provide the neededinfrastructure for basic services, especially urban wastewatercollection and treatment. Such interventions would be a majorpolicy shift for A.I.D.
Institutional and Human Resource Development
Weak institutions abound in almost all sectors of the ANEcountries. For urban and environmental programs to be implementedand sustained, capable governmental and other institutions mustexist. Thus, A.I.D.'s basic strategy should include strengtheninghost country capabilities to develop and manage urban governmentand service delivery programs. When selecting programs andprojects, A.I.D. should give priority to those that contribute toand are supportive of developing urban and environmentalinstitutional capabilities.
The development of human resources is closely aligned withinstitutional development. Although human resource needs varyacross the ANE region, the general level of need is very high.Training and educational systems oriented toward comprehensiveurban management and environmental and resource management standout as priority needs. ANE countries require enormous help intraining personnel and institutionalizing the personnel andsupport systems needed for effective performance. These arepotentially key areas for A.I.D. intervention, and possibilitiesto provide these interventions should routinely be evaluated aselements of all A.I.D. programs and projects.
Land Use and Housing
Assistance in land use planning and housing will helpprovide services to maintain the urban populace and bolster theenvironmental quality of urban areas. Thus, A.I.D.'s assistancein these areas will enable it to be involved at the most basiclevels of urban and national planning and development.
Support of Private Sector and NGO Initiatives
A.I.D.'s support of initiatives by the private sector and/ornongovernmental organizations (NGOs) could produce benefits onseveral fronts. An obvious benefit is that the initiatives arelocally conceived in reaction to obvious needs. Thus, they should
XXI
have a high probability of success. Second, pressure on thecentral government to provide the services would be relieved orlessened. Further, because the service is being provided throughthe private sector, a high degree of cost recovery can beexpected.
Private sector initiatives that A.I.D. could support in theANE countries include the following: provision of water supplyand/or wastewater disposal, provision of solid waste collectionand disposal, housing development, roadway and drainagemaintenance, and general construction services. This list couldbe expanded depending on the investments available and thecharacteristics of private sector services in a particularcountry.
PRIORITIES FOR A.I.D. PROGRAMMING
A.I.D. Program Examination
If A.I.D. is to have a prominent program in urbandevelopment, it will have to refocus its efforts and activitiesto provide a more balanced approach between rural and urbanprograms. Further, A.I.D. may have to provide assistance inprojects requiring large capital investments.
A.I.D.'s first priority should be to revise its proceduresto reflect the more balanced approach. The initial component ofthis effort would include a review of existing A.I.D. policy,programs, and activities to achieve the following objectives:
• Identify policy or statutes that work againstA.I.D.'s providing a balanced urban-ruralprogramming approach.
• Determine which projects or programs contain urbancomponents and cross-sectoral environmentalelements and whether they should and could beexpanded.
• Determine possible areas of cooperation amongA.I.D. groups (bureaus, missions, and the Officeof Housing and Urban Programs) and between A.I.D.and other bilateral donors and multilateraldevelopment banks. Opportunities for cooperation,especially those that involve co-financing, shouldbe incorporated into future A.I.D. programdevelopment planning.
xxii
The greatest need in all ANE countries is for the provision ofbasic services—primarily urban wastewater collection andtreatment, followed by provision of facilities for water supplyand solid waste services. Such capital-intensive needs pose abasic problem for A.I.D. For many years A.I.D.'s program levelshave been restrained by a policy of supporting only noncapital-intensive projects. There is little evidence that A.I.D. willhave greater budgets with which to furnish any large amounts ofcapital. If this is the case, A.I.D.'s urban programs may be outof step with the concerns and physical needs of many countries inthe ANE region. Providing little or low levels of capitalinvestments may relegate A.I.D.'s assistance to a minor role inANE urban sectors. If this is the case, policy must recognizethis fact. If not, cooperation with bilateral and multilateralagencies should become a cornerstone of A.I.D.'s approach tomanaging natural and environmental resources.
A.I.D. could decide, however, to provide capital assistanceselectively. The following steps are recommended to implementthat course:
• Examine the portfolio of existing and proposedprojects to determine the feasibility and applica-bility of expanding the concept of housingguarantees to help finance other types ofprojects.
• Examine the housing guarantee programs for FY 1990to determine if they can be expanded to providefurther comprehensive urban development assistanceas part of the shelter-upgrading portfolio ofprojects.
• Determine how programs in ANE countries could beexpanded if various cost-recovery mechanisms werebuilt into the programs. Consideration needs tobe given to the tax base for investment and thethrift rate for recovery. Although few utilitiesin water and sanitation are totally unsubsidizedor financially self-sufficient, components couldbe cost recoverable, and, hence supportive of theservice.
• Determine how various programs could be expandedif private or commercial sector firms wereutilized to provide the services and/or financingnecessary while cost-recovery systems are beingimplemented.
XX111
• Determine the potential of marshalling the supportof the private or commercial sector to bolsterA.I.D. activities by providing services, financing(thus, perhaps, gaining an equity position in theventure), or private loan guarantees for variousprojects.
PROGRAM PRIORITIES
ANE Bureau priorities in terms of program content should beprojects that will enable countries to provide sustainable basicservices to the urban poor. Such programs will provide physicalinfrastructure coupled with help to institutions (public andprivate sector) so they can provide high-quality, sustainableservices. Such projects are obviously popular in host countriesand A.I.D. may be able to provide them, especially if capitalinvestments can be provided.
If added capital assistance is not forthcoming, it isimperative that A.I.D. cooperate with other donors providing suchsupport so that technical assistance programs are acceptable tothe host countries and have a leveraging effect on the overallprogram.
Based on the conclusion that A.I.D. cannot be a majorprovider of investment funds for urban infrastructure andservices, it is vital that collaborative and co-financing effortswith other bilateral donors and multilateral funding institutionsbecome the focus of future efforts. In-roads to this approachare already evident as part of the activities of theInternational Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, wherein donorshave been meeting to develop joint approaches and programs.
The development of common strategies on which collaborativeactivities can be built, as well as the identification ofspecific projects for cooperation and co-financing, should be thefocus of A.I.D. program priorities in environmental and naturalresource protection in the future. The next level of priorityshould be programs that foster the development of comprehensiveurban and environmental policy (from national policydetermination to zoning and land use planning at the locallevels).
XXIV
Priority Program Recommendations
It is extremely difficult to establish priorities among ANEprograms or countries. Some technical criteria A.I.D. couldconsider in making the choices regarding urban program prioritiesinclude the following:
• Existence of national urban and/or environmentalpolicy,
• Severity of need or level of environmentaldegradation,
• Program priority as evidenced by inclusion innational plans,
• Urban needs, in terms of basic services—watersupply, wastewater, and solid wastes—and the unitcost of responding to those needs, specifically inrelation to the urban poor,
• History of positive implementation of programs,
• Existence of an institution that can implement theprogram and assume clear-cut, comprehensiveresponsibility for providing the service,
• Potential of the program to be sustained, at leastin part, with local financing, private sectorinvolvement, or through a local NGO, and
• Potential of the program to be implemented throughco-financing of several donors or multilaterallending institutions.
These recommendations, implemented in cooperation with otherbilateral donors and multilateral lending institutions operatingin the region, would provide a basis for beginning to addresscritical environmental challenges now and in the future.
I. INTRODUCTION
Scope of the Paper
This paper assesses the environmental effects of rapidurbanization and industrial development in the 15 countries thatfall within the purview of A.I.D.'s Bureau for Asia and the NearEast (ANE): Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Jordan, Yemen Arab Republic(A.R.), Oman, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Burma, Bangladesh, SriLanka, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines (Figure 1).These countries are highly diverse: climate and topography rangefrom tropical in Pakistan and Bangladesh to arid in Morocco andYemen A.R., and from coastal in the Philippines and Indonesia tomountainous in Nepal and India. The national levels of urbanpopulation range from 7 percent in Nepal to 56 percent inTunisia. The urban population in India is more than four timesthe total population of Egypt.
This paper is one of a series commissioned by the ANE Bureaufor its use in developing an environmental and natural resourcesmanagement strategy for the region. The focus of the paper isthe effects of rapid urbanization and industrial growth on waterresources in urban areas and on the greater environment. Otherpapers focus on industrial and hazardous wastes and energy.
Rapid urbanization and industrial growth are detrimentallyaffecting water resources (both quantity and quality), air, land,and soil, as well as ecological habitats. Although theprotection of all of these resources is critical and the resultsof their degradation detract from the quality of life in urbanareas, this paper focuses on water resources because water is thenatural resource that is central to sustainable development and,thus, has broad cross-sectoral relevance.
The ANE Bureau's draft strategy suggests that "watershortages may be the emerging critical concern of the next 2 0years in many of the ANE countries."1* In a United Nations studyof mega-cities, water was highlighted as a key environmentalresource in terms of its provision to the urban populace, theimportance of water resources to developmental activity, and theimpact of land use and waste disposal practices on water qualityand supply.2
Typically, provision of water supply has preceded provisionof adequate sanitation in the ANE region. Levels of waterservice vary according to the ability or willingness of customersto pay for the service, and they range from treated water piped
References follow Section VIII.
Morocco
US AID ANE Bureau CountriesExamined in this Paper
Figure 1Asia Near East Region
to each home, to standposts on a piped system, to wells with handpumps (each serving a large number of people), to the privatevending of water to households.
The provision of sewerage has seriously lagged the provisionof water, often diminishing the intended benefits for health andquality of life associated with safe drinking water. Sanitation'srelevance to water resources, and thus to this paper, is thatproper disposal of wastewater is a major factor in preventing thedegradation of water quality and public health.
Implicit in this analysis is the consideration of land as afinite and, hence, precious natural resource. Conversion of landto urban uses is usually irreversible. There is great competi-tion for land in urban areas in the ANE region, and thejuxtaposition of land uses, such as industrial and residential,has important implications for the urban environment and itsinhabitants.
Magnitude of the Problem
Rapid urbanization and industrial growth have been observedfor over 20 years in the ANE region. Between 1950 and the year2000, the total population in A.I.D.'s ANE countries is expectedto have increased from 600 million to 1.8 billion, more than halfof whom will be living in India. During the same period, theurban population is expected to increase sixfold, from about 100million to more than 600 million. Table 1 and Figure 2illustrate the growing share of urban populations in the ANEregion. Comparing overall population trends in the area withpopulation growth in the ANE countries, the urban population inNorth Africa is expected to almost double between 1985 and theyear 2000, by which time about 90 percent of the population willbe living in urban areas. In southeastern and southern Asia, theurban population is predicted to more than double, and the shareof urban inhabitants is expected to increase from a quarter to athird of the total population during the same period.
As shown in Table 2, in 1950 only two metropolitanagglomerations in the world had more than 10 million residents;in 1975 there were seven such cities, none of which was in an ANEcountry. However, by the year 2000, there will be 25 cities withmore than 10 million inhabitants; 9 of those cities are in theANE region and 17 are in Asia and the Near East.3 This dramaticpopulation explosion is attributed to the natural increase oflarge urban populations and migration from rural areas to takeadvantage of the greater employment opportunities offered inurban areas (Figure 3). Associated with the unprecedented growth
Table 1: Urban Population Growth in the Asia Near East Region
Country
MoroccoTunisiaEgyptJordanYemen A.ROmanPakistanIndiaBangladeshSri LankaNepalBurmaThailandPhilippinesIndonesia
Total
Sources:
Total Population(millions)
1950
94
2013
0.440
35842
88
18202180
632
1985
227
47471
1007591011616375154
166
1,390
2000
309
646
112
1419641462023486674
211
1,815
Urban Population(millions)
1950
2190
0.017
62210326
10
105
Prospects of World Urbanization 1984-1985World Development Report 1988World Resources 1988-1989U.S. AID ANE Bureau-
1985
104
2221
0.3427
19718319
132259
389
2000
166
3554
0.3053
33027
53
17193677
634
Draft Natural Resources Strategy 1988International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade,Review of Mid-decade Progress
Urban%
1950
2631423522
18174
142
16102712
17
Population asof Total
1985
44564669199
292513217
24183925
30
2000
743315383418241428294937
33
Average AnnualGrowth Rate (%) ofUrban Population
1965-80
4.24.22.95.3
10.78.14.33.68.02.35.12.84.64.04.7
1980-85
4.23.73.44.07.37.34.83.97.98.45.62.83.23.22.3
Morocco1950 1985 2000
Tunisia1950 1985 2000 1950
Egypt1985 2000
co
coJSQ.OCL
Pakistan1950 1985 2000 1950
India1985 2000
Bangladesh1950 1985 2000
250
200
150
100
50
0Thailand
1950 1985 2000Philippines
1950 1985 2000Indonesia
1950 1985 2000
Total Population Urban Population
Source: U.N. Prospects of Urbanization 1984-1985.
Figure 2Urban Population Growth
in Selected ANE Countries
Table 2: Cities and Metropolitan Areas with Populationsover 10 million - 1950, 1975, 2000
1950
New York /New JerseyLondon
1975
New York/New JerseyMexico CityLos Angeles/Long BeachLondonTokyo AShanghai ASao Paulo
2000
Mexico CityTokyo AShanghai ABeijingAGreater Bombay A*Jakarta A*Los AngelesMadras A*Buenos AiresKarachi A*BogotaTehran ABaghdad A
Million
12.210.4
19.811.910.810.417.711.610.7
Million
31.024.222.719.917.116.614.212.912.111.811.711.311.1
A Cities in the Asia Near East Region* Cities in USAID's ANII Region
2000
Sao PauloNew York/New JerseyRio de JaneiroCalcutta A*Seoul ACairo metro A*Manila A*Bangkok A*Delhi A*ParisIstanbul AOsaka, Kobe A
Source: United Nations, 1980 in World Bank Capital Cities Proposal
Million
25.822.819.016.714.213.112.311.911.711.311.211.1
CD
CDC _Jo
Isi&O _3•p o
8fCD
CO
70 -r
60 --
50 --
40 - •
30 --
20 --;
10
0
• UrbanPopulation
RuralPopulation
Pakistan Morocco Indonesia ThailandPhilippines Bangladesh India Egypt Jordan
Source: USAtD Annex II : Asia / Near East - FY 1990
Figure 3Percentage of Population Living Below the
Absolute Poverty Level in Selected ANE Countries
of urban populations is an increase in the share of the laborforce working in industry and services (Figure 4). Thus, indus-trial development, a goal pursued by many countries as the basisof overall economic development, is a definite factor in rapidurbanization.
This rapidly changing urban situation often has haddetrimental effects on the environment: water shortages becomecritical; inadequate sewerage results in unsatisfactorysanitation; municipal and industrial wastes pollute drinkingwater supplies; development on fragile lands is prone toexcessive damage from flooding and can be the cause of thedestruction of ecosystems; the overextraction of groundwater hascaused salinization and land subsidence; and industrial andvehicular emissions pollute the air and cause health conditionsto deteriorate.
An extremely important problem caused by urban growth is therapid increase in the number of poverty-stricken urbanhouseholds. Due to many factors, urban poverty very oftenentails greater hardships than rural poverty. The urban poor whoare concentrated in the densely populated peri-urban enclavessuffer the most from the degraded environment, and the complexurgent situation makes it almost impossible to provide serviceswithout government intervention.4
If unchecked, the deleterious impacts of urbanization on theenvironment may soon negate the employment and service oppor-tunities offered in the urban areas. Rapid development alsothreatens the long-term economic sustainability of the urbanconcentrations and will necessitate significant future investmentto reverse environmental damage.
Environmental concerns must be part of the planning foraddressing the complexities and exponential development trends ofthe urban areas. The scale and magnitude of urbanization in theANE region and the environmental consequences both in the citiesand beyond point to the need to develop an urban strategy thattakes full cognizance of the implications of rapid urbanizationand industrial growth.
Outline of Paper
The scale and complexity of environmental problems in urbanareas are examined in Section II, and Section III outlinesvarious indicators that can be used as measures of environmentalconditions in urban areas. Section IV presents case studies foreight cities in the ANE region and uses those case studies toillustrate and classify the growing environmental and otherproblems (i.e., issues related to health and the quality of life)
60 -r
50 -COCOCD
S 4 0 -
I 30 -•
I 20IO
Q_
1 0 -
0
• Nepat*^
s
y
•'Thailand• Yemen
• Bangladesh
i Jordan
1 Tunisias
s
• Egypt
• Moroccos
Philippines.
ss
s•Pakistan
BurmaSri Lanka
Incbnesia
• Oman
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70% Workforce in Industry/Service
80 90
Source: World Development Report, 1988.
Figure 4Urban Population and
Workforce in Industry/Services 1980
10
associated with urban development. The regulatory andinstitutional approaches used by many ANE countries to protectthe environment are outlined in Section V. Programs and projectsfor the urban sector that are supported by international donoragencies are described in Section VI. The final sections, VIIand VIII, outline options and approaches for A.I.D. and recommendpriorities for A.I.D. policies and programs, respectively.
11
II. INTERSECTORAL ASPECTS OF WATER RESOURCES, RAPIDURBANIZATION, AND INDUSTRIAL GROWTH
The importance of water resources for the urban economycannot be overestimated. Figure 5 depicts how water resourcesserve as a direct link to all development sectors and to thesectors that make up the sphere of urban development. Thelinkages work in both directions—urbanization has impacts onnatural resources, and natural resources play a major role ininfluencing urbanization and driving industrial growth.
Sector Linkages
In the urban environment, particularly where growth israpid, the ripple effects of unwise sectoral programming on waterand the environment are most dramatic.5 The impact of acompromised water supply will be felt by the individual as a lossin the quality of life, and by industry and commerce as adegraded input in the production process. Decreased health andwell-being will, in turn, have negative repercussions onproductivity. Thus, development that does not protect urbanwater resources ultimately will forestall economic growth, andundermine efforts to achieve a healthful and sustainable urbanenvironment.
Water resources are also important locational determinants.Of a sample of 15 major cities in the ANE region, 13 are locatedalong rivers or coastlines. Such locations offer access oppor-tunities via the waterways.
The quality of water resources for drinking and hygienicpurposes has significant health impacts for urban dwellers.Waterborne diseases, for example, are major factors in the highinfant and child mortality rates in the ANE region.
a. Housing
Residential development can constitute between 30 and 80percent of land use in urban areas in the ANE countries. Housingtypes range from permanent structures, often multistory houseswith good water supply and adequate sewerage; to slums ofdeteriorated, overcrowded housing stock with little or inadequatewater supply and sewerage; to squatter settlements lacking basicamenities.*
The form, density, and locational characteristics of thehousing are determinants in the provision of water supply andthey affect water quality. The established urban cores usuallyhave some level of water and waste disposal services. Because ofthe scarcity of urban land, however, some cities are growing
• Availability of safe drinking water• Water and sanitation coverage• Provision of solid waste collection• Surface water drainage• Overextraction of groundwater• Potential for wastewater rectamatton
I INFRASTRUCTURE I
> Prevalence of water borne diseases< Dependence on availability of safedrinkfng water and sanitation
• Water requirements forprocessing
• Industrial effluent contaminattonof water supplies
• Increased production costsdue to polluted water
FIGURE 5SECTORAL LINKAGES
• Displacement of prime agriculturalland by urban development
• Impact of agrfcuftural practiceson water quality (pesticides)
• Competing urban-rural waterdemands
• Possible use of reclaimed wastewater
• High densities• Flooding In squatter settlements• Lack of adequate sanitation• Marginal land locations• Locations adjacent to harmful
Industries
- • •DIRECT LINKS••••INDIRECT LINKS VIA
WATER RESOURCES
13
vertically, which limits the opportunity for providing low-costsanitation solutions.
Slum areas usually have low levels of water service andpoor-quality water. Squatter or shanty settlements are oftenlocated in marginal areas (such as marshy lands or canal/riverbanks, which are easily flooded) because the low-incomeinhabitants have no other choice. These areas are of criticalconcern because their rates of growth are often much greater thanthose in the urban core. Service provision rarely can keep upwith this growth, which causes existing service levels todeteriorate.
The development of low-to-medium density, middle-incomeinformal settlements can be even more problematic and moreextensive than squatter or shanty settlements. Such areas arelikely to rate a greater responsiveness on the part of publicofficials than low-income areas, but it is more difficult tomanage urban areas in an environmentally conscious way when thegroups that are creating the problems are middle-income, notpoor.
Low-quality housing areas in general often lack proper watersupply for drinking and personal cleanliness, and they are oftenwithout sanitation services. Drainage is inadequate, whichexacerbates flooding and ponding of polluted water. Rottinggarbage, human feces, and associated insect and rodent infesta-tions are commonplace; inhabitants are forced to exist in squalorin their effort to survive in urban areas.1
b. Infrastructure - Water supply, sanitation, and solidwaste disposal
When considering the environmental impacts of provision ofwater and sanitation facilities, consideration must be given tothe long-term protection of water supplies. Overuse of waterresources, such as groundwater, can jeopardize future watersupplies through overextraction, which causes salinization of theaquifers.
Untreated sewage is a prime contributor to water pollution,whether the wastes are disposed of directly into watercourses,through individual sanitation systems, or through flooding.Improper wastewater collection and disposal poses an enormousproblem in urban areas. Visual observations and health statis-tics from the densely populated urbanized areas give strongevidence of the environmental degradation caused by the lack ofproper waste collection. Industrial wastes are also greatcontributors to water quality degradation if proper disposal isnot provided.
14
In the 15 ANE countries, about half of the urban populationlack proper potable water supplies, and about three-quarters lackadequate sanitation facilities. Water shortages are predicted tobe crucial problems facing many ANE cities.1 Urban areas aregrowing at such unprecedented rates, however, and the cost ofextending and/or improving facilities is so high that publicutilities and governments often become moribund when faced withthe low levels of capital available to meet such enormous needs.
In the ANE cities where solid waste collection and disposalservices are provided on a formal basis, disposal often occurs invery poorly maintained sanitary landfills. Often, solid wastesare collected by refuse collectors who practice uncontrolled dis-posal ; more often they are disposed of in empty areas or drainagecanals, sewers (if any), and rivers. Even within the context ofrapid urbanization, the collection, treatment, and disposal ofmunicipal solid wastes are more easily addressed than theprovision of water supply and sewers because the former are lessdemanding in terms of capital and spatial investments.
From the above, it is obvious that rapid urbanization hasmade it difficult to provide basic services. These problems arecomplex and extremely expensive to resolve. The density of mostof the urban areas and the provision of housing and commercialspace in multistory buildings virtually rule out any easy "lowtechnology solutions." Where newly settled urban or peri-urbanareas have densities that allow low-cost solutions to be applied,those solutions generally cannot be considered permanent. Theymay be suitable under current conditions, but they may have shortuseful lives if in-house water supply service is provided and/orcontinued population growth significantly increases thedensities.
c. Industry
Industrial development in urban areas is a primary driver ofnational development. The available employment pool in urbanareas is the key determinant in industrial location, which inturn causes migration for employment opportunities andexacerbates the rapid rates of urban growth. The availability ofwater resources, a key input in the production process, greatlyaffects the location of industries—along rivers, for example.However, industrial waste discharges can contaminate the watersupplies; downstream water resources may be degraded to the pointthat they become unfit for human, industrial, and agriculturaluses.* If industries were not scattered throughout metropolitanareas, but were concentrated in special zones, they could beserved by lower quality water, thereby preserving limited high-quality water for domestic consumption, and industrialwastewaters could be separated from municipal wastewaters andgiven appropriate treatment.
15
d. Agriculture
As urban areas grow, the boundaries of cities expand outwardand agricultural land is converted to urban uses. This practiceobviously reduces the land available to support food productionneeded by the urban areas.
Agricultural practices can also affect downstream waterquality through the contamination of water with chemicals andpesticides. Degradation of formerly productive agriculturallands through mismanagement can cause rural inhabitants to moveto urban areas in search of employment opportunities, furtherexacerbating the rapid increases in population.
e. Health
Previous subsections highlighted the health implications ofrapid urbanization and industrial development. There are alsoclose associations between low-guality residential environmentsand poor health. Poor sanitation, poor water quality, inadequatesurface water drainage, overcrowding, inadequate garbagedisposal, and vector infestation are commonplace in low-qualityliving areas. All these contribute directly to high rates ofdiseases.10
The intersectoral links displayed in Figure 5 primarilyfocus on the possible negative implications of the cross-sectorallinkages. However, if water and other resources are managed withforesight, there is the potential for future positive effects.Examples include wastewater reclamation for use in irrigation andcomposting and recycling of municipal wastes for use in industryand services (the latter primarily through informal sectoractivities).
Conclusion
Urbanization and development are linked through waterresources and land use. Indiscriminate use or degradation ofland and water resources can adversely affect economicdevelopment and the viability of urban areas. If not confronted,the situations described will worsen as the urban areas grow andoverstress the in-city and external environments. Sectoralpolicy and programs for the urban areas must consider overallenvironmental issues and recognize the complex linkages amongsectors. Urban planning cannot occur in a void; it must takeinto account the interrelationships of the development sectors.
17
III. INDICATORS FOR ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF RAPID URBANIZATIONAND INDUSTRIAL GROWTH ON THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT
A major objective of this paper is to present a set ofstrategic indicators for use as guides in formulating policy andprograms and in monitoring program status. This section presentssuch indicators for A.I.D.'s ANE countries based on readilyavailable data, discusses the sources of data, and describesadditional data needs.
The review of available information made for this studyindicates that, on the whole, there are inherent weaknesses inmany of the national databases and that data for the urban sectorpresented on a national level can easily be misinterpretedbecause of the generalization of some important differenceswithin the urban sector. Moreover, conclusions derived fromcross-country comparisons can only relate to very broadcharacterizations of urban development. Such comparisons couldnot be used as the sole basis for policy analyses."
The set of indicators developed in 1983 by A.I.D.'s Officeof Housing and Urban Programs provided a convenient framework foruse in this paper in presenting nationally representativeindicators of urban development. Indicators relating to theurban environment were determined from other sources."
The indicators, grouped by whether they are urban/demograph-ic, economic, social, or environmental are summarized in Table 3.The outlines the possible uses of the indicators and methods ofobtaining data. Summaries of indicators and data sources for the15 ANE countries are presented in Appendix A.
Urban/Demographic Indicators
Three indicators can be used to assess the magnitude andscale of urban development:
1. Absolute number of urban dwellers, with which to assessdemands for services, infrastructure, and housing;
2. Urban share of population, which is indicative of theimportance of the urban sector in the country; and
3. Growth rate of the urban population, which predicts thefuture urban situation.
These measures together are indicative of the current andfuture status of the urban sector. Policy determinations areneeded as to where to focus interventions with a view tomitigating future environmental problems—in the larger urbanareas or in secondary ones.
Table 3: Indicators, Uses and Data Sources 18
Type of Data Indicator
Urban/Demographic
Economic
Social
Environmental
• % urban population
• growth rate of urbanpopulation
• absolute number ofurban dwellers
• physical distribution ofpopulation in uiban centers
• growth of cities
• Gross National Productper capita
• % labor force in servicesand industry
• poverty levels (rural/urban)
• health data such as infantmortality rates, incidence ofwateibome diseases,respiratory diseases, lifeexpectancy
* coverage of infrastructure -water, sewers, solid waste
• urban waste generation rales• housing conditions• housing densities
• high-rise/multi-storybuilding types
• location of urban developmentin relation to water resources
• water quality
• land use patterns
Sources: Based on readily available data
Uses of Information
• assesses importance ofurban sector
• indicates scale and magnitudeof urban growth
• identifies potential futureproblem areas
• serves as basis on whichto assess demands forinfrastructure, housing & jobs
• determines appropriateallocation of resources(primary cities or secondary)
• indicator of magnitude ofproblem
• correlates with % urbanized;shows strength of urban areain national economy
• correlates with level ofurbanization, could be basisfor industrial location policy
• increasing industrializationcould have environmentalimpacts
• indicates ability to payfor services
• shows relative attractivenessof urban areas
• symptom of environmentalconditions
• indicates of availability ofsafe drinking water, wastedisposal and treatment, orsanitation
• indicates environmentalconditions
• determines quality of life• measures of population
pressure on land and waterresources
• measures of scarcity of urbanland and high land values
• indentifies marginal areas -possible future problem areas
• indicates success of wastedisposal and treatment, manage-ment of water resources
• identifies possible problemareas such as residentialadjacent to industry
Examples of DataSources
- secondary data such ascensus, international donoragencies
-local planning ministries-World Bank, United
Nations, US A.I.D.- universities and
institutions-HABITAT-data on
human settlements
- secondary data such ascensus, international donoragencies
- World Bank, UnitedNations, US A.I.D.
- universities andinstitutions
- World DevelopmentReport
- World Bank• World HealthOrganization
- Water Supply andSanitation Decade data
- Water Supply andSanitation Decade data
-HABITAT• local ministries and
agencies- field observations- case studies of cities ifavailable
- GEMS, INFOTERRA- urban planning agencies- international donor
agencies, missions, localoffices
Summary TableIn Appendix
Al
Al
Al
A2
A2a
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
19
The distribution of the urban population within a countryprovides insight into the allocation of resources, as well as abasis for developing national spatial policies to promoteequitable growth. Indicators of population distribution insmall, medium (secondary), and large cities and of the growthrates of those cities can be utilized in establishing suchpolicies."
Economic Indicators
Urbanization is closely linked to economic development.Three indicators are useful in assessing economic developmenttrends and, hence, the possible effects of urbanization:
1. Gross National Product (GNP) per capita can be closelycorrelated to levels of urbanization, as shown in TableA3 in Appendix A. Thus, GNP is a measure of thestrength of the urban economy in the national %'"context.14
2. Comparisons of the percentage of the labor forceemployed in agriculture versus industry/servicesordinarily can be used as an indicator of theimportance of the urban sector in the national economy(see Figure 6). The increase in employment in industrycan be utilized as an indicator of industrial siteconcentration (and associated externalities) in theurban areas. (See Table A4.)
3. Data on the poverty level of urban inhabitants can beuseful indicators in assessing the attraction of the v1
urban area to rural inhabitants, as well as the abilityof urban dwellers to pay for housing andinfrastructure. (See Table A5.)
Social Indicators
Health levels are key indicators of low or degradedenvironmental levels. These include infant and child mortalityrates, rates of waterborne diseases, life expectancy, and caloricintake.u (See Table A6.)
20
Morocco Tunisia Egypt Jordan Yemen Oman
Pakistan Bangladesh Nepal Philippines
India Sri Lanka Thailand Indonesia
Workforce inIndustry/Service1965
UrbanPopulation1965
Workforce inIndustry/Service1980
• UrbanPopulation
1980
Source: World Development Report, 1988.
Figure <>Increase in Urban Population and the
Workforce in Industry/Services 1965-1980
21
Environmental Indicators
A brief list of indicators that could be used to describethe urban environment include the following:
1. Water supply and sanitation coverage;
2. Generation, collection, and disposal of solid wastes;
3. Condition, characteristics (multi- or single-story),and density of housing;
4. Land use and location of urbanized areas in relation tonatural resources and/or environmentally sensitiveareas; and
5. Water quality.
It is difficult to define and measure housing conditionsacross countries. Average densities per square kilometer arerough estimates at best and are not an accurate basis on which todevelop urban land use policy. However, high densities and highland values may be indicative of urban areas that are forced tobuild upward to provide housing and commercial space for therapidly growing populations and associated service sector. Thisis significant because water supply service and wastewatercollection service for high-rise areas are extremely expensive toprovide. Further, for multistory housing areas, there may be noalternative for proper sanitation but to provide conventional(and very expensive) sewerage systems.
Somewhat easier to evaluate are water supply and sanitationcoverage and solid waste collection. The importance of theseservices to environmental quality is well known.
The environmental indicators mentioned above are merely thebeginning in monitoring the environmental implications of rapidurbanization. Collecting and consolidating data on theseindicators would require effort, but the task would not beexcessively burdensome on local planning, housing, or water/sewerauthorities.
The above indicators relate primarily to human activitiesand the resultant environmental consequences. Other data ofimportance are outlined in the next section.
22
Data Sources
For most of A.I.D.'s ANE countries, a great deal ofinformation is available, or the framework is in place to collectsuch data. The problem with a great deal of these data is thatthey are not necessarily comparable across countries or are notat the appropriate level of detail for use in making policydecisions regarding urban planning and/or natural resources.Data sources are summarized below; comments on how A.I.D. canbest use the data are presented in later subsections.
a. A.I.D. (ANE Bureau, Office of Housing and UrbanPrograms, WASH)
A.I.D. has detailed information both at the bureau andmission level. However, much of the information is notnecessarily available in an appropriate form for use in policy-making. A.I.D.'s Office of Housing and Urban Programs is avaluable resource for information on urban issues. The Office iscurrently developing an Urban Research Strategy in response to arequest for recommendations for expanded A.I.D. activity in theurban sector.1*
A.I.D.'s WASH (Water and Sanitation for Health) Project hasan extensive library of information on water, sanitation, andrelated issues. This database includes field reports and filedata on over 200 interventions undertaken by WASH at the request(and in support) of A.I.D.'s missions and bureaus.
b. World Resources Institute (WRI)
WRI, in collaboration with the United Nations EnvironmentProgram (see below), publishes an annual assessment of theresources that support the global economy. It also providesuseful data and indicators on environmental issues.
c. World Bank
The World Bank publishes the World Development Report, whichpresents demographic, economic, health, social, and otherindicators related to national development issues. The Banksponsors ongoing research and has published many studies relatedto urbanization, the environment, infrastructure, housing,finance, and other issues related to development.
23
d. United Nations and World Health Organization
The United Nations and the World Health Organization publishdata on demographics, health, housing and settlements, infra-structure, and the environment, and they conduct research onthese and other issues.
The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) sponsorsresearch in many aspects of natural resource protection, as wellas Earthwatch, a wide-ranging program to gather and disseminateinformation relating to the environment.
Two ongoing programs that have great potential for providingdata for urban managers and policy planners are the GlobalEnvironment Monitoring System (GEMS) and INFOTERRA. GEMS usessatellite monitoring to track resources and incorporatessatellite (Landsat) imaging to produce the results. Theinformation network focuses on five areas of environmentalconcern—climate, transboundary pollution, earth's renewableresources, oceans, and the health consequences of pollution. In1985, GEMS launched the Global Resource Information Database,which converts environmental data into computerized maps on ageographic information system.
The second program, INFOTERRA, is a decentralizedinformation system that processes queries on environmentalinformation. INFOTERRA operates through a network of government-designated institutions.
e. Local institutions
Various governmental and academic organizations in severalANE countries have established databases and are collectingcountry-wide data. For example, India has set up a NationalEnvironmental Information System for science and technology.Based on the UNEP data, several countries, including Bangladeshand Nepal, have published their own national directories ofenvironmental data sources.17
Data Collection Methodology and Maintenance Needs
Several countries have initiated data collection andresearch efforts, but the data are often not readily available todecision makers. Egypt's efforts are illustrative of mostnational efforts. In Egypt, there is a severe shortage of dataon the environment and health; fragmented data collection effortsare evident for hydrologic and climatic data, demographic statis-tics, mortality and morbidity data, water and wastewater treat-ment facility records, and data on water and air quality. Where
24
the data are being collected, there is no effective process fordisseminating the results.
The needs throughout the ANE region concern establishingcomprehensive databases, based on good information storage andretrieval systems, and establishing networks so that these datacan be effectively utilized." At the same time, full-scale datacollection efforts would not be appropriate. Data collection isvery time consuming and expensive and could divert support frombadly needed initiatives. Data needs could be met by incor-porating use of networks or databases that are alreadyestablished (e.g., INFOTERRA, GEMS, and databases of localuniversities and governmental agencies) into the daily operationsof urban-related administrative agencies or ministries.
Data collection efforts must also be tailored to individualnational needs, and they should be coordinated at the nationaland local levels through the use of common databases.1* Theyshould be computerized if possible to enhance storage, retrieval,and analysis.
Areas for Future Research
Research conducted for this paper indicates that the mostcritical need is for data that provide indications of the impactof urbanization on the environment, both in and out of thecities. Data are needed on the following:
1. Water quality, for both surface- and groundwater(including toxins, nutrient levels, turbidity,prevalence of bacteria, and other components);
2. Water quantity, including the safe yield andconsumption rates for aquifers;
3. Land use, open space, and areas that cannot supportdevelopment, such as marginal areas, wetlands,floodplains; tracking changes in land use would also bevery valuable;
4. Air quality; some countries are now establishingmonitoring stations (this is of extreme importance inmany ANE cities, especially those that have highpercentages of cars per capita and large concentrationsof heavy industry);
5. Location and coverage of natural resources, wetlands,soils, and coastal ecosystems, at a level of detailappropriate for urban planning; and
25
6. Solid waste generation, collection, and disposalpractices.
In addition, a general review of the policies of the lessdeveloped countries in regard to urbanization and the environmentwould help to fill the gaps in knowledge about their programs,actual and planned.
In general, the major constraint in planning agencies is notnecessarily the lack of suitable data, but the lack of authorityto implement decisions. Provision of conclusive data is often auseful way to support and justify decisions.
27
IV. COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE /
This section compares eight cities that are representativesof the types of urban areas in the ANE region. The sectorallinkages described in Section II are clearly illustrated in thesecomparisons. The discussion identifies predominant urbanenvironmental problems, examines their causes and effects, andoutlines the policy implications.
The countries in the ANE region, as noted, are characterizedby different climatic zones, average incomes, and patterns ofurbanization. These variations make it difficult to draw directcomparisons for the entire region. Generalizations can be drawnand priorities set, however, when the countries and theirurbanization characteristics are grouped into similar categories.
Comparisons are drawn among the cities in regard to thefollowing:
1. Urban form, which describes the city's profile—high-rise or sprawling, role in the national or regionaleconomy, and anticipated population growth;
2. Quality of life, which considers housing, health,coverage of water, proper sanitation and municipalsolid waste disposal services, proximity of industrialand other land uses to residential areas, and theresultant impact on the urban population;
3. Environmental characteristics, particularly in regardto water-related issues; these include location of thecities in relation to water resources, physical orwater-related problems, and the impact of cities on thegeneral environment;
4. Management responses to urban and environmentalproblems.
Typology of Urbanization
The eight case studies provide information and are the basesfor conclusions about the individual cities, but the cities havediffering roles to play in the economies of the ANE countries andare part of differing patterns of urbanization. Understandingthe_context of urban development is vital when developing™"policies and programs for the urban sector. As seen from Tables4 and 5, levels of income or climatic factors, while important,are not particularly informative when determining programming orpolicy priorities.
Table 4: Ranking of ANE Countries by Income
28
Income Grouping
Low income economies
Middle income economies/lower middle income economies
Upper middle income economy
Country
NepalBangladeshBurmaIndiaPakistanSri Lanka
IndonesiaYemen A.R.PhilippinesMoroccoEgyptThailandTunisiaJordan
Oman
Source: World Development Report, 1988
Table 5: Climatic Regions 29
Country
Near East:MoroccoTunisiaEgyptJordanYemen A.R.Oman
Asia:PakistanIndiaBangladeshSri LankaNepalBurmaThailandPhilippinesIndonesia
* High risk is
ANE AgriculturalClassification
dry/ariddry/ariddry/arid
dry/irrigateddry/irrigateddry/irrigated
dry/irrigateddry/irrigatedmoist tropicalmoist tropicaldry/irrigated
moist tropicalwet tropicalwet tropicalwet tropical
AtlasClassification
semi-arid; high risk*arid; high risk
hyper-aridarid; high riskarid; high riskarid; high risk
arid/semi-aridhumid/semi-arid; high risk
humidhumid/sub-humid
humidhumidhumidhumidhumid
defined as risk from human encroachment disturbingthe ecological balance
Sources: World Resources 1988-89ANE ReportThe New State of the World Atlas
30
A typology of urbanization, with some modification to takeenvironmental conditions into account, is an appropriate basisfor the comparative assessment of the ANE countries.1* Table 6summarizes a typology of countries organized according to theirpattern of urbanization, as follows: Type 1 countries have morethan half the population living in urban areas and incomes arerelatively high; Type 2 countries have more than half thepopulation living in rural areas and incomes are relatively low;Type 3 countries are predominantly rural but are urbanizingrapidly; Type 4 countries are dominated by severe pressures onthe land and have largely rural, subsistence-level societies.
Typically, A.I.D. adopts a country-by-country approach,which is entirely appropriate for developing specific policiesand strategies. The typology used here is simply a method fororganizing the enormous amount of data that was examined for thispaper. The case studies or examples may not be directlycomparable, but their common themes and problems give directionfor action and priorities.
City Profiles
The eight cities are typical of the ANE region and arecharacteristic of elements of the urban typology. The cities areCairo, Manila, Colombo, Bangkok, Jakarta, Dhaka, Madras, andKarachi. They play varying roles in their national economies andhave varying dependencies on natural resources. The cities areeither national or state capitals, and most are located on riversor ports. Ideally, this analysis would also compare citiesdisplaying greater disparity in size, location, and economicimportance. A growing number of governments in developingcountries are exploring ways of building the capacities ofsecondary cities in order to contribute to rural development andto a pattern of urbanization that is not focused on the primarymetropolitan areas."
These secondary cities are growing rapidly, but they aregenerally not experiencing the degree of environmentaldegradation found in the major cities and urban agglomerations.With forward-thinking planning there is still time to address thepotential problems of the urban environment in these secondarycities before they become unmanageable.
a. Characteristics compared
The characteristics of the cities are summarized in terms ofthe following: (a) urban form, (b) housing, health, and qualityof life, (c) environmental profile, particularly water-relatedissues, and (d) urban management responses.
Table 6: Urbanization Patterns/ Typology of Cities
31
Type
1
% Urbanized Income
• more than 50% of relatively highpopulation lives inurban areas
• urbanization trendwell established
• recent urbanizationtrend
• more than 50% ofpopulation lives inrural areas
• predominantly rural• urbanizing rapidly
relatively low
low
Pressure onArable Land &
Natural Resources
tolerable
moderate
moderate
Country
TunisiaJordanOman
• predominantly rural subsistence level severe• moderate level ofurbanization
* City case study in Section IV
Source: Michael Cohen in Ghosh - Urban Development in the Third World, 1984
Cityin
Case Study*
EgyptMorocco
Philippines
PakistanIndia
Sri LankaThailand
YemenBangladesh
NepalBurma
Indonesia
Cairo
Manila
KarachiMadras
ColomboBangkok
Dhaka
Jakarta
32
Urban Form. All of the eight cities are densely populated—ranging from 4,500 to 21,500 people per square kilometer,depending on the neighborhood. Some cities have sprawledexplosively outward from the dense urban core, convertingvaluable agricultural land to one- and two-story urban uses.(See maps in Appendix B.) The speed and scale of growth leavelittle opportunity for municipal governments to respond with therequired infrastructure and facilities to meet the needs of thenew urban residents. Some cities have expanded verticallybecause of the rapidly increasing price and scarcity of urbanland. In these cities land uses compete for space, which oftenresults in inappropriate juxtaposition of land uses—residencesare adjacent to noxious industries, for example—and the poor areforced to locate in marginal areas.
The rate of growth of these cities is unprecedented—Bangkokis expected to double its population to 10 million by the year2000, the Dhaka metropolitan area could increase threefold toover 10 million by that time, and the population of Cairo isincreasing by half a million annually.
All the cities, as noted, are located on rivers or ports,which influences the spatial location of land uses, as dotransportation routes (e.g., railway lines and highways) and thetopography. The urban form and spatial development character-istics of the cities are summarized in Table 7.
Housing, Health, and Quality of Life. The quality of lifein the dense urban agglomerations is highly undesirable. Housingshortages are acute, especially for the poorest inhabitants. Thelack of adequate water supply, sanitation, drainage, and solidwaste disposal is the most critical problem common to all thecities studied. The environmental conditions created by highdensities and lack of adequate services cause intolerableconditions for urban dwellers. Streets, drainage canals, andopen areas are used to dispose of human and solid wastes, andhousing conditions are cramped and unsafe. The streets and openareas, although rife with rodents and insects, are also playareas for children, and the polluted drainage canals are oftenthe source of water for drinking, bathing, and domestic use inthe slums and squatter settlements. Not surprisingly, diseaseand infant mortality rates are high. Table 8 outlines housing,health, and quality of life in the sample cities.
Environmental Implications. The dense urban areas have adetrimental impact on the larger environment close to and outsidethe cities. Municipal and industrial wastes are polluting riversand aquifers. Overextraction of groundwater has led to large-scale subsidence in Bangkok and Jakarta, as well as increases in
Table 7: Urban Form of Selected Cities
Country/City
Egypt, Cairo
Philippines, Manila(metropolitan area)
Sri Lanka, Colombo
Indonesia, Jakarta(Jabotabek metro.
area)
Place in UrbanHierarchy
• Capitol
• Capitol• primate city• dominates nation
• Capitol• port city
• Capitol•port city
i
Population Annual(million) Urban Growth
Rate
• 11.1 (1981) • increases by 1/2• 16.3 (2000) million• about 1/4 populationof country
•5.9(1980) • 3.8%• 6.9 (1982)
• 1.3 (1981) inurban core
• 4.0 in metro,region
• 10 (1981) • increases by 1 million• expected to doublewithin 20 years• only 6% of total
Urban Form
• highrise/ single story mix• spread to include Giza
and Nasr City
• highrise in center• tow density outsideinner core
• sprawls in all directionsalong transportationroutes (ribbon development)
• sporadic peri-urbandevelopment
• past low density sprawl• sporadic, ad hoc• small plots
• city grew inland alongCiliwung River
•urban core• growth in north• southern orientationdepending on topography
Area (sq km)1987
•900
• 870 total• 180 urbanizedcore
•37 core (1981)• 1,800 metro,area
• 560 total• 180 inurbanized core
Density(persons/sq km)
• 45,000 to 150,000in lower incomeareas
• 9,000 overall• up to 170,000
in core
• 35,000 in core• 2,200 overall
•kampungs:3,100 in outercity; 51,500 ininner city
• 21,500 averageover entire city
(Continued)
u>
Table 7: Urban Form of Selected Cities/cont
Country/City
Bangladesh. Dhaka(metropolitan area)
Thailand, Bangkok(metropolitan area)
India, Madras
Pakistan, Karachi
Place In UrbanHierarchy
•Capitol• main city in evenlyspread hierarchy
• secondary cities likelyto grow significantly
•Capitol• port city• extreme primacy• dominates Che urbansector
• forty times larger thanthe second largest city
• Capital of state ofTamil Nadu
• largest city in south• principal commercial
port
• Capitol since partitionin 1947
•only seaport• principal commercialand industrial center• economically dominantover province
Sources: See Appendix B
Population
•3.5(10 million in district)
• 5.0 million• 50% of total urbanpopulation
• expected to doubleby year 2000
• 5.0 million (1981)
• 7,500,000 (1987)• 12-15 million byyear 2000• only 6% ofpopulation
Urban GrowthRate
• 8 %• Dhaka metro area couldincrease three-fold byyear 2000
• highrise in center• 3-4.3% per annum• migrants a majorcomponent
• 2 3 % growth rate• growth rates withinmetro, area differ byneighborhoods
• 5 %• partially attributed torefugee immigration
Urban Form
• low rise dense development• historic urban core• expansion alongrailroad and transportationroutes
• radially concentricpattern
* compact urban core• expansion along river• unplanned, uncoordinated
sprawl
• urban core withsecondary CBD
• spread of developmentalong transportationroutes
• includes City of Madras,4 municipalities, 4townships and 20 semi-urban local authorities
• mix of high and low rise• sprawling, low
density along LyariRiver
Density1987 (persons/sq km)
•115(1980) •143,000
•l,600total *15,000mcore• 330 in urbanizedcore
• 1,200 metro • 4,000 overallarea
•1,800 in urbanizedcore
• 3,527 • 2,000• 1.800 in urbanizedcore
u>
Table S: Housing, Health and Quality of Life
Country/City
EgyptCario
PhilippinesMetro Manila
Sri LankaColombo
IndonesiaJakarta(Jabotabck MetroArea)
Urban land
• By 2000, land use will beresidential 77%, commercial 1%,government 4%, industrial 19%
• Expansion limited by Manila Bay• Soil unstable• Lack of public open space• Indiscriminate mix of land use
• Lack of expansion land• 1/4 land marshy or subject to flooding• Rising land values
• Urban land expensive - some highrisedevelopment
Housing
• Significant portion highrisefor all income levels
• Overcrowding• Upgrading project ofTondo foreshore
• High income suburbs• Dense slums• Lack of basic services• 24% permanent with walls• 44% temporary with
bamboo walls• 32% semi-pennanent
% squatters/s l u m s
• Not available
• 60% low income• 2.S million in squatter
settlements & slums
• 125,000 in shanties• 45% in slums &
shanties
• 35% of city is kampungsor slums
Growth rate ofsquatter areas
• Not available
• Grows foster than region
• Rapid growth on fringes
• 70% of population growthis attributed to squatterand slum dwellers
Health profile
• Oie of highest infantmortality rates in world(60% of total deaths)
• Health impacted by humanwaste
•Excreta related diseases• Endemic parasitic diseases• Diarrhea high
Location ofIndustry
• Mainly small fabricatorsor specialty shops
• 19% of area is industry• Industrial waste can betreated in WWTP
• Crude death rate 5.7/1,000 • Location of 60%• Gradual improvement in manufacturing firms
mortality and morbidity• Pneumonia, respiratory diseases high
•Not available • Rapid industrialdevelopment
• Low income groups withinadequate sanitation
• Chronic health problems• High infant mortality
160/1000 live births• Pneumonia, child malnutrition,
bronchitis, TB & Cholera• 80% population infectedwith waterborne parasites
(Continued)
Ln
Table 8: Housing, Health and Quality of Llfe/cont.
Country/City Urban land Housing
BangladeshDhaka
ThailandBangkok
IndiaMadras
PakistanKarachi
• Much speculation in urban land market <• Shortages of land for housing andurban development projects
• Development restricted by flcodplains• Rapid conversion of high tyingagricultural areas
Serious shortagePrivate sector involved inconstructionSlum upgrading programsDeveloping low costhousing on periphery
% squatters/s l u m s
• Little outright squattingdue to high cost of land
• Squatter removalprograms
Growth rate ofsquatter areas
• Not available
Health profile
• 80% privately owned • Public housing authority• Residential and commercial uses mixed plans construction
in urban core • Housing stock includes:• Large vacant areas witheld from
development by speculation• Uncontrolled development in floodprone
areas• Rapid conversion to urban land
43% individual buildings19% slum/squatter9% public housing6% subdivisions3% klong (canal) houses
• 25% housed in slums •with inadequate water &sanitation facilities
• Slums of semi-permanentstructures
2.1% annually
• Decentralization policy for over 20 yrs • 30,000 - 40,000 annual • 30% live in slums or • Not available• Complex land acquisition process• Speculation high especially onagricultural periphery
demand for housing units• 200,000 households live in
unimproved slums andsquatter settlements
• 360,000 live in substandardconditions
squatter settlements
• 5 sq. km in center, fully or partly • Much located on periphery • Largest squatter settle- * 10% a year
Location ofIndustry
• High incidence of bronchitis • Center of jute processingand other respiratory diseases, and textile manufacturingdiarrhoea) and skin diseases »31%of registered firms
are in Dhaka• Located near rivers which
are polluted from effluent
• Life expectancy 71 years• Infant mortality - 3 1 - 6 0
per 1000 live births
Not available
serviced, is vacant due to privatespeculation
• Much of urban core used for militarypurposes
in sprawling unplannedinformal settlements
• Extensive housing programssince 1947 - sites and serviceschemes, slum upgrading
ment in the region• Ifi of the population• 432 settlements in oldcity and scatteredthroughout
• Twice the rate of the city•Crude death rate 9/1000• Infant mortality - 46/1000
live births• Geographic correlation withincome
• Characterized by smallfirms
• Construction of industrialestates 35 miles out ofcity
• Concentation of exportindustries
• Textile industries locatedin central city
• No growth in forma]industrial sector
• Affected by Govt ban onindustrial development in5 metropolitan areas
• Industrial estates• Wastes deposited or leach
into Lyari River• Small scale manufacturing
located in residential areas
Sources: See Appendix B
37
the salinization of the groundwater resources. Air is pollutedfrom vehicular and industrial emissions, which affectssurrounding land uses. The rapid expansion of the urban areashas destroyed precious agricultural land. These factors couldthreaten the viability of the urban areas, as well as nationalinterests in the long run. Table 9 presents environmentalprofiles of the sample cities, including both internal andexternal environmental conditions.
Urban Management Response. Urban management in the face ofrapid urbanization and environmental degradation has been varied,depending on the city and institutional framework in place. Mostmanagement efforts have been focused on the short-term—dealingwith immediate problems. Many of the projects or programs areaimed at one or the other sector, such as water supply,sanitation, housing, or industrial development. The differentexperiences are summarized below. (Most of the data are fromstudies conducted by the United Nations, the World Bank, and theEconomic Development institute of the World Bank.")
b. Case studies
Cairo, Egypt. Cairo, the capital city, accommodates almostone-quarter of the population of the country, primarily housed inhigh-rise buildings. Population densities in the city are high—ranging from 4,500 to 15,000 per square kilometer (in low-incomeareas). The city's population will increase from 10.5 million in1985 to about 16.3 million by the year 2000.
The critical urban environmental issues include theprovision of water supplies, adequate sewers/sanitation, andmunicipal solid waste collection and disposal. While access topublic water supplies is extensive, unserved residents are forcedto use water from drainage canals, which are polluted and unsafe.In 1980, half the city was served by public sewers; majorimprovements are under way so that by the year 2000 over 90percent of the population will have sewerage and wastewatertreatment will be provided. (The existing wastewater treatmentsystem is poorly maintained, however.) The city is drained by aseries of canals, which form the dumping grounds for solid andindustrial wastes. Infant and child mortality rates are amongthe highest in the world."
Cairo is administered by several overlapping agencies, eachfocusing on different sectors. Water service is provided by theGeneral Organization for Greater Cairo Water Supply; the CairoWastewater Organization has planning functions relating towastewater collection and treatment in the metropolitan areas,
Table 9: Environmental Outline of Selected Cities
Country/City
EgyptCario
PhilippinesMetro Manila
Sri LankaColombo
IndonesiaJakarta
Location
• On either side of Nile River
• On Pasig river & port* Flat alluvial delta
• At mouth of Kelani River-port city
• Mouth of Ciliwung River-port dry
(Jabotabek Metro Area)
BangladeshDhaka
•On river• Direct water link to
Bay of Bengal
Physical/water-related
Problems
• Water shortage• High groundwater table; septic
systems not suitable• Oroundwater polluted
• Floods frequently inmonsoon season
• Unstable soils• Overextraction of wells lead to
saline intrusion
• City flood* annually
• Excessive flooding• Constructed system of
canals• Divided by five rivers•Overuse of ground water
leads to salization& land subsidence of city
• Quality of raw water deterioated• Flooding of contaminated water
into kampungs
• Extensive seasonal flooding• Overextraction of groundwater
• Prone to natural disasters:floods, cyclones, tidalwaves, famine
Public WaterCoverage
• Water from Nile & supplementarywells
• Extensive distribution w/directhouse connections or standpipes
• Water coverage > sewer coverage• Unserved populations obtain
water from polluted areas
• 50% of city (70% population)served by piped water
• Plans to extend service forestalledby lack of funding
• Water vendors provide service forpopulation outside distributionsystem
•47% access to pipedwater
• 48% receive water fromwells
• 90% no piped water• 30% households dependon water vendors
• Kampungs lack basicservices
•60% covered• Source from wells• 90,000 house connection• 1,200 common stand pipes• Remainder use polluted
surface water
Sewerage
• 1980 - 48% served• 2000 - over 90% planned• Not kept pace with demand• Lack of maintenance leads to
problems - only a quarterof the pumping facilities operate
• Major improvements underway
• 11% of population served bysewers
• In unsewered areas, sewageeffluent is conveyed by gutters.open ditches and watercourses
* Untreated sewage dumped in Bay
• 50% covered bywaterbome sewage
• City been able to keep pace withdemands - situation is deteriorating
• Lacking in kampungs• 65% no private toilets• Septic tanks - 25%• Others use pit, latrines,cesspools & ditches
• 20% served by water borne sewage• 30% use septic tanks• 10% pit latrines• 5% bucket latrines• 35% surface latrines or no
facilities
Drainage
• Canals clogged by wastes• Drainage generally inadequate
•Canals and drainage inadequate• Ditches and canals are receptacles
of wastes• 4 sq.kms of the chy flooded
annually - affects 190,000 house-holds, causes economic losses
• 25% urban & marshy orsubject to flooding
• Flooding in Kelani coastalplain area
• Considerable flooding• Constuded system of canals• Many use canals for bathing,laundry & defecation
• Canals flood because blockedby garbage etc
• In dry season msufficent flowto drain off wastes
• Surface water drainage inadequate
• Highly flood prone - mostserious problem
• River gets overflow fromseptic tanks
•Encroachment causing cloggedcanals
Solid Waste
• Sewers often used to disposeof municipal waste
• Inadequate waste removal• Inadequate collection
• 2,650 tons generated daily• Collected refuse taken to 9
landfills with ltd capacity•Remainder dumped on roadsand watercourses
• Improvements planned
• Not available
• Garbage not collected• 30% ends up in canals.rivers & roads
• Most waste recycled• Lowest per capita generation
of municipal wastes in ANEregion
• Dumped in sanitary landfills
(Continued)
00
Table 9: Environmental Outline of Selected Ctties/cont
Countrj/City
ThailandBangkok
IndiaMadras
PakistanKarachi
Sources:
Location
• On Chao Phraya River•On coast• One meter above sea• 40 kms from Gulf ofThailand
• On port & rivers
• Karachi Port ft PortQuasim
• On Lyari River
See Appendix B
Physical /water-related
Problems
• Flooding during high tides• 1,000 sq kms. of city subsiding
due to extraction of groundwater• Introduced groundwater licensing
system
• 4 rivers flow through metro area• Low lying delta• Floods wide-spread in monsoon• Falling ground water levels• Rivers contaminated by sewage
• Bisected by Lyan ft Malir Rivers• Industries pollute rivers• Severe water shortages
Public WaterCoverage
• 2/3 has coverage• Expanded public system• Many buy or use unsafewater
• Levels of service66% piped inside water8% piped outside water4% public wells2% private wells
• 100,000 use polluted water
• Severe shortages of potable water• Supplies rationed• 40% connected to piped water• 60% use public sundpipejA/or vendors
• Water supply is most crucialproblem
• Potable water comes from Indus,160 kms. away
• Katchi abadis not served(U3 of city)
• 40% of households have waterconnections - available only afew hours a day
• Katchi abadis uses sumdpipes &water vendors
• 1 standpipe per 270 people
Sewerage
• No waterbome sewerage system• Relies mainly on pour-flush latrine
and septic tank systems• Septage disposed of in drains.canals and waterways - leading topollution of surface water
• Only 30% served by public sewers• Raw sewage flows into rivers• Collection system only servesurban core
• 30% connects to main system• Katchi abadis not served
(1/3 of city)• Untreated sewage flows into
Lyari River• Treatment plants subject to
system failures
• Piped water contaminated in transmission
Drainage
• Contracted klongs A canals• Obstruction and blockage ofcanals
• High water table•Excessive seasonal flooding -
severe damage each year• Slow storm-water runoff in
monsoon season• World Bank supporting $51.9
million flood control project
•Inadequate storm drains• Flooding a serious problem
• Inadequate drainage• City under water for long periods• Storm drains modest in scale•Only designed for 5-year storm• Rivers subject to flash floods• Drains lack proper outfalls• Plans to upgrade
Solid Waste
• 2,740 tons per day•80% collected• 50% left to decompose
or deposited in canals
• Inadequate due to lackof funding
• Collection by bullock cartsA trucks
• Not treated before Eandfiltmg• Creates pollution A
waterlogging problems
• 4,500 tons per day•1/3 removed•Non-mechanized• Single dump site• Garbage is burned• Improvements planned
40
and the national government has responsibility for facilityoperations. The Egyptian National Urban Policy study of 1982developed a policy that focuses on growth management in the urbanareas. The policy suggests a strategy of decentralizing allurban expansion to desert locations and ongoing rehabilitation ofwater and sanitation facilities. The policy also aims to provideefficient locations for industry and to create employment toabsorb the large population increases. Housing density targetsare set for new settlement areas (in fill or extension areas) andexisting built areas. The policy recommendations are stillpending adoption by government, however.
Metropolitan Manila. Philippines. Manila, the capital city,dominates the urban sector hierarchy. The metropolitan region ismade up of 4 cities and 13 municipalities and is expected to growby 200,000 people each year, from 6 million people in 1980 to 10million by the year 2000. The city is radial concentric in form;a high-rise urban core is surrounded by extensive developmentsprawling outward for 870 sguare kilometers. Due to the pressurefor development, land uses are mixed indiscriminately.Commercial and business activities are located on major routes,and industry has located in less expensive areas around theperiphery.
About 60 percent of the population are in the low-incomegroup; 2.5 million people live in slums or squatter areas, whichare growing faster than the rest of the city. Approximately athird of the population lack adequate water and sanitationfacilities; many people use wells or contaminated surface waterto meet daily needs. Drainage in the city is poor, and thestreams and rivers are highly polluted. Municipal wastecollection is inadequate, which contributes to the pollution ofwater supplies. Due to its location in a flat river plain, thecity is prone to flooding, especially in monsoon season.
Metro Manila does not have an effective form of urbangovernment to direct planning in the region. There is a plethoraof urban governmental authorities with overlapping anduncoordinated responsibilities." Metro Manila is administered by17 separately elected municipal mayors and councils, which arecoordinated by a governor and the Metro Manila Commission (MMC).The MMC has the power to implement region-wide strategies, but ithas become involved primarily in sector and municipal functions,such as the management of municipal waste disposal. Nationalgovernment agencies have some control over programs that affectManila's population, including health, housing, roads, drainage,and other services. Water and sewer services are provided by theMetropolitan Water and Sewerage System, which plans andimplements water supply and sewerage projects in the city. TheMMC has the responsibility for developing a strategic plan forthe city, and it has begun to develop land use and zoning
41
recommendations. The MMC, however, must begin to use its powersto resolve differences among the sectoral agencies that serve thecity.
Colombo. Sri Lanka. Colombo, the port capital located atthe mouth of the Kelani River, is the financial and commercialcenter of the country. The metropolitan area covers about 1,800square kilometers and had a population in 1981 of 4 millionpeople. The compact urban core accommodates over a millionpeople and is roughly 235 square kilometers; the remainder of thecity sprawls outward in an ad hoc manner. There is a lack ofsuitable land for expansion. A quarter of the land is marshy orsubject to flooding, and rising land values and speculation makethe remaining land inaccessible to the majority of the citydwellers.1* About half the population have access to municipalpiped water; the remainder use water from private and publicwells. Waterborne sewerage is available to about half of thepopulation. Inadequate drainage is a serious problem for urbanresidents, particularly in the low-income areas.
An analysis conducted in 1977 of Colombo's urban managementrevealed the lack of existing legislation or institutions tocoordinate overall planning for the metropolitan area. TheColombo Master Plan Project was developed in 1977 to guide growthin the region, but a complex maze of authorities has respon-sibility for coordinating the provision of services and managingdevelopment in the city. The Urban Development Authority wasestablished in 1978, but it has a national mandate and, hence,orientation. There is no clear distinction between local andnational planning. By the end of 1978, at least 15 centralministries were operating in the urban core in addition to theministries administering the district. In general, the agenciesand authorities that have been established address short-termneeds and increase the centralization of government.27
Jakarta. Indonesia. Jakarta, the capital, is located at themouth of the Ciliwung River, and in 1981 had a population of 10million people, which is expected to double by the turn of thecentury. The city has expanded dramatically and occupies 560square kilometers, with a densely urbanized core of 180 squarekilometers. The average density is 21,500 people per squarekilometer; densities are as high as 51,500 people per squarekilometer in the slums (kampungs) and 31,300 per square kilometerin the peri-urban areas.
Over 75 percent of the housing stock is temporary orsemipermanent structures. Over 35 percent of Jakarta is slumslocated along drainage canals, which account for 70 percent ofthe growth of city. Only a quarter of the population have directconnections to the public water system; over a third of the
42
population rely on water vendors. About 65 percent of thepopulation do not have private toilets; 25 percent use septicsystems, which do not operate adequately because of soilconditions; and the remainder use pit latrines, cesspools, or thecanals. Municipal waste collection is grossly inadequate; muchof the waste is deposited in canals, rivers, and roads, whichcauses flooding and health problems in the rainy season. Theslum inhabitants use the polluted water in canals for bathing,laundering, and defecation, which leads to chronic healthproblems, including pneumonia, bronchitis, and cholera. Infantmortality rates are high in the slums (160 per 1,000 livebirths), and over 80 percent of the people of the city areinfected with waterborne diseases.2*
Due to its riverine location, the city is subject toflooding, A system of canals was built to address this problem,but the canals are often blocked by municipal and industrialwastes. Overextraction of groundwater for drinking water use hasled to subsidence in the city and the salinization of thegroundwater resources.
Metropolitan government in the region is hierarchical fromthe national level through four levels of agencies anddepartments with different responsibilities and implementationprograms. The Jakarta metropolitan region is given provincialstatus with a metropolitan government and governor. The districtis divided into five mayoral areas, each with a local planningagency and functional departments. Below this level are 30kecamatans. serving populations of 220,000, which are responsiblefor local security, health, building control, transportation, andrecord keeping of land rights. The lowest administrative unitserves populations of about 30,000 and is responsible for garbagecollection, tax collection, and community health. In addition tothis very complex urban administration mechanism, centralgovernment ministries are also responsible for providing urbanservices. The Directorate General of Housing, Building, Planningand Urban Development is involved in the provision of watersupply and sanitation. Other parastatals are involved in landdevelopment for residential and low-cost housing and otherprograms, for example.
The initial response to the urban problems on a citywidebasis was the development of a Master Plan in 1965, which focusedon the urban core and sectoral projects. During the government'sfirst Five-Year Plan (1969-1974), the Jakarta provincial govern-ment began a program of upgrading the physical infrastructure ofthe slums by improving pathways, drainage, and health and schoolfacilities. Water and sanitation remain problematic, however.
In 1977 a more strategic approach was taken, with theprimary objective of coordinating activities of the central andlocal governments, taking fiscal realities into account. The
43
planning process emphasized the formulation of policies accordingto the differing abilities of the population to pay for services.In 1981 a comprehensive plan for the JABOTABEK region (an acronymfor Jakarta, Bogor, Tangra, and Bekasi) was developed withassistance from the World Bank. The plan focuses on publicsector provision of basic services to direct growth, targeting ofthe low-income community, integrating regional and municipalstrategies, balancing economic and physical solutions, workingwith the urban land market to resolve land issues, and guidingland development. These recommendations and others are currentlybeing implemented.
Dhaka, Bangladesh. Dhaka, the capital city, is almost twiceas large as the second city in the country. It has a populationof 3.4 million and will triple in size by the year 2000. Thebuilt-up land area will have to double to accommodate thispopulation surge. Despite this physical expansion, overall urbandensity will rise from about 25,000 to 28,000 persons per squarekilometer.2* Speculation in the urban land market has led toshortages of land for housing and urban development projects.The city is located in the floodplain, which further restrictsthe land available for development. The high-lying agriculturalareas on the periphery of the city (part of the fertile Ganges-Bramaputra delta) are rapidly being converted to urban uses. Thecity (and country) is prone to natural disasters, such ascyclones, tidal waves, famine, and monsoonal flooding.
Provision of safe drinking water is a growing problem,especially in light of the anticipated population increase.Approximately a quarter of the population have house connectionsor use common standpipes, and the remainder use surface water,which is often polluted by human wastes. Only 20 percent areserved by waterborne sewerage, 30 percent use septic tanks (whichseldom operate effectively), 15 percent use bucket or pitlatrines, and the remainder use surface latrines or have nofacilities at all. Dhaka has a limited problem with municipalsolid waste disposal. Inefficient drainage systems are furtherstrained by the encroachment of urban development on naturalwater courses. Effluent from the tanneries, sugar and jutemills, textile industries, and two thermal power stations haspolluted the rivers.
The first formal response to the rapid growth of the citywas the development of a Master Plan in 1959, portions of whichare still in use. An industrial location policy implemented bythe central government in the early 1960s directed the locationof manufacturing within the Dhaka metropolitan region to plannedindustrial areas. The next significant step in urban planning wasthe Dhaka Metropolitan Area Integrated Urban Development Project,supported by the Government of Bangladesh, the Asian DevelopmentBank, and the United Nations Development Program. The project
44
developed nine alternative development strategies, none of whichhas been successfully implemented, for a variety of reasons.Currently, the Dhaka Improvement Trust is planning to develop astructural plan for the city that focuses on the broad structureof the city and not individual development areas. However, theplanning process has yet to be initiated."
Bangkok. Thai1and. Bangkok is a classic example of primacy;the city is 40 time larger than Chian Mai, the second largestcity.*1 The city accommodates approximately 5 million people(half the total urban population) and the population is expectedto double by the year 2000. The city has a compact urban core ofcommercial uses; the residential areas (including slums) havemoved out to the periphery along transportation routes, leavinglarge vacant parcels in the city undeveloped.
Approximately a quarter of the population live in slums andsquatter settlements with inadequate water and sanitationfacilities. About two-thirds of the population have access topublic water, which is being expanded. Many people buy or useunsafe water, and there is no central sewerage system. Much ofthe city has septic systems, which do not operate effectivelygiven the soil and flood-prone characteristics of the city.Canals (kloncrs) were built to address the severe drainageproblems in the city, but they are often blocked with garbage.Solid waste collection services cover about 80 percent of thecity, but disposal of wastes much less than that. Infantmortality rates vary between 31 and 60 per 1,000 live births,depending on the location in the city.
The city is prone to flooding during high tides and storms.Overextraction of the groundwater has led to subsidence of alarge portion of the city and salinization of groundwaterresources. Over 1,000 square kilometers of the city are sinkingat a rate of 10 centimeters a year.
Urban planning proceeds on an ad hoc basis in the absence ofany policy guidelines, whether metropolitan, provincial, ornational. Various planning efforts have been under way sincethe 1960s, but they have met with limited success. The SixthNational Economic and Social Development Plan (1987-1991)specifies that controlling the growth of Bangkok is a nationalpriority and recommends such controls as zoning and land useregulations. Past efforts in this regard were not enforced,however. The plan divides Bangkok into four strategic areas fordifferent targeted investment strategies. Much of the plannedinvestment is intended to address infrastructure inadequacies, aswell as to promote decentralization.33
45
Madras. India. Madras, the largest city in southern India,is the capital of the state of Tamil Nadu. It has a populationof 5 million and an average annual growth rate of 2.3 percent.The city has a compact urban core and a decentralized businessdistrict. Development has spread along transportation routes andencompasses an area of 1,160 square kilometers. The highest rateof growth is occurring on the periphery. More than half amillion people live in unimproved slums, and the annual demandfor housing is about 30,000 to 40,000 units a year.
Despite the abundance of water in the region, the citysuffers from severe water shortages, which necessitatesrationing. Approximately 40 percent of the population have pipedwater and the remainder use public standpipes or rely on watervendors. Only a third of the city is served by public sewers,primarily in the urban core; the sewage is untreated and flowsinto the rivers. Municipal solid waste collection/disposal inthe city is inadequate; the wastes are not treated beforedumping, which causes pollution of the groundwater as well aswaterlogging problems.
The Madras Metropolitan Plan (1971-1991) outlined a strategyof urban containment and growth management objectives. In 1974the Madras Metropolitan Development Authority (MMDA) prepared aMaster Plan outlining development rules and regulations and broadland uses based on the promotion of corridor growth, satellitetowns and urban nodes, to be enforced by the MMDA. A multi-plicity of organizations are involved in planning for andproviding services to the metropolitan area. Implementation atthe local level is inhibited, however, by inadequately trainedpersonnel and ineffective enforcement of the rules andregulations.
Development planning began with a metropolitan perspective,but the process of relating sectoral projects and operationalpolicies to that perspective is yet to be properly established.Sectoral problems, such as transport, water supply and sewerage,storm drainage, and housing need to be addressed by metropolitan-wide planning.34
Karachi. Pakistan. Karachi is a-low density city sprawlingfrom the core along the Lyari River. It has a population of 7.5million, which is predicted to increase to 13 or 15 million bythe year 2000. In 1974 the city covered 374 square kilometers,by 1987 it had increased to 3,500 square kilometers, with theurbanized core covering 1,800 square kilometers. Over 5 squarekilometers of fully or partially serviced land in the center ofthe city are vacant because private land speculation has caused adistorted residential land market and a highly dispersed,discontinuous pattern of urban development." The city has one ofthe largest concentrations of squatter settlements in the region;
46
the settlements are growing at a rate of 10 percent a year, twicethe rate of the rest of the city. Health indicators show a closecorrelation with geographic location and income characteristicsof households. Infant mortality rates are about 46 per 1,000live births.
Water supply is critical to the future development ofKarachi because water is piped in from 160 kilometers away. Only40 percent of the households have access to public water, whichoperates for only a few hours a day. The slums (katchi abadis^are served by standpipes or water vendors. About a third of thepopulation live in dwellings that are connected to sewers.Untreated sewage flows into the Lyari River, degrading waterquality. Only a third of the city's solid waste is collected,and that is deposited in a single dump site. Industrialdevelopments deposit untreated effluent into the rivers.Drainage is a serious problem in the city, which is under waterfor long periods of time.
The city has pursued a decentralization policy for over 20years. Karachi has a Development Authority and MetropolitanCorporation, but no metropolitan policy and little coordinationof spatial and socioeconomic planning for the metropolitan areaat any level of government. The 1974-1985 Karachi DevelopmentPlan highlighted the crisis confronting the metropolitan regionand developed a framework for improving the provision ofinfrastructure and public services. The 1985 plan did little tomanage growth in the area, which was influenced more by marketforces than growth management strategy. At the request of theGovernment of Pakistan, a new project financed by the UnitedNations Development Fund and executed by the United NationsCenter for Human Settlements (HABITAT) in collaboration with theKarachi Development Authority, will develop an innovativeapproach to master planning. The plan will focus on thedevelopment of an urban management tool, with a strong analyticalbase, that can be used by city planners in the various urbansubsectors. An important component of the plan will be thedevelopment of an urban-level database that will be kept up todate and used to monitor changes in the urban environment.
Policy Implications
Lack of adequate water supply, sanitation, solid wastetreatment and disposal, and drainage are the most criticalfactors degrading the urban environment and the quality of lifeof urban inhabitants in the ANE region. The unavailability ofurban land and resulting high-density development point to theneed for alternative spatial configurations in urban areas.Urban land use and associated practices are damaging the generalenvironment, degrading water quality and quantity, and causing an
47
incremental destruction of natural resources in and outside thecities.
Urban management responses to development problems havevaried—from unimplementable plans to metropolitan-wide planswith a sectoral emphasis. In most cases, the institutionalframework of the urban governments is fragmented, complicated,uncoordinated, and often replicative. Plans and approaches havefocused on short-term solutions through piecemeal creation ofspecial authorities appointed by central or provincialgovernments, which in turn has led to weaker local governmentsand less community involvement. New institutions are not neededPrograms and policies should focus on developing processes ofmanagement within and between agencies capable of having andsustaining a metropolitan-wide perspective.
A\, :
Urban management should be able to identify changing r-physical, socioeconomic, and environmental problems accompanying"^ trapid urbanization and industrial growth. Better information isneeded to monitor changes, which points to the need fordeveloping urban-level databases as part of the administrativeframework of urban government.
Environmental impacts can no longer be considered increment-ally. The cumulative impact of urban and industrial uses,coupled with the physical characteristics of the city, suggeststhe need for a comprehensive urban strategy that considers landuse, infrastructure, and environmental issues simultaneously. Ahigh priority should be placed on raising awareness of theimplications of human practices for the natural environment, forexample, the link between contaminated water supplies anddeteriorated health conditions.
Consideration should be given to planning ahead to minimize ^the future environmental impacts of urban development. Where , ^possible, infrastructure should be provided before development \A^occurs, thereby building the foundations of €Ke~~c-rfcy~.—~-This "preempts the development of unsatisfactory health andenvironmental conditions and reduces future expenses, such as forretrofitting to deal with a crisis situation. Minimizationshould be the focus also for the generation of municipal wastes,and where wastes are generated, collection, treatment, recycling,and disposal should be considered simultaneously.
Where cities have managed to absorb the population growth,the highest priority should be the improvement of urban land useand expansion of public services. Problems in the urban landmarket should be addressed to provide a basis for the developmentof permanent shelter options. The provision of public servicesshould address income and coverage differentials, and appropriatelevels of service should be provided according to city dwellers1
ability and willingness to pay.
V.
49
V. COUNTRY POLICIES AND APPROACHES TO RAPID URBANIZATION ANDINDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
This section examines the approaches taken by ANE countriesto rapid urbanization and industrial development in terms of(a) national policies and strategies that relate either directlyor indirectly to the environment and the urban sector and (b) thetypes of urban management approaches adopted by cities to dealwith the problems of rapid urbanization. Detailed examples ofthe interrelationships among national, regional, and localpolicies are provided in Appendix C.
There is a direct relationship between the growth of urbanareas and national and regional policies regarding economicdevelopment and industrial location, urbanization, populationdistribution, and transportation networks. The main determinantsof urbanization and the concentration of populations in urbanareas are the rate of development of the agricultural sector, thegrowth rate and sectoral pattern of industrialization, locationaldecisions affecting the distribution of manufacturing and,therefore, service activities among cities, and the condition ofthe transport and communication networks.37 Policies relating tothese sectors will ultimately influence the development andimportance of different urban areas within a country and oftencontribute to their environmental status as well.
Given the current rates of urbanization and the contributionof rapid urbanization to environmental degradation in and out ofcities, comprehensive management of these factors is becomingvital lest countries sacrifice long-term sustained economicgrowth for short-term development gains. Countries withenvironmental and urban development policies in place have thepotential for balancing short- and long-term goals provided theirnational, regional, and local policies are based on recognitionof the need for comprehensiveness, and provided they followthrough with effective implementation.
National Approaches and Policies
The various ANE countries have adopted a range of nationalpolicies relating to urban development and the environment.These are summarized in Table 10 and discussed below.
a. National spatial policies
Spatial policies are adopted to control the growth of largecities and to stimulate development in small and intermediate-sized urban centers. For example, as part of a long-termnational settlements policy, the Philippines identified 346
Table 10: Selected Country Approaches to Environmental Protection, Urban Sector and Industrial Location
Country National Industrial NationalSpatial Location UrbanizationPolicy Policy Policy
Morocco
Jordan
Sri Lanka
Bangladesh
Pakistan
Egypt E
India E
Nepal
Yemen A.R.
Thailand L
Philippines E E
Indonesia E E
E - Exists (success unknown)L - Limited Success in ImplementationBlank - Denotes no policy or inavailability of data
Sources: Multiple
EnvironmentalRegulations/
Policy
E
E
E
E
L
E
L
E
L
E
E
Water andSanitation
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
HazardousWaste
E
E
E
Health
E
E
E
E
E
E
Housing
E
E
E
E
Comments
Presence of water determines spatial policy
Uncoordinated urban development
Environmental policy not well implemented
Environmental policy in place but not integrated
Spatial policy focused on decentralization
Industrial development not permitted in 5 largest cities
National conservation strategy - not linked to urban areas
Law based on Islamic principles
Decentralization policy ineffective
Spatial policies focus on growth centers
Extensive environmental regulations
51
settlements as potential growth centers and ranked them in termsof importance. As part of this strategy, new industrialdevelopment is restricted within a 50-kilometer radius of thecenter of Manila City.31
b. Industrial location policies
These policies or regulations specify the location and typeof industries within the country and cities. In India, forinstance, the government has adopted a restrictive industriallocation policy that bans large and medium-scale industries fromits five largest metropolitan centers. This policy aims toreduce the industrial concentration in the central cities.3*
The success of these national spatial and industriallocation policies is mixed. Often the policies are ineffectiveand even counterproductive. Much depends on the prevailingeconomic and political climate.
c. National urbanization policies
These policies specifically direct growth patterns in urbanareas. For example, the Egyptian National Urban Policy Study of1982, as noted in Section IV, recommends policy by city type.1*Decentralization is called for in Cairo. In Alexandria, the plancalls for inducing major population growth away from Cairo byproviding major employment growth. The goal for Tanta andMansoura (medium-sized cities) is to encourage out-migration fromCairo, to preserve prime arable land through verticalredevelopment, and to concentrate high-level regional servicefunctions in these settlements. The emphasis for the Canal Zonecities (Suez, Ismailia, Port Said) is also on growth. (Therecommendations have not yet been adopted, however.)
d. Environmental policies
Environmental policy is ordinarily made up of regulationsand standards affecting the environment of urban and other areas.Nearly all of the ANE countries have environmental legislationand agencies in place. Morocco, for instance, has enactedlegislation relating to air, water, soil, flora and fauna, landuse, pollution and hazardous waste, and waste disposal/sani-tation.11 Sri Lanka has passed legislation relating to renewableresources (water, forests, wildlife, fisheries, and air),nonrenewable resources (minerals, soil, and coastal areas), andland use and agricultural practices.42
52
The success of such environmental policies has been varied;in none of the ANE countries have they been totally successful.The major problems are with enforcement. In most countries theapproach has been narrow rather than comprehensive, and concernedwith short-term solutions rather than minimizing future problems.India's environmental framework is probably the most extensivewithin the ANE region, but ineffective program implementation hasled to a focus on pollution control and not overall environmentalmanagement. **
e. Water supply and sanitation policies
National approaches to water and sanitation should addressboth the allocation of water resources and the collection andtreatment of wastes. As part of the International Drinking WaterSupply and Sanitation Decade, almost all of the ANE countriesdeveloped strategies for providing these services in both ruraland urban areas. For a variety of reasons, none of the ambitioustargets, set at the beginning of the decade (1980) andsubsequently revised downward, has been met. Water supply andsanitation coverage targets have since been included in many ofthe ANE countries' national plans.4*
f. Housing strategies
Housing strategies are usually aimed at the low-incomepopulation. They have evolved from slum clearance where squatterand slum areas were bulldozed and inhabitants were eitherrelocated or forced to find alternative accommodations, to sitesand service projects, self-help housing, relaxation of standards,and development of housing cooperatives. Other efforts includeimproving and strengthening housing finance mechanisms throughthe development of financial intermediaries. Despite theseefforts, however, there is a severe lack of a sufficient numberof organizations that are capable of dealing with the enormousneed for urban planning and housing found in most of the ANEcountries.45
Government Expenditures
One way of assessing national efforts to protect theenvironment and develop urban areas is to examine governmentexpenditures on urban-related sectors, such as housing,amenities, and health. As shown in Table 11 and Figure 7, urban-related government expenditures classified as investments ineconomic development are uniformly high in the ANE countries;expenditures related to education are the most variable; andinvestments in housing and amenities are highest in Sri Lanka,
Tablel l : Total National Expenditures on Housing, Health, Economic Services and Education - 1986
Country
Near EastMoroccoTunisiaEgyptJordanYemen A.R.Oman
Asia:PakistanIndiaBangladeshSri LankaNepalBurmaThailandPhilippinesIndonesia
Housing, Amenities,Social Security& Welfare
6.612.414.98.60.01.4
10.55.60.6
20.26.88.44.61.61.4
Percent of Total
Health
2.86.52.43.84.75.0
1.02.15.3
19.55.07.75.70.71.9
* Other includes defense and general government administration
Government
EconomicServices
25.933.19.3
22.57.8
20.8
25.823.441.637.748.535.122.644.919.3
NOTE: The sectors presented arc assumed to have an urban-related component
Source: World Development Report, 1988
Expenditure
Education
16.614.310.812.222.510.1
3.22.19.96.4
12.111.719.520.18.5
Other*
48.133.762.652.965.062.7
59.566.842.616.227.637.147.632.768.9
Gross NationalProduct per capita
(1986 dollars)
5901,140
7601,540
5504,980
350290160400150200810560490
Total GovernmentExpenditure as% ofGNP
35.436.940.646.025.563.2
23.116.410.930.519.716.221.710.826.9
U>
Morocco Tunisia Egypt Jordan Yemen A.R. Oman
tal
iditu
res
rcen
t of
•nen
t Exj
Pe
Gov
erni
5045
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0Pakistan Bangladesh Nepal Philippines
India Sri Lanka Thailand Indonesia
Housing
Expenditures
Health H I Economic Education
Figure 1Urban Related Government Expenditures on
Source: World Development Report, 1 9 8 8 H o U s i n 9 ' H e a l t h » * * > " < > " * ™<* Education
55
Egypt, Pakistan, and Tunisia. Only Sri Lanka also allocates ahigh percentage of government expenditures to health programs andprojects. Specific evaluation of municipal revenues andexpenditures for ANE cities may be more revealing of the focus ofurban activities.
The expenditures shown are for all sectors (urban andnonurban). Nevertheless, no clear trend is evident in theseexpenditure patterns. Perhaps the only conclusion that can bedrawn is that urban investments, as measured by the totalnational values of housing, education, and health expenditures,take up large portions of government resources in all of the ANEcountries, but they are still modest compared with the magnitudeof the problem.
Urban/Metropolitan Management Strategies and Approaches
National policies have direct implications for the develop-ment and implementation of urban management approaches andgovernmental organizations.4* This subsection briefly discussesthe approaches taken by urban governments in the ANE countriesand their relative. Information on urban management responses tothe problems of urbanization is also provided in the case studiesin Section IV.
Three main approaches have been used by urban governments inANE countries to address the problems of the rapidly expandingmetropolitan areas. Separate sectoral responses were followed bymultisectoral responses, and various forms of metropolitanorganizations make up the third type.
a. Sectoral responses
The initial response of many cities was to addressparticular sectors in need of immediate attention. Provision ofwater supply, drainage improvements, and upgraded housing werehigh on the agenda. Large-scale projects were implemented andmanaged by special authorities with either regional or localjurisdiction. These authorities initially were partiallysuccessful, but due to a variety of institutional, financial, andpolitical constraints they lost the ability to functioneffectively. Some of the reasons for their demise include anemphasis on short-term sectoral plans with insufficient attentionto the long-term impact on existing institutions and the lack ofintersectoral coordination with existing agencies and theirpolicies.47 Perhaps the primary reason for their ineffectiveness,however, was the lack of available resources, human andfinancial, to keep up with growing sectoral demands.
56
b. Multisectoral approach
Partly due to the problems created by focusing on a singlesector, the approach to metropolitan government logically shiftedto a multisectoral one, and often the response was to set upstrong, command-type development authorities with metropolitan-wide jurisdiction. These agencies had the power and budgets toimplement multisectoral projects at both the metropolitan andlocal level. Despite the initial focus on multisectoralcoordination, however, implementation efforts became sectorallyoriented, as did the agencies themselves.4* While some activitiesare more appropriate at the local and single sector level (e.g.,schools), a multisectoral approach is appropriate when addressingbroad impacts on environmental and natural resources inmetropolitan areas.
c. Alternative responses
An alternative multisectoral approach was to createmetropolitan governments with special provincial powers andstatus. Such governments were established in Jakarta (1964),Karachi (1973), Bangkok (1972), and Manila (1975), with variousdegrees of success. In Bangkok, the authority lost power sixyears later and was relegated to providing services, such aseducation and health care. In Jakarta, the population outgrewthe boundaries of the metropolitan government's jurisdiction,which led to the creation of a new agency with even widergeographic responsibilities.
The "alternative" organizations thus became subject to theproblems that led to their creation: their responsibilities couldnot match the rate and scale of the problems of rapid urbaniza-tion, due in part to lack of funding and insufficient politicaland financial power to implement their mandates.
Based on the scale of the problems, some researchers havecontended that existing forms of metropolitan government in theANE countries may be irrelevant to rapidly expanding urbanagglomerations.4* However, the research suggests that theorganizational form may not be the significant problem. Rather,the lack of success may be due to shortsighted policy, low levelsof funding, and low levels of human resources.
Conclusions
The urban policies and approaches adopted by centralgovernments and by various city and regional entities in the ANEcountries have been generally weak and noncomprehensive andfunding levels have been low. In most of the ANE countries,responsibilities for urban development are badly fragmented among
57
ministries and agencies. These responsibilities generally arebased on laws and regulations that are concerned with componentsof problems and that prevent actions based on comprehensive,long-term considerations. Further, there is poor coordinationamong agencies or sectors.
Environmental awareness has to be incorporated andintegrated into planning at all levels so that both direct andindirect impacts are considered. The institutions involved inurban development and management of the environment are in direneed of strengthening, so that comprehensive urban management,including land use policy, water resource and supply management,spatial planning, and pollution minimization can be practiced.
All of the countries in the ANE region require strongerpolicy frameworks that are comprehensive in nature and includestrong environmental components. The establishment of suchpolicy will provide guidelines for the complex interventionsnecessary. Many of these are problems of public serviceprovision—water supply, sewerage, drainage, solid wastedisposal, shelter, and transportation—arising from thecongestive effects of rapid urbanization.
This section has provided a brief overview of the policiesand programs of countries in the ANE region. Additional researchand review of these policies and programs, and of their relativeand comparative successes, will provide a strong basis for thedevelopment of urban sector policy by the ANE Bureau.
59
VI. MAJOR DONOR ASSISTANCE EFFORTS
This section describes urban-related assistance provided tothe ANE countries by A.I.D. and other institutions. As shown onTable 12, donor assistance in the urban sector has been primarilydirected toward housing, infrastructure, physical planning(including spatial planning), and urban administration andfinance. (Note there is no group of projects that can beclassified as "regional urban systems.") Environmental issues ifthey have been dealt with at all have usually been part of otherprograms or sector strategies. Environmental factors areprimarily considered in evaluating the potential environmentaleffects of particular projects rather than through specificinterventions.
U.S. Agency for International Development
As directed by Congress, A.I.D.'s efforts for the past 15years have been primarily focused on projects in rural areas.There have been some notable urban interventions, however, mainlyin Egypt. Although recognition of the problems in urban areashas substantially increased, Congress has not yet directed A.I.D.to focus on urban development.M
Several types of A.I.D. programs do provide assistance tourban areas:
• Direct assistance for provision of urbaninfrastructure, such as water supply, seweragefacilities, solid waste collection, transportationfacilities, highways, streets, railroads, ports,harbors, and airports.
• Housing guarantee programs of the Office ofHousing and Urban Programs, which provide creditguarantees to finance upgrading of infrastructureservices in low-income settlements, development ofserviced land sites, municipal management, andfinance and land management. Actual funds areprovided through U.S. and local banks. Theseefforts are focused on benefiting the urban poor.
• Economic support and development activities, suchas direct economic support grants and programs forexport promotion, increased industrial production,and employment stimulation.
• Social service projects in the health, nutrition,population, and education sectors.51
Table 12: Urban-Related Programs by International Assistance Agencies
Agencles t
USA ID (1960)
United NationsHABITAT (1978)UNDPUNIDOUNEPUNKEFWHODJO
BanksIBRD (Wodd Bank -1972)ADB (1976)
Physical RegionalUrban Urban
Planning System
AA
AA
Housing Infrastructure Urban UrbanEconomic Transport
Growth
A
A
AA
AA
A
A
AA
. A
AA
A
A
A
fYear refers to either time of creation of agency or time when active urban assistance began
Source: Yeung aadBelise in Drakais-Smtk, Urbanisation in the Developing World, 1986Report to Congress on Urbanization, 1988
UrbanPoverty
A
A
A
UrbanAdmin./
Finance
A
A
AA
UrbanLand
Policy
A
A
Info. TrainingProv.
A A
A
A A
61
The level of A.I.D. support for ANE countries variesgreatly. Table 13 ranks the ANE countries according to the levelof total support and per capita level of assistance. The tableclearly indicates that A.I.D.'s program is not nearlyproportional to the urban populations in each country.
A.I.D.'s program of housing guarantees in the ANE region forFY 1990 is about $100 million. This program is A.I.D.'s mostpowerful tool for urban development; it provides for millions ofdollars of housing credits at little actual cost to A.I.D. Thehousing programs supported provide infrastructure and other urbanservices. It is important to note that A.I.D.'s program ofhousing guarantees does not appear as part of its budget and,thus, is not reflected in funding reports. (There is ordinarilyno expenditure, because it is a guarantee program.)
Table 14 presents the level of funding for different sectorsin the ANE countries and examples of projects and programs. Thefunding categories are grouped according to those likely toinclude an urban component. (within this grouping, urban infra-structure support could also be provided in the form of selecteddevelopment activities or economic support fund programs, asdescribed above.)
Since 1976, A.I.D. has required the preparation of environ-mental assessments for all projects that could potentially have a"significant effect" on the environment (in and out of the urbanareas).M These assessments usually consider the impact of large,capital-intensive, A.I.D.-supported projects (such as in Egypt);they follow the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency guidelinesfor such assessments as well as the air and water qualitystandards of the host nation.
Multilateral Assistance
a. United Nations Agencies
Assistance in the urban sector from agencies of the UnitedNations was initiated in the 1960s. The United NationsDevelopment Program is active in specific urban programs andprojects. The World Health Organization has supported projectson urban infrastructure, especially water supply. The UnitedNations Industrial Development Organization is interested in theimpact of industrial investment on urban growth. The unitedNations Environment Program supports research into environmentalissues worldwide. The United Nations Children's Fund hasdeveloped programs of assistance to the urban poor that focus onbasic services, such as water supply and sanitation.
Table 13: U.S. AID Asia/Near East Funding • Ranked by Total Support
Country
EgyptPhilippinesPakistanBangladeshIndonesiaJddanMoroccoIndiaYemen A.R.OmanThailandSri LankaTunisiaNepalBurma
TOTAL
Source:
1987
$3192472758485
11128572314212317158
$1,827
US AH)
Total1988
(US
$71770
38459401832232213212610125
$1,452
Support1989
$million)
$9303382656142153224 -2115182611120
$1,810
1990
$81541530055433527252120191812120
$1,817
Congressional Report - Asia and Near East:World Development Report, 1988
Four YearTotal
$32811070122425921017911912987627993505113
$6,906
Annex H
Four YearAverage
$82026830665534530322216202313133
$1,727
1990 Population(millions)
5361
112115166
425
82781
41178
1841
1,498
Average Fundingper capita1987-1990
$15.614.392.730.560.32
10.431.210.042.74
10.620.481.331.580.690.08
$3.52
Fundingper capita
1990
$15.516.812.670.480.268.161.100.032.65
13.700.471.031.520.650.00
$3.67
Per capitaRanking
145
111338
1462
1297
1015
Table 14: Bureau for Asia and Near East - Summary of Funding(US $millions)*
Country
Near East:
Morocco1987198819891990
Tunisia1987198819891990
EgyP>1987198819891990
Jordan1987198819891990
Yemen A.R.198719881989
19WOman
1987198819891990
Asia:Pakistan
1987198819891990
India1987198819891990
Total
28.432.532.527.5
17.510.911.312.5
820.0718.0930.0815.0
111.018.115.035.0
23.322.121.0
L\.\
15.013.015.020.0
275.5384.0265.0300.0
57.623.724.025.0
Health
0.71.0
0.3
4.12.9 '1.01 fi
5.0
5.01.8
8.010.27.07.8
Education/Human
Resources
1.2
9.18.36.6
13.016.0
0.50.4
SelectedDevelopment
Activities
1.4
0.0
6.23.73.35.5
EconomicSupport
Fund
10.020.020.015.0
820.0718.0930.0815.0
111.0ts.i15.035.0
15.013.015.020.0
250.5334.0215.0250.0
Other**
15.812.511.811.6
17.210.911.312.5
0.00.00.00.0
25.00.00.00.0
10.110.913.411.2
0.00.00.00.0
20.050.032.032.2
43.49.813.211.4
Examples of Projects withUrban Components
Health management improvementAnhi low income housingTetouan Urban DevelopmentWatershed management
Technology transferSmall project assistanceImproved water resources managementScience and technology
Cairo/Alexandria wastewater system expansionIndustrial productionProvincial citiesWaler/wastewater institutional development
Low cost housing support (1988)Water systems and services managementIndustrial developmentZarqua Ruseifa water and wastewater
Tihama Primary Health CamYemen enterprise supportBasic educational development
Water resources developmentSchool construction
Institutional excellenceDevelopment support trainingEnergy planning and developmentRoads resources management
Development and management trainingAdvancement of commercial technologyPVOs for healthTechnical assistance and support/housing finance
(Continued) UJ
Table 14: Bureau for Asia and Near East(US Smillions)*
Summary of Funding / cont
Country
AsiaBangladesh
1987198819891990
Sri Lanka1987198819891990
Nepal1987198819891990
Burma1987198819891990
Thailand1987198819891990
rnuippincs1987198819891990
Indonesia1987198819891990
Total
84.259.361.355.0
23.526.S26.818.0
15.012.512.012.0
S.05.1
21.521.918.619.5
237.070.0338.0415.0
85.840.542.043.0
Health
2.01.52.02.3
0.3
3.41.31.51.3
1.5
0.3
4.93.41.33.3
7.29.73.98.6
Education/Human
Resources
3.04.30.22.3
1.00.80.51.2
1.01.5
1.30.41.22.8
3.66.04.42.9
SelectedDevelopment
Activities
1.51.52.51.9
1.44.05.24.6
0.0
3.41.44.5
4.07.63.07.1
EconomicSupport
Fund
235.015.0
298.0160.0
Other**
77.752.056.748.5
21.922.821.613.4
10.610.410.09.5
5.53.60.00.0
21.221.918.619.5
-4.247.836.2
244.4
71.017.230.724.4
Examples of Projects wtthUrban Components
Urban volunteer programLocal government infrastructare and serviceEnterprise development
Water supply and sanitation sectorNatural resources and environmental policyRehabi liation assistancePrivate sector policy support
Resource conservation and utilizationPVO co-financing
Emerging problems of developmentScience and technology for developmentDecentralized development managementUniversity development
Municipal development fundShelter sector programLocal government improvementBarangay water supply
Local government trainingFinancial institutions developmentHealth sector financingMunicipal finance
* This summary does not include full reporting of Housing Guarantee loans provided by the Office of Housing and Urban Development(For example, Jordan received $35 million in Housing Guarantee loans for land policy change and housing for low income groups.Large HG programs for India, Indonesia and Sri Lanka are not reflected.)
**"Other "includes: JAgriculture, rural development, nutrition, population plaining, child survival, and AIDS
Source: US A JD. Congressional Presentation FiscalYear 1990, Annex II-Asia andNear East
65
The United Nations Center for Housing and Shelter (HABITAT),established in 1978, focuses on housing and shelter issues indeveloping countries. The United Nations General Assembly hasendorsed a HABITAT proposal to launch a global strategy toprovide adequate shelter for all through the year 2000.
The United Nations Department of International Economic andSocial Affairs is currently developing a series of populationstudies of mega-cities. The aim of this research project is todevelop population policies to improve the standard of living andquality of life of urban inhabitants. The project trackspopulation migration and growth trends and evaluates populationdistribution strategies and efforts to provide cost-effectiveurban infrastructure. Consideration is also given to creatingemployment, assembling urban land for development projects, andmeasuring the effectiveness of institutional arrangements forplanning and managing urban growth.53
Most of the assistance provided by the UN agencies is in theform of technical assistance, training, and pre-investmentstudies, but some capital investment funds are provided. Currentresearch projects relating to urban land policies (e.g.,ownership rights, use regulations and tenure, and municipalfinance) are supported by HABITAT in cooperation with the otherUN agencies.
b. World Bank
The World Bank's worldwide program of assistance for urbanareas is by far the largest in dollar volume; annual levels reachover one billion dollars. The program covers almost every aspectof urban development, including low-cost shelter, urban trans-port, and integrated urban and regional development. Pastprojects have focused on the largest metropolitan areas, butrecent activity has included many secondary cities.54 In thehousing sector, the bank is giving increased attention in itsresearch and policy work and in its lending program to housingfinance and to the development of financial intermediaries tosupport housing development.
During the past five years, the World Bank's urbandevelopment programs have undergone a dramatic shift in focus toinclude not only provision of infrastructure but also assistancefor urban administration and municipal finance, better landmanagement, housing, and cross-sectoral interventions intransport, water supply, and sanitation as necessary conditionsfor good functioning of cities.55 The World Bank also considersenvironmental impacts at the project level, and has developedguidelines and recommendations for mitigating potential adverseeffects.5* The bank is also executing projects for UNDP on watersupply, sanitation, waste management, and urban management.
66
Linked to this joint UNDP/World Bank program is the Water Supplyand Sanitation Decade activities undertaken by bilateral donorsand multilateral lenders to achieve greater coordination andcollaboration in urban sanitation and waste management.
The Asia Environment Unit is about to embark on a three-yearresearch program for environmental management in Asia's urbanareas. The proposed $2.2 million "Capital Cities clean-Up"project will primarily focus on the impact of industrialdevelopment and urban management practices on the environment inlarge metropolitan areas.57
c. Asian Development Bank
The Asian Development Bank began its assistance to urbandevelopment in 1976 with the establishment of an UrbanDevelopment Division. Capital investment for infrastructure isthe primary form of assistance.5*
d. Other bilateral assistance
Other major donors providing urban development assistance toANE countries include the governments of Great Britain, theNetherlands, West Germany, Canada, Japan, and the Scandinaviancountries. This assistance has been primarily for infrastructuredevelopment and housing. Recent activity reflects a similartrend toward providing technical assistance that does not include"hardware" items. (Information on actual levels of assistancewas not readily available for bilateral donors.)
Over the past few years, the Government of Japan has becomea major provider of foreign assistance. Japan's annual worldwideforeign aid budget for FY 1990 is projected to be the largest ofany bilateral aid budget. Japanese aid is directed primarily atproviding hardware; however, technical assistance in the form ofplanning and design services is becoming a more prominent part ofthe program. Examples of projects include a waterworks improve-ment project in Cairo, $1.4 million for a health promotionproject in North Sumatra, an $18 million waterworks project inJakarta, and a $12.7 million drainage system rehabilitationproject in Metro Manila.
67
VII. OPTIONS AND APPROACHES FOR A.I.D.
This section discusses A.I.D. policy options and approachesfor environmental and urban development activities in ANEcountries. This presentation is based on a framework that setsguidelines for all policy options. Subsections devoted tospecific approaches follow. Recommendations for A.I.D. policyare presented in Section VIII.
Policy Framework
The A.I.D. policy options and approaches presented in thispaper are based on a recognition of the need for A.I.D. todevelop policy that will guide its urban program activities.Such policy must take into account the following elements:
• The cross-sectoral nature of environmental policy;
• Recognition that the availability of resources maylimit A.I.D.'s contribution to technicalassistance and leveraged investments; and
• The need to include detailed environmentalanalyses as an integral component of all projectsand programs in A.I.D."s assistance portfolio.
Note, however, that the most critical issue in all ANE countriesis program funding.
a. Cross-sectoral linkages
Recognition of cross-sectoral linkages must be a key elementin A.I.D.'s environmental and urban policy. Urban policy shouldexclude programs that foster growth in one sector at the expenseof another or that cause irreversible environmental damage in oneor several sectors. Rather, policy should be developed thatencourages balanced economic development with minimumenvironmental degradation, in relation to industrial and housing-support activities, for example.
b. Technical assistance and leveraged investments
The ANE countries will require enormous investments over thenext 10 to 20 years for rehabilitation and/or provision ofphysical infrastructure, including housing. If A.I.D. practicesof the past decade remain unchanged, however, it is doubtful thatmany capital-intensive interventions will be implemented in theANE region over the next several years. Thus, A.I.D.'s options
68
for policy and programming may be, for the most part, limited tothe provision of technical assistance.
This lack of participation by A.I.D. in infrastructureprojects may pose a basic dilemma for the Agency. On the onehand, the desire to provide help to those most in need is strong.On the other hand, the levels of funding available may in factforce A.I.D. to take a subsidiary role in terms of urbanprograms.
Recognition of the possibly limited level of A.I.D.assistance requires that A.I.D. develop policy to ensure that itscontributions achieve the maximum impact. Thus, policy thatfosters cooperation among bilateral donors and multilaterallending institutions to leverage investments will be imperative.Further, policy should be adopted to ensure increased cooperationamong A.I.D.'s bureaus and field missions and its Office ofHousing and Urban Programs.
A.I.D.'s most significant urban development interventionappears to be its program of housing loan guarantees. The costof these guarantees is very small compared with the amount ofcapital secured and offers A.I.D. two options for providing highlevels of capital for urban development. One option would be toincrease the total program size (about $100 million for F 1990 inseven of the ANE countries). A second option would be to expandthe housing guarantee concept to include guaranteeing loans forfinancing general urban development projects. Such guaranteescould provide funds for "seed" money for locally funded projects,credit at beneficial interest rates, and contributions tonational or regional development banks.
Policy should also be adopted to ensure that A.I.D.'sactivities include support of private sector initiatives,especially programs (in and out of government) that have highlevels of cost recovery or the potential for self-generation ofinvestment funds.
c. Environmental aspects of program/project formulation
A.I.D. policy should be formulated so that all urbandevelopment programs or projects recognize that they may impingeon the in-city and out-of-city environments. A few examplesfollow:
• The environmental effects of water supply and waste-water service should be analyzed to ensure that if theadded water supply increases the volume of wastewater,its discharge into watercourses or into the ground doesnot lower water quality, which might cause a loss in
69
either surface water for downstream uses orgroundwater.
• Housing programs should be based on proper landuse planning and should mitigate problems causedby overcrowding and/or overstressing of basicurban services.
• Industrial development and general infrastructureprograms should be analyzed not only for theirdirect environmental impacts (effects on air,water, and noise pollution and demands on physicaland financial resources) but also for theirsecondary or indirect effects, including effect onpopulation shifts, housing, educational and othersocial infrastructure requirements, andadministrative demands on the governing or owningentity.
• The management of water demand is closely related tothe management of municipal and industrial wastes.Water conservation practices, for example, throughappropriate pricing and cost recovery, could reduceindustrial waste generation in particular and couldencourage recycling.
• Rapid urban growth is causing ever-increasingurban boundaries to impinge directly on, and giverise to great competition for, valuable forest andagricultural lands and watershed.
• Rapid urbanization is causing services andresources to be out of balance. Badly degradedenvironmental conditions in and around majorcities and in smaller cities and towns have beencreated by inadequate wastewater collection andsolid waste services. Air pollution and hazardouswastes are causing major problems in almost all ofthe larger cities in the ANE area. Thesedeficiencies have serious public health impacts,detrimentally affect the quality of urban life,and decrease economic productivity.
Thus, A.I.D. policy should require that project/program selectioncriteria be based in part on environmental considerations.Policy changes may be required to cause detailed analyses ofurban needs and environmental impact to be prominently includedin A.I.D.'s project development processes.
70
Specific Approaches
a. Infrastructure development
If A.I.D. is to be a major factor in urban development inANE countries, A.I.D. interventions will have to provide theneeded infrastructure for basic services, especially urbanwastewater treatment. Such interventions will represent a majorpolicy shift for A.I.D., but they may be possible by expandingthe housing guarantee program and adopting the housing guaranteeconcept for use in other types of projects.
b. Institutional development
Weak institutions abound in almost all sectors of the ANEcountries. For sustainable urban and environmental programs tobe implemented and kept viable, capable governmental and otherinstitutions must exist.
The following institutional issues and problems are commonto all the ANE countries:
• Lack of manpower, skills, and human resourcedevelopment programs;
• Lack of sound systems for comprehensive urban andenvironmental management;
• Lack of appropriate urban development, environ-mental, and natural resource policies;
• Unclear or uncoordinated division of responsi-bilities among ministries or agencies withresponsibility for urban development and environ-mental and/or natural resource protection;
• Inability to prepare comprehensive urban plans andconcurrent lack of preparation and/or inclusion ofenvironmental and natural resource considerationsin comprehensive plans;
• Lack of data on environmental conditions and lackof adequate measures of performance and ofperformance monitoring;
• Inability to identify, obtain funding for,implement, and sustain sound projects; and
71
• Lack of physical resources (vehicles, tools,equipment) needed to perform technical andadministrative functions.
A.I.D. support to help eliminate the above constraints isdesirable, but all of the problems discussed herein areexacerbated by a serious lack of capital funds. Thus, technicalassistance alone is not necessarily welcome as a form ofassistance by host countries. Further, technical assistance israrely sustainable as a project in itself. Such programs oftenmust be linked with other A.I.D.-supported programs, infrastruc-ture projects supported by other foreign donors, or other typesof capital assistance.
Thus, A.I.D.'s basic strategy should include strengtheninghost country capabilities to develop and manage urban governmentand service-delivery programs. When selecting program andproject opportunities, A.I.D.'s priorities should go to thosethat contribute to and are supportive of developing urban andenvironmental institutional capabilities.
c. Human resource development
The development of human resources is closely aligned toinstitutional development. Although human resource needs varyacross the ANE region, the general level of need is very high.Morocco, Tunisia, and Jordan have, on a relative basis, moderateneeds. These countries have a strong tradition of providingeducational opportunity. Other ANE countries are not nearly sofortunate. In many, a major portion of the small, technicallycapable cadres that are available are lost as part of a "braindrain" to the oil-rich countries. Thus, A.I.D.'s strategy forinstitutional development should include, where possible, acomponent to bolster "civil service" reform so that employmentincentives can be provided to technically capable people. (Onesuch strategy is to encourage the creation of parastatalorganizations for service provision. Such organizations can besustainable in capital-intensive ventures if the cost-recoverypotential of the services provided is successfully exploited.)
Generally, high human resource needs are a result of lowlevels of education and limited access to vocational and higherlearning centers. Engineers, mechanical and electricaltechnicians, health education specialists, behavioral scientists,and trained managers are needed in almost all urban managementand environmental agencies in the ANE region. Thus, training andeducational systems oriented toward comprehensive urban manage-ment and environmental and resource management are priorityneeds.
72
For the ANE countries to meet their human resource needs,enormous help will be required to establish or strengthen in-country capabilities to train personnel and institutionalize thepersonnel and support systems needed for effective performance.These are potentially key areas for A.I.D. intervention, andpossibilities for providing these interventions should routinelybe evaluated as elements of all A.I.D. programs and projects.
Similar to technical assistance, however, human resourcedevelopment projects may not be popular with host governments.Thus, care must be taken when formulating these policies, for itmay be impossible to implement such programs without linking themto other, more popular forms of assistance.
d. Land use and housing as a lever for balanced urbandevelopment
Proper urban development can be classified as a system thatpermits the balanced provision of all support services necessaryfor the vitality of urban life. These services include adequatephysical infrastructure for basic services—water supply,sanitation, solid waste collection—and institutions and systemsnecessary for the proper functioning of the urban entity.Further, urban development should be balanced to complementnational development efforts.
Land use planning programs, however, are not necessarilypopular programs because they tend to control development. Thus,they may be in conflict with the economic forces pushing fordevelopment without regard to proper controls. This conflict isa worldwide phenomenon, not limited by any means to developingcountries.
A.I.D.'s assistance in land use planning will help provideservices to maintain the urban populace and bolster theenvironmental quality of urban areas and enable them to act ascenters of national development. A.I.D.'s support of nationaland local efforts to improve land use planning and provideadequate housing will enable A.I.D. to become involved at themost basic levels of urban and national planning and development.(If such a policy is adopted, the sensitivities discussed abovemust be recognized.) Further, provision of adequate housingoften can be based on private sector initiatives. Thus, suchprograms have the added advantage of providing neededinfrastructure, while at the same time relieving a budget burdenfrom the central government.
73
e. Support of private sector and nongovernmentalinitiatives
A.I.D.'s support of initiatives by the private sector and/ornongovernmental organizations (NGOs) should be encouraged; suchinitiatives can produce benefits on several fronts. An obviousbenefit is that the initiatives are being locally conceived inreaction to some obvious need. Thus, they should have a highprobability of success. Second, pressure on the centralgovernment to provide the services would be relieved or lessened.Further, because the service is being provided through theprivate sector, a high degree of cost recovery may be realized.
Development of local organizations or commercial entitiesfalls within the recommended policy of institutional development.In fact, the nongovernmental nature of such institutions may beextremely beneficial to national development because of their"grassroots" nature.
Institutional development of the private sector should alsobe developed in conjunction with support of capacity building andenhancement of the technical competence of local government tomanage and coordinate private sector activities.
Examples of private sector initiatives in the ANE countriesthat A.I.D. could support follow:
• Water supply and/or wastewater disposal,
• Solid waste collection and disposal,
• Housing developments,
• Roadway and drainage maintenance, and
• General construction services.
This list could be expanded, depending on the investments avail-able and the characteristics of private sector services in aparticular country.'
f. Decentralized operations/community involvement
Many cities within the ANE countries operate at low levelsof efficiency. A contributing factor in this regard could bethat most central governments decide how services are to beprovided, financed, and regulated. These centrally proposedurban development solutions often fail due to inappropriatebudget support and lack of local acceptance.
74
A consideration for A.I.D. should be to encouragegovernments to place responsibility for urban control with localgovernments and local private sector institutions or othernongovernmental organizations. The goal would be to decentralizethe decision-making process and place the responsibility forurban management as close to the people involved as possible. Inthis manner, requirements can be determined locally, communityparticipation could be more easily encouraged, and arrangementsfor payment for all or a part of the services by thebeneficiaries may be possible.
g. Direct help programs
Another consideration for A.I.D. would be to sponsor self-help programs in regard to urban management and environmentalcontrols. A.I.D. could help central governments to set nationalgoals and policy and regulatory frameworks. In a complementaryprogram, A.I.D. could directly help local governments to produceand manage the services they provide more efficiently. Thiswould include mechanisms to plan and finance local projects,including operating on a sound business (financial) basis, withcosts being recovered, where possible, at market levels. Cost-recovery strategies might include charges, taxes, and fees.
75
VIII. PRIORITIES FOR A.I.D. PROGRAMMING
This section discusses priorities for A.I.D. programming.General recommendations for internal activities and programmingin the ANE countries are included.
A.I.D. Program Examination
A.I.D.'s ongoing activities and support in almost all of theANE countries are directed primarily to rural areas as part ofprograms that involve agriculture, rural development, health andnutrition, family planning, and child survival. The rural biasis clear and, in fact, derives from A.I.D.'s legislative mandateto provide help for the poorest groups in any particular country.
The explosion in urban population growth, however, hascaused a large portion of the A.I.D. "clientele," that is, thepoorest inhabitants, to reside in or near cities. Rapid urban-ization, in fact, has caused the greatest growth to occur inperi-urban areas. These population concentrations tend tooverstress existing facilities, and the very nature andcharacteristics of these kinds of population concentrations makeinterventions by government for provision of basic services—water supply, wastewater, and solid waste disposal—almostimperative. Thus, it will be necessary for A.I.D. to refocus itsefforts and activities to provide a more balanced approachbetween rural and urban programs. Further, it may be necessaryfor A.I.D. to provide assistance in projects requiring largecapital investments.
The first priority for A.I.D. should be to revise itsprocedures to reflect the more balanced approach. The initialcomponent of this effort should include a review of existingA.I.D. policy, programs, and activities with the followingobjectives:
• Identify policy or statutes that work againstA.I.D.*s providing a balanced urban-ruralprogramming approach.
• Determine specifically which projects or programscontain definite urban components and identify thecross-sectoral components in terms of environ-mental sensitivities or requirements. The statusof these programs should be reviewed to determineif they should or could be expanded.
• Determine possible areas of cooperation amongA.I.D. groups (bureaus, missions, and the Officeof Housing and Urban Programs) and between A.I.D.and other bilateral donors and multilateral
76
development banks, opportunities for cooperationshould be incorporated into future programdevelopment scenarios. Cooperation and co-financing with other bilateral donors andmultilateral lenders should be a key element inA.I.D.'s priority activities.
Program Financing
Subsequent to the review described above, the ANE Bureaushould consider the annual level of investments that can beprovided to various programs in the ANE countries. As discussedin various sections of this paper, the greatest need in all ofthe ANE countries is the provision of basic services—primarilyurban wastewater collection and treatment, followed by provisionof facilities for water supply and solid waste services.Facilities (i.e., physical infrastructure) to provide theseservices, especially for wastewater, are extremely expensive toconstruct and maintain, and such capital-intensive needs pose abasic problem for A.I.D. For many years A.I.D.'s program levels,except for Egypt, have been restrained by a policy of providingonly low levels of capital support and/or high levels oftechnical assistance. A.I.D.'s F 1990 program levels in the ANEcountries are relatively low when compared with the capital (orinvestment) levels required for urban infrastructure. There islittle evidence that A.I.D. will have larger budgets with whichto furnish any large amounts of capital. If this is the case,A.I.D. programs may be out of step with the real concerns andneeds of many countries in the ANE region because technicalassistance programs are usually only reluctantly accepted ontheir own merits.
Thus, A.I.D. should, at least selectively, provide directcapital assistance to the ANE countries. The following steps arerecommended to implement that course:
• Examine A.I.D.'s portfolio of existing andproposed projects to determine the feasibility andapplicability of expanding the concept of housingguarantees to help finance other types ofprojects. The benefits of this approach areobvious: the amount of capital made available ismany times the actual cost to A.I.D.; localorganizations (private and public sector and NGOs)will be involved so that the program can become a"local institution" very quickly; high levels ofcost recovery can be achieved to make the programself-generating.
77
• Examine the housing guarantee programs for F 1990to determine if they can be expanded to providefurther comprehensive urban development assistanceas part of the shelter-upgrading portfolio ofprojects.
• Determine how various programs in ANE countriescould be expanded if cost-recovery mechanisms werebuilt into the programs. Consideration should begiven to examining the tax base for investment andthrift rates for recovery. Although few utilitiesin sanitation/water are totally unsubsidized orfinancially self-sufficient, certain componentsshow potential for cost recovery.
• Determine how various programs could be expandedif private or commercial sector firms were used toprovide the necessary services while cost-recoverysystems are implemented.
• Determine how the private or commercial sectorcould be of further help to the public sector,either by providing financing (thus perhapsgaining an equity position in the venture) orprivate loan guarantees for various projects.
(Note: Privatization as discussed above is not a panacea for theproblems facing the ANE countries. However, the enormous needsof these countries in the face of mounting debts in many sectorsmake privatization a very feasible alternative for furtherstudy.)
Program Priorities and Characteristics
a. Priorities
A.I.D. must recognize that the acceptability to hostcountries and the sustainability of technical assistance projectswill be much greater if they are tied to capital assistanceprojects. Thus, if A.I.D. must limit its programs to technicalassistance projects, it must make a conscious effort to cooperatewith other donors providing capital assistance.
The priorities of the ANE Bureau in terms of program contentshould be projects that will enable countries to provide basicservices to the urban poor and to sustain the programs, withA.I.D. or other external assistance. Such programs are thosethat will provide physical infrastructure coupled with help toinstitutions (public and private sector) so they might providesustainable, high-quality services.
78
Projects to provide infrastructure—especially wastewatercollection and treatment, water supply, and solid wastecollection and disposal—have not been prominent in A.I.D.'s ANEactivities, except for one or two specific countries.
A.I.D. should consider, as part of its top priority,projects that promote institution strengthening. Such projectscan be provided as part of infrastructure projects or as projectsin their own right and should include improvements to managementsystems and manpower training.
The next level of priority would be programs that foster thedevelopment of comprehensive urban and environmental policy (fromnational policy determination to zoning and land use planning atthe local levels).
By necessity, all of the programs described will be inter-sectoral. Thus, depending on the characteristics of theindividual country, they will cross the responsibility boundariesof several ministries and reinforce the need for strong institu-tions, as well as strong implementation efforts on the part ofA.I.D. and the implementing agency.
b. Program characteristics
The program characteristics for A.I.D.-sponsored projectsare generally as described above and in Section VII. Theseinclude programs that can provide the investment capital requiredand those having strong institution-strengthening and humanresource components. Other critical characteristics for A.I.D.to identify for projects are as follows:
• Initiation at the local level, with partialfinancing by the entity having responsibility forthe program.
• High levels of local support to ensure widespreadbenefits (especially benefits to women) andsuitability for local operation (or direction).
• Closer cooperation with U.S. federal agencies andprivate organizations with expertise in responding tourban planning and pollution problems.
Priority Countries
It is extremely difficult to establish priorities among ANEcountries in terms of providing urban development programs.Section VI presents some data on which to base such choices.A.I.D. obviously confronts many political and humanitarian
79
pressures to sponsor projects and programs in a particularcountry. Political considerations will always be present ifA.I.D. is the agency responsible for overseeing disbursements forprograms outside the development realm.
Notwithstanding the "political facts of life," A.I.D. shouldconsider the following technical criteria in making choices abouturban program priorities:
• Existence of national urban and/or environmentalpolicy,
• Severity of need or level of environmental degradation,
• Program priority as evidenced by inclusion innational plans,
• Urban needs, in terms of basic services—watersupply, wastewater and solid wastes, and the unitcost of responding to those needs, specifically inrelation to the urban poor,
• History of positive implementation of programs,
• Existence of an institution that can implement theprogram and assume clear cut, comprehensiveresponsibility for providing the service,
• Potential of the program to be sustained, at leastin part, with local financing, private sectorinvolvement, or through a local NGO,
• Potential of program to encourage other U.S. federalagencies to cooperate, and
• Potential of the program to be implemented throughco-financing of several donors or multilaterallending institutions.
Conclusions
The recommendations for A.I.D. projects and programs includeinvestments in infrastructure and/or institution strengthening.Investing in physical infrastructure to provide basic serviceswill reguire a major shift in A.I.D. policy and improvements inA.I.D.'s internal coordination.
80
A.I.D. may need to devise innovative financing schemes.Extension of the housing guarantee concept to allow A.I.D. loanguarantees to development banks is one way that such a conceptcould be implemented. Co-financing with other agencies is a keycomponent for future efforts.
These recommendations, implemented in cooperation with otherbilateral donors and multilateral agencies operating in theregion, will provide a basis for beginning to address thecritical environmental challenges, now and in the future.
81
REFERENCES
83
REFERENCES
Section I
1. US Agency for International Development, Asia Near EastBureau. Draft Natural Resource Strategy (Washington, D.C.:1988) 11.
2. United Nations, Department of International Economic andSocial Affairs. Population Growth and Policies inMega-Cities: Calcutta, Seoul, Metro Manila, Bombay, Delhi,Dhaka, Bangkok, Madras, and Karachi (New York: 1986, 1987,1988).
3. World Bank, Asia Region Environment Unit. Proposal -Capital Cities clean-up: A Program for EnvironmentalManagement in the Asia Region (Washington, D.C.: 1989).
4. Center for Science and Environment. India's Environment1984-1985: The Second Citizen's Report (New Delhi: 1986).
World Bank, Country Department, Asia Regional Office.Indonesia—Forest, Land and Water: Issues in SustainableDevelopment (Draft) (Washington D.C.: 1988).
Section II
5. Whitney, Joseph and Christian Dufournaud. "The Impact ofUrbanization on the Environment: An Ecological Input-outModel" in UNESCO, Approaches to the Study of theEnvironmental Implications of Contemporary Urbanization (NewYork: 1983) 84.
6. Tilakaratna, S., S. Hettige, and Wilfred Karunaratna."Environmental Health and Community Development Project: ACase Study in the Slums and Shanties of Colombo" in G.Shabbir Cheema, ed., Reaching the Urban Poor—ProjectImplementation in Developing Countries (Boulder, Colorado:Westview Press, 1986) 122.
7. World Health Organization. Improving Environmental HealthConditions in Low-Income Settlements (Geneva: 1987).
8. Thomas, Robert H. Urban Water Supply and Sanitation: Statusand Opportunities for Intervention, WASH Activity No. 457(Washington, D.C.: AID Office of Housing and Urban Programs,1988) .
9. World Bank. Draft—Indonesia: Forest, Land and Water:Issues in Sustainable Development (Washington, D.C.: 1987)45.
84
10. World Health Organization. Improving Environmental HealthConditions in Low-Income Settlements (Geneva: 1987) v.
Section III
11. Linn, Johannes F. Cities in the Developing World(Washington, D.C.: Oxford University Press, 1983) 5-6.
12. U.S. Agency for International Development, Office ofHousing and Urban Programs. Near East Bureau Countries,Current and Projected Urbanization and Associated Indicators(Washington, D.C.: PADCO, April 1983).
13. Rondinelli, Dennis. Secondary Cities in DevelopingCountries (Beverly Hills, California: Sage PublicationsInc., 1983).
14. Mills, Edwin S. and Charles M. Becker. Studies in IndianUrban Development (Washington, D.C.: Oxford UniversityPress, 1986) 15-16.
15. Baxter, Diana. Approaches to the Study of the EnvironmentalImplications of Contemporary Urbanization (New York: UNESCO,1983) 101.
16. US Agency for International Development. Creating an A.I.D.Urban Research Strategy, A Report of the A.I.D. ResearchAdvisory Committee (Washington, D.C.: 1989).
17. United Nations Environment Program. UNEP Profile (New York:no date) 24-26.
18. Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project.Environmental Health in Egypt: A Sectoral Assessment andRecommendations, Report #33 (Arlington, Virginia: 1982) 18.
19. United Nations Center for Human Settlements. Survey of Slumand Squatter Settlements (Dublin: 1982) 11.
Section IV
20. Cohen, Michael A. "Cities in Developing Countries:1975-2000" in Pradip K. Ghosh, ed., Urban Development inthe Third World (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press,1984) 29-35.
21. Rondinelli, Dennis. Secondary Cities in DevelopingCountries (Beverly Hills, California: Sage PublicationsInc., 1983).
85
22. United Nations, Department of International Economic andSocial Affairs. Population Growth and Policies in Mega-Cities: Calcutta, Seoul, Metro Manila, Bombay, Delhi, Dhaka,Bangkok, Madras, and Karachi (New York: 1986, 1987, 1988).
Lea, John P. and John M. Courtney. Cities in Conflict:Studies in Planning and Management of Asian Cities - A WorldBank Symposium (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1985).
Sivaramakrishnan, K.C., and Leslie Green, MetropolitanManagement: The Asian Experience (Washington, D.C.: EconomicDevelopment Institute of the World Bank, 1986).
23. Stanley Consultants. Environmental Assessment: GreaterCairo Wastewater System, West Bank—Review Draft, preparedfor A.I.D. Washington, D.C.: 1982).
24. Arab Republic of Egypt, Ministry of Development, AdvisoryCommittee for Reconstruction. National Urban Policy Study(Cairo: PADCO, 1982).
25. United Nations, Department of International Economic andSocial Affairs. Population Growth and Policies inMega-Cities: Metro Manila (New York: 1986) .
26. See Sivaramakrishnan and Green, reference 22.
27. Ibid.
28. See Lea and Courtney, and Sivaramakrishnan and Green,reference 22.
29. Willcox, David L. "Urban Land Policy Where the PopulationBomb has Already Exploded," HABITAT International 7, 5/61983: 37.
30. United Nations, Department of International Economic andSocial Affairs. Population Growth and Policies inMega-Cities: Dhaka (New York: 1986).
31. United Nations, Department of International Economic andSocial Affairs. Population Growth and Policies inMega-Cities: Bangkok (New York: 1987), 93.
32. See Sivaramakrishnan and Green, reference 22.
33. See Lea and Courtney, reference 22, and reference 30.
34. United Nations, Department of International Economic andSocial Affairs. Population Growth and Policies inMega-Cities: Madras (New York: 1987).
86
35. United Nations, Department of International Economic andSocial Affairs. Population Growth and Policies inMega-Cities: Karachi (New York: 1988) 19.
36. Ibid.
Section V
37. Renaud, Betrand. National Urbanization Policies inDeveloping Countries (Washington, D.C.: Oxford UniversityPress for the World Bank, 1981) 6.
38. United Nations Center for Human Settlements. The Role ofSmall and Intermediate Settlements in National Development,prepared by Jorge Hardoy and David Satterthwaite (Nairobi:1985).
39. United Nations, Department of International Economic andSocial Affairs. Population Growth and Policies inMega-Cities: Madras (New York: 1987) 28.
40. Arab Republic of Egypt, Ministry of Development, AdvisoryCommittee for Reconstruction. National Urban Policy Study(Cairo: PADCO, 1982).
41. University of Arizona, Arid Land Information Center, Officeof Arid Lands Studies. Draft Environmental Report onMorocco (Washington, D.C.: US Department of State, 1980).
42. Library of Congress, Science and Technology Division. DraftEnvironmental Report on Sri Lanka (Washington, D.C.: USDepartment of State, 1978)
43. Phatak, V.K. and G.N. Warade. "Environmental Managementand Metropolitan Development Planning: A Case Study ofBombay." in United Nations Center for Regional Development,United Nations Environment Program, Environmental Managementfor Local and Regional Development. Part II: DevelopingCountries' Perspective (New York: 1986).
44. World Health Organization. The International Drinking WaterSupply and Sanitation Decade: Review of Mid-Decade Progress(as at December 1985) (Geneva: 1987).
45. Grimes, Orville F. "The Urban Housing Situation inDeveloping Countries." in Pradip K. Ghosh, ed., UrbanDevelopment in the Third World (Westport, Connecticut:Greenwood Press, 1984) 167-187. See also reference 38.
46. Richardson, Harry W. "National Urban Development Strategiesin Developing Countries" in Pradip K. Ghosh, ed. Urban
87
Development in the Third World (Westport, Connecticut:Greenwood Press, 1984) 122-148. See also reference 37.
47. Sivaramakrishnan, K.C. and Leslie Green. MetropolitanManagement: The Asian Experience (Washington, D.C.: EconomicDevelopment Institute of the World Bank, 1986).
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
Section VI
50. US Agency for International Development. Urbanization inthe Developing Countries: Interim Report to Congress(Washington, D.C.: 1988).
US Agency for International Development. Urbanization inthe Developing Countries: Draft Final Report to Congress,Section IV-VI (Washington, D.C.: 1989).
51. Ibid: Interim Report to Congress: 25.
52. Stanley Consultants. Environmental Assessment: GreaterCairo Wastewater System, West Bank—Review Draft Preparedfor AID (Washington, D.C.: 1982) 9.
53. United Nations, Department of International Economic andSocial Affairs. Population Growth and Policies inMega-Cities: Calcutta (New York: 1986).
54. Yeung, Yue-man and Francois Belise. "Third WorldDevelopment: Agency Responses with Particular Reference toIDRC," in David Drakakis-Smith, Urbanization in theDeveloping World (Kent, United Kingdom: 1986) 99-120.
55. Ljung, Per and Catherine Farvacque. Addressing the UrbanChallenge: A Review of the Word Bank FY 87 Water Supply andUrban Development Operations, Policy Planning and ResearchStaff, Infrastructure and Urban Development Department(Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1988).
56. Lee, James A. The Environment, Public Health and HumanEcology: Considerations for Economic Development(Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1985).
57. World Bank, Asia Region Environment Unit. Proposal -Capital Cities Clean-up: A Program for EnvironmentalManagement in the Asia Region (Washington, D.C.: 1989).
58. See reference 54.
88
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
1. University of Arizona, Arid Land Information Center, Officeof Arid Land Studies. Draft Environmental Report on ArabRepublic of Egypt (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department ofState, May 1980).
2. Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project.Environmental Health in Egypt: A Sectoral Assessment andRecommendations, Report 33 (Arlington, Virginia: 1982).
3. World Resources Institute. World Resources 1988-89 (NewYork: Basic Books, 1988).
4. The World Bank. World Development Report 1988 (Washington,D.C.: Oxford University Press, 1988).
5. The World Bank. World Development Report 1985 (Washington,D.C.: Oxford University Press, 1985).
6. United Nations. The Prospects of World Urbanization:Revised as of 1984-1985 (New York: 1987).
7. Brown, Lester et al. State of the World - 1989 (Washington,D.C.: WorldWatch Institute, 1989).
8. World Health Organization. Water Supply and SanitationDecade: Mid-Decade Review (Geneva: 1985).
9. Government of Pakistan, Environment and Urban AffairsDivision. Environmental Profile of Pakistan (Islamabad,1988).
10. Library of Congress, Science and Technology Division. DraftEnvironmental Report on the Philippines (Washington, D.C.:Department of State, 1980).
12. Porter, Gareth with Delfin J. Ganapin, Jr. Resources,Population, and the Philippines' Future: A Case Study, WRIPaper 44 (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute,1988) .
13. Melchor, Alejandro. Urbanization in the Philippines(Executive Secretary, Government of the Philippines).
14. Thailand Development Research Institute. Thailand NaturalResources Profile (Bangkok: 1987).
89
15. Setamanitm Surin. "Environmental Aspects of DevelopmentPlanning: A Thai Experience." in Environmental Managementfor Local and Regional Development, Part II: DevelopingCountries Perspective (New York: United Nations Center forRegional Development, 198-).
16. Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project. ProposedWater Supply and Sanitation Strategies for the Ministry ofPublic Health in the Thailand Sixth 5-Year Plan (1987-1991)(Arlington, Virginia: Field Report 153, 1985).
17. Library of Congress, Science and Technology Division. DraftEnvironmental Report on Thailand (Washington, D.C.: 1979).
18. Cohen, Murray et al. Environmental Consequences of Indus-trialization and Urban Development in Thailand (Washington,D.C.: USAID/Thailand, 1985).
19. World Bank. Development of Regional Cities in Thailand,East Asia and Pacific Projects Department, (Washington,D.C.: 1980).
20. Republic of Indonesia. JABOTABEK Metropolitan DevelopmentPlan Ministry of Public Works, Directorate General ofHousing, Building, Planning and Urban Development,Directorate of Urban and Regional Planning, (Jakarta: 1980).
21. McCauley, D.S., and M. Notodihardjo. Integrating Land orWater Resources Management Activities in Indonesian RiverBasins: Lessons from Java
22. Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project. WaterSupply and Sanitation and Diarrheal Disease Control in theCHIPPS in Indonesia, Field Report 42 (Arlington, Virginia:1982) .
23. US Agency for International Development. Country StudyStrategy Statement: FY 1986 - Egypt, Annex G, Urban Policyand Strategy Update (Washington, D.C: 1984).
24. Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project.Implementation Plan for Unsewered Areas DemonstrationProject in Greater Cairo, Field Report 52, (Arlington,Virginia: 1982).
25. World Health Organization. International Drinking WaterSupply and Sanitation Decade: The Process of Planning andImplementation in India, (Geneva: 1984).
26. Library of Congress, Science and Technology Division. DraftEnvironmental Report on India (Washington, D.C: 1980).
91
APPENDIX A
SUMMARY TABLES OF INDICATORS
Table A l : Dhnemlom of Urbas Population Growlh
Country
Near East:moroccoTunisiaEgyptJontmYemen A.ROnun
Asia:PakistanlnditBin glide*Sri LankaNepalBurmaThiOindPhilippinesIndonesia
Total
Total Population
1950
94
2013
0.4
4035842
1S
IS2021SO
632
1980
196
42361
86689
88151534474!
151
1549
1985
227
47471
1007591011616375154
166
1,390
World Development Report I9SSWorld Restmnes 1988-1989
(million!)
1990
25S
534B1
11282711517It415661
182
1.528
Prospects of World Urtxaamicn 1984-1985US. AID AfiE BureauInternational Printing
- Draft Natural Rtsou
2000
309
646
112
1419641462023486674
211
1.815
2025
401390142!
3
2101.229
2192434668*
103273
1425
-co Strategy 1988Voter and Sanitation Decade,
Review ofMid-dtcade Progress
1950
219
0.4
0.0
76221
0.2326
10
105
1980
4192
0.70.1
2414810418
111751
298
Urban
1985
104
222
0.90.3
27197
IS319
132259
389
Population
1987
114
233
32210
1441
112347
383
(millions)
1990
125
2631
0.4
342432542
10142770
476
2000
166
3554
0.3
533302753
17193677
634
2025
2!106411tl
1
119658791010314268
152
1.296
1950
2631423522
IS174
142
16102712
1965
32404147S4
24196
204
21133216
Urban Population at %
19S0 19S5 1990
41524560157
2S20S
226
24173722
44564669199
292513217
24IS3925
496!49682511
322814211025234229
of Tola
2000 2025
566S567433IS
3S34IS241428294937
717971835331
575436433147496656
Average AnnualGrowth Rate % ofUrban Population1965-80
4.24.22.95.3
10.7S.1
4.33.68.02.35.12.84 64.04.7
1980-85
4.23.73 44.07.37.3
4.13.97.9S.45.62.13.23.22.3
vO
Table A2: Population Distribution by City Size, and Number of Cities
Country
MoroccoEgyptJordanIndiaBangladeshNepalThailandPhilippines
Percentage ofAreas
Small20,000-100,000
<J%21%14%6%3%6%5%
55%
Total Populationby Size of City
Medium100,000-500,000
11%21%15%9%2%
<1%11%
in Urban
Large500,000+
88%54%30%
2%6%2%1%6%
Source: United Nations. Compendium of Human Settlements Statistics, 1983
Small20,000-100,000
]8510
765482453566
Number or Cities
Medium100,000-500,000
5172
14610
123
Large500,000+
153123112
95
Table A2a: Cities and Metropolitan Areas with Projected Population over 2 Million
City/Metropolitan Area
Near East:Egypt
Cairo/GizaAlexandria
Asia:Pakistan
KarachiLahore
IndiaAhmedabadBangaloreBombayCalcuttaHyderabadMadrasNew DelhiPoonaKanpur
BangladeshDhaka
BurmaRangoon
ThailandBangkok
PhilippinesManila/Quezon
IndonesiaJakartaMcdanSurabaya
Sources: Population Division
Population1950
2.51.0
1.00.8
0.90.82.94.41.11.41.40.60.7
0.4
0.7
1.4
1.6
1.80.40.7
Of V.N., 1984
(millions)2000
11.14.4
12.06.2
5.38.0
16.016.55.18.1
13.23.73.2
11.2
4.3
10.7
11.1
13.25.43.7
AssessmentProspects for Urbanization, U.N. 1984-85 (revised),
% Increase
344340
1100675
489900452275364479843517357
2700
555
664
594
6331250469
Table A-9.
96
Table A3: Percent Urban and Gross National ProductPer Capita for a Sample of Countries
Country
BangladeshBurmaIndiaNepalPakistanSri Lanka
GNP Per Capita(U.S.Dollars)
130170240140300270
% PopulationLiving in Urban Areas
112722
52827
Source: Mills, 1981Studies in Indian Urban Development
Table A4: Labor Force Working in Industry/Services and Agriculture
Country
Near EastMoroccoTunisiaEgyptJordanYemen A.R.Oman
Asia:PakistanIndiaBangladeshSri LankaNepalBurmaThailandPhilippinesIndonesia
Working AgePopulation*
(% of total pop.)
1965
505054275453
505451545657515253
1985
525655495150
535653625454595656
Percentage of LaborWorking in
Agriculture
1965
614955377962
607384569464825871
1980
463546106950
557075539353715257
Force
Industry/Services
1965
395045632138
402716446
37184230
•Working age population is defined as between the ages of 15 and 64
Source: World
NOTE:
Development Report 1988
1980
546554903150
46302547847294943
This table shows that as the percentage of the labor force working in industryand services increases, t>o docs the percentage of population
Percent UrbanPopulation
1965
3240414754
24196
204
21133216
living in urban areas
1980
41524560157
28208
226
24173722
Table AS: Poverty Indicators for a Sample of Countries
CountryPercentage of Population Living
Below Absolute Poverty Levelt
PhilippinesBurmaPakistanBangladeshMoroccoIndiaIndonesiaEgyptThailandJordan
Urban52403229282826211514
Rural64402947453544253417
Total59--
45-
37
--
Year of Data1985
-19791986197919841978197819781979
tAbsolute Poverty income level is defined as that below which a minimal nutritionallyadequate diet plus essential nonfood requirements are not affordable
Source: U.S. AID, Annex 11 Asia/Near East - Fiscal Year 1990
00
Table A6: Health Indicators
Country
Near East:MoroccoTunisiaEgyptJordanYemen A.R.Oman
Asia:PakistanIndiaBangladeshSri LankaNepalBurmaThailandPhilippinesIndonesia
Life Expectancyat Birth
1965-70
505250524144
464843644150575645
Sources: World Development ReportWorld Resources 1988-89
(years)1987
626959695055
545651704953646558
,1988
Infant Mortality(per 1000 births)
1965-70
67138170102186186
145145140611641108470120
1987
85479957123112
1229613729104102535085
Child(per
(0-5yr) Mortality1000 births)
1965-70 1985-90
93210280150325325
23923922887260160118114201
289912457196157
16514818843196854972117
Caloric1965
2,1822.2962.4352.2822,002
.
1.7472.1001.9642.1551.9311,9282,2001,9361,792
Intake1985
2,7292,7963,2752,9682,266
.
2,1802,1261,8042,4851,9972,50823992,2602,476
Table A 7: I nfr is tract or*
Country
NearEtstMoroccoTuniiitEgyptJoidanYemen A.R.Omm
Asti:PakistanIndUBangbdeshSri LankaNepalBurmaThailandPhilippinesIndonesia
UrbanPop nlillon
1987*(millions)
10.74.3
23.42.50.90.3
32.5210.1
13.63.51.58.9
11.223.446.6
1980% of pop
0
0
282274342061363565
* Figures for Yemen, Oman, Burma art 1985 data.
Water SupplyUn served Urban
1987*%of pop
3901228090
162071243064503560
Source: ANE Bureau. Draft Natural Resources Strategy, 1988WHO, Wattr Supply and Sanitation Decade: Mid Decade Review
Population1987*
millions
4.20.02.80.70.00.3
5.242.09.60.90.45.75.68.2
27.9
SanitationUnserved Urban Population
1980% of pop
587379208462363371
1987*% of pop
231655708388
479978208367504571
1987*millions
2.50.712.9l.SOS0.3
15.3208.010.60.71.26.05.610.533.1
Decade Targets:Unserved Urban
1990Population
Water Supply Sanitation%of pop
00
00
07690636332234
% of pop
5
3517640
6327171340
oo
101
Table A8: Urban Refuse Generation RatesFor a Sample of Countries
City/Country
Tunis, TunisaManila, PhilippinesCairo, EgyptJakarta, IndonesiaSurabaya, IndonesiaBandung, IndonesiaLahore, PakistanKarachi, PakistanColombo, Sri LankaCalcutta, IndiaKanpur, India
Estimated WasteGeneration Rates
(kg/cap/day)
0.560.420.500.600.520.550.600.500.700.510.50
Source: Cointreau, Sandra - Solid Waste Collection Practice andPlanning in Developing Countries (1984) in Holmes,John Managing Solid Wastes in Developing Countries
103
APPENDIX B
MAPS OF CASE STUDY CITIES
FIGURE 1105
ttkm
LEGEND
™ " ™ Greater Cairo Boundary
— . _ _ project Ar«» Boundary
^ ^ — Govarnorat* Boundary
T////1 1MO urban Araa
AMBRIC
GREATER CAIRO AREA
SOURCE: STANLEY CONSULTANTS. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT:GRFATFR CAIRO WASTFWATER SYSTEM. WEST BANK. (WASHINGTON, D.C.:1982)
FIGURE 2 106
Manila Urban Area, 1984
VALIMZUHA y ^&
UMIU
f ^ l
Kv^\
^.•<*r.
L/»
iT
k\A.
cIA5BNAS
P«AM*OUI
%
W" k J> Imguno d» Baym
, ^ fcJ I • V ^ ^ •MioiroKii
/ ^p ono pnvotv
\ # F5S31 tariu and «toi ap«i tpaetW _ Mainraad.til _ .Jf/ bHroad.
!|t( M>liu-Munib boundary
I1 » > Mtn
0 9 Wpji***jn
SOURCE: SIVARAMAKRISHNAN K.C.. & LESLIE GREEN.METROPOLITAN MANAGEMENT: THE ASIAN EXPERIENCE. (WASHINGTON, D.C.: EDI. 1986)
FIGURE 3107
Greater Colombo, 1980
a I 1 1
SOURCE: SIVARAMAKRISHNAN K.C., & LESLIE GREEN.METROPOI1TAN MANAGFMFNT: THE ASIAN FXPERIENCE. (WASHINGTON. D.C.; EDI, 1986)
FIGURE 4
108
Jakarta Urban Ana, 1985
MdfcOfem
•• j Indmtriol ntalM
Mimd buildingi
•"SSI '**''e building*
ReiioWiol
Main roodsRoilroodi and Itatiant
- t . Riven or conoltD K I boundorie.
S Mtn
S Ki
SOURCE: SIVARAMAKRISHNAN K.C.. & LESLIE GREEN,METR.OPQLHAN MANAGEMf NT-. THE ASIAN EXPERIENCE, (WASHINGTON, D.C.; EDI. 1986)
FIGURE 5
DHAKA STATISTICAL METROPOLITAN AREA (SMA)109
3.1 x S M M » . ' DtttkM Datrict Smtmtitt,ItngMMh I J W U «f 1M3.
SOURCE: UNITED NATION. DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC & SOCIAL AFFAIRS.POPULATION GROWTH AND POLICIES IN MEGA-CfTIES: DHAKA. (NEW YORK: 1986)
FIGURE 6
no
Metropolitan land use, Bangkok, 1980
SOURCE: UNITED NATION. DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC & SOCIAL AFFAIRS.POPULATION GROWTH AND POLICIES IN MEGA-CfTIES: RANGKQK. (NEW YORK: 1987)
FIGURE 7i n
Madras Urban Area, 1984
— Moin roadi
• "•^- Railroads« , • Twwnwnfs eanstrucMd by Tamil Nadu
Slum Claoronc* Board0° Ottwrtkmu
R**vT:3 Inundotad ar«o>t* '« i i j Induitriol
Municipal boundarid:Piv-1978Pml-1978
SOURCE: UNITED NATION, DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC & SOCIAL AFFAIRS.POPULATION GROWTH AND POLICIES IN MEGA-CITIES: MADRAS. (NEW YORK: 1987)
FIGURE 8
112
Map 13-3. Karachi Metropolitan Area: Jurisdictions of Local Bodies, 1985
SOURCE: SIVARAMAKRISHNAN K.C.. & LESLIE GREEN.
METROPOLfTAN MANAGEMENT: THE ASIAN EXPERIENCE. (WASHINGTON. D.C.; EDI. 1986)
113
APPENDIX C
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL APPROACHES TOENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND THE URBAN SECTOR
115
APPENDIX C
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL APPROACHES TOENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND THE URBAN SECTOR
This appendix provides detailed examples of the interrelationshipof strategies for urban development AND have how they affect theenvironment.
Thailand
Thailand has had a National Environmental Quality Act and arelated environmental agency, the National Environment Board(NEB), since 1975. The function of the NEB is primarily todevelop environmental protection policies and to guide the manyother government agencies that implement them. Many agencies,departments, and offices under several ministries are involved inthe various aspects of environmental protection. The NEB, underthe Ministry of Science, Technology, and Energy, has taken aleading role in monitoring adherence to environmental standardsbut it is overstretched.
Nationally, water and sanitation responsibilities are spreadamong many agencies. For example, 31 agencies and 17 committeesare involved with water resources development. The ProvincialWater Works Authority and the Metropolitan Water Works Authority(MWWA) are the major water supply agencies; they are responsiblefor towns with over 5,000 people and for the Bangkok MetropolitanArea, respectively. Water supply and flood control appear to bepriorities, but sanitation problems do not seem to be receivingdirect attention. Moreover, water and sanitation development arenot overtly linked. For example, the Accelerated RuralDevelopment project, which consists of drilling programs and hasbeen creating wells with hand pumps around the country since theearly 1960s, has no sanitation component. The most visiblepollution strategy is the attempt to control industrial pointsource discharges.
Urban development and housing are governed by severaldifferent entities under the Ministry of the Interior. TheIndustrial Estate Authority of Thailand tries to attract industryand has embarked on a location policy that involves relocatingexisting industries from congested or unsuitable areas to areasdistanced from the central city.
Because of the primacy of Bangkok, the nationalenvironmental program includes the metropolis. The MWWA and theBangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) are the major agencies.The BMA has wide-reaching powers, but it has made flood controlits top priority. Despite a series of drainage and seweragestudies, it has made little progress on sanitation and pollution.
116
The Third Bangkok Water Supply Project includes an attempt toeliminate groundwater use in critical subsistence areas.
The overall urban management strategy for the city hasrecently been updated. The Greater Bangkok Plan 2000 and theFourth National Development Plan (1977-1981) were the first plansto promote a pattern of polycentric growth (rather thancentralization); nine growth centers were identified forpromotion and upgrading to medium-sized cities (100,000-300,000).A criticism that these plans tried to address is that a majorityof development projects in Bangkok had been narrowly designed tosolve immediate problems and were not part of a broader long-termstrategy. The Fifth Plan tried to overcome these problems andplanned to decentralize economic activity; the Sixth Planidentified investment strategies for each of four districts.Although these plans indicate a move toward more comprehensiveplanning, none was officially approved and the net effect of thedecentralization strategy remains to be seen.
The most often cited problem is the number of agencies thatare involved in environmental protection. Confusion and lack ofcoordination abound because juridical and regulatory powers arenot well defined. Lack of comprehensive planning, emphasis onconstruction (i.e. of dams/reservoirs), and inadequateenforcement of the many environmental laws, due in part to thelaissez-faire attitude of the Thai people, are also commonlynoted problems.
Sources:
United Nations, Department of International Economic and SocialAffairs. Population Growth and Policies in Mega-Cities: Bangkok(New York: 1987).
Thailand Development Research Institute. Thailand NaturalResources Profile (Bangkok: 1987).
Setamanit, Surin. "Environmental Aspects of DevelopmentPlanning: A Thai Experience," in Environmental Management forLocal and Regional Development, Part II: Developing CountriesPerspective (New York: United Nations Center for RegionalDevelopment, 198-).
Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project. Proposed WaterSupply and Sanitation Strategies for the Ministry of PublicHealth in the Thailand Sixth 5-Year Plan (1987-1991), FieldReport 153 (Arlington, Virginia: 1985).
Library of Congress, Science and Technology Division. DraftEnvironmental Report on Thailand (Washington, D.C.: 1979).
117
Cohen, Murray et al. Environmental consequences of Industrial-ization and Urban Development in Thailand (Washington D.C.:USAID/Thailand, 1985).
World Bank. Development of Regional Cities in Thailand, EastAsia and Pacific Projects Department, (Washington, D.C.: 1980).
Indonesia
Indonesia has environmental protection legislation in place,including a mechanism for impact assessment (through the Ministryof Industry). The state Ministry for Population and Environment(MOPE) is the policy agency and is charged with influencing thegovernment as a whole and preparing regulations. In addition toMOPE, 15 ministries are responsible for various (sectoral)aspects of environmental management. MOPE, however, has noauthority over other ministries and no direct implementationresponsibilities.
Organization of regional and provincial environmentalagencies appears to be less developed than the national system.Provincial agencies include the BAPPEDAS planning offices and theprovincial governor's offices each of which has a Bureau forPopulation and the Environment and Coordinating Team. Nationalpolicies are thought to influence most resource managementdecisions.
Water and sanitation services are the responsibility of theDirectorate of Hygiene and Sanitation, Ministry of Home Affairs,the Ministry of Health, and the Ministry of Public Works. Again,specific functions of the agencies do not appear to be clearlydelineated. Current infrastructure programs are focused on watersupply, such as the Comprehensive Health Improvement Project andthe Kampung Improvement Program.
Several agencies are involved with urban development andhousing under the Ministry of Public Works, including theDirectorate of Urban and Regional Planning (major agency) and theDirectorate General of Housing, Building, Planning and UrbanDevelopment. BAPPENAS, Ministry of Home Affairs, is anational-level coordinating agency that supervises municipal andprovincial agencies dealing with the environment; its precisefunction is unclear. The impacts of industry are controlledthrough a two-stage system: (1) consideration of suitability oflocation and (2) issuance of nuisance license (water usage,air/water/noise pollution); national-level ministries and theprovincial governor's office provide review.
The Jakarta region is treated differently, subject to directinvolvement from the national level. In 1976 the Ministry ofPublic Works prepared the JABOTABEK Metropolitan Planning Studyfor Jakarta and the neighboring Bogor, Tangerang, and Bekasi
118
districts. This study advocated deconcentration of urban growthto ancillary urban centers around Jakarta and proposed incentivesto accomplish this, such as upgrading infrastructure in certainareas. Although the plan was never adopted because ofdisagreement among agencies, it has affected thinking aboutdecentralization. The JABOTABEK Metropolitan Development Plan of1980 emphasizes improving treatment of water supplies to reducehealth hazards and improving availability of water for thepopulace. The World Bank has been involved in the development ofthe updated comprehensive plan for the JABOTABEK metropolitanarea.
Implementation and maintenance problems plague the water,sanitation, and planning projects. One reason cited is the lowlevel of attention given to involving local populations. Thegenerally weak implementation of impact assessment is feared todamage the credibility of MOPE. Another major problem cited isthe fragmentation of efforts among the numerous agencies. Theabsence of a coherent land use policy and a lack of clearauthority are additional constraints on environmental planning.Each individual agency has its own needs and objectives, andthere are no mechanisms to establish guidelines or to mediateamong them. Finally, planning seems to be limited by top-downdevelopment.
Sources:
World Bank, Asia Regional Office. Indonesia—Forest, Land andWater: Issues in Sustainable Development, draft (Washington,D.C.: 1988).
Republic of Indonesia. JABOTABEK Metropolitan Development Plan,Ministry of Public Works, Directorate General of Housing,Building, Planning and Urban Development, Directorate of Urbanand Regional Planning (Jakarta: 1980).
Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project. Water Supply andSanitation and Diarrheal Disease Control in the CHIPPS inIndonesia, Field Report 42 (Arlington, Virginia: 1982).
Egypt
Research conducted for this paper did not uncover any singlecomprehensive environmental protection act or coordinating/leadenvironmental protection agency in Egypt. Instead, numerousenvironmental laws and regulations are created and implemented bynumerous agencies. The overall structure of the environmentalagencies emphasizes the role of local or regional entities,although functionally, national agencies play a greater role.Health appears to be the overwhelming environment-relatedconcern, which is reflected in the overall approach of preventive
119
and basic health measures, such as early detection of infectiousdisease, vaccination, health education, and others.
The Ministry of Development is the primary land use planningagency at the national level. The 1981 Physical Planning Lawrequires mandatory preparation of master plans for cities andvillages. Industrial siting is conducted by the localgovernorate, with a permit from the national Ministry of Industry(conditional on the establishment of all required publicutilities).
Egypt's water and sanitation service agencies wererestructured in the early 1980s, which created a solid structureof agencies at the national and regional level. Although policystates that the responsibility for the provision and operation ofpublic utilities lies with the local authority, the nationalgovernment provides planning, design, construction, andfinancing; local entities conduct (only) operations andmaintenance. Services are provided to localities by the nationalMinistry of Local Government, the Ministry of Health (MOH), andthe Ministry of Housing and Reconstruction (MHR).
The MOH, the most important agency regarding health aspectsof water and sanitation, is responsible for setting standards forwater and effluent; providing technical guidance for sanitation;monitoring of water and pollutants; and providing advisorycapability for local authorities. A mutual oversight committeecoordinates MOH activities with those of the Ministry of Housingand Public Utility, which is responsible for housing, publicworks, and sewerage works. The third agency involved with waterand sanitation on the national level is the MHR, the mainorganization for the development of water and sewerage systems.The MHR encompasses water and sanitation agencies for Cairo,Alexandria, and the Suez Canal Zone cities, and one agency forall other areas.
Thus, regional agencies that are part of the nationalstructure (MHR) function as the lead agency, and often adoptlocal responsibility. The Cairo area is served by two agenciesunder the MHR: the General Organization for Greater Cairo WaterSupply, which is responsible for all aspects of water supply fromplanning to maintenance, and the General Organization forSanitary Drainage in Cairo, which performs operations andmaintenance but has no responsibility for the unsewered areas.The Cairo Wastewater Organization has planning and implementationfunctions and considerable powers. A similar system exists forAlexandria. The Canal Zone cities are served by the Suez CanalAuthority, a regional water and sanitation agency. The remainderof Egypt is served by the National Organization for Potable Waterand Sanitary Drainage, which coordinates and provides policy forthe regional and city systems, and constructs sewerage/drainagefacilities in cities and towns. Operations and maintenance of
120
the sewerage system are commonly performed by the governorate(with exceptions for Cairo, Alexandria, and the Canal Zonecities).
MOH functions are hindered by lack of trained staff, lack ofequipment, and inadequate funding. Poor operations andmaintenance, possibly due to the shortage of trained personnel,are major problems in water and sanitation projects.
The National Urban Policy Study of 1982 recommends policy bycity type. Decentralization is called for in Cairo, with desertlocations for all urban expansion and ongoing rehabilitation ofwater/sanitation facilities. The approach for Alexandria is toinduce major population growth away from Cairo, especiallythrough major employment growth, to deconcentrate the core, andto rehabilitate systems. The goal for Tanta and Mansoura(medium-sized cities) is to encourage out-migration, to preserveprime arable land through vertical redevelopment, and toconcentrate high-level regional service functions in thesesettlements. The approach for the Canal Zone cities (Suez,Ismailia, Port Said) emphasizes major population growth and thedevelopment of Suez as a major center.
Sources:
Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project. EnvironmentalHealth in Egypt: A Sectoral Assessment and Recommendations, FieldReport 33 (Arlington, Virginia: 1982).
Arab Republic of Egypt, Ministry of Development, AdvisoryCommittee for Reconstruction. National Urban Policy Study (Cairo:PADCO, 1982)
US Agency for International Development. Country Study StrategyStatement: FY 1986—Egypt, Annex G, Urban Policy and StrategyUpdate (Washington, D.C.: 1984)
Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project. ImplementationPlan for Unsewered Areas Demonstration Project in Greater Cairo,Field Report 52 (Arlington, Virginia: 1982).
University of Arizona, Arid Lands Information Center, Office ofArid Lands Studies. Draft Environmental Report on Arab Republicof Egypt (Washington, D.C: 1980).
India
There is no single central body for environmental protectionin India. Generally, functions are scattered among manyministries and departments. Sectoral ministries at the nationallevel coordinate plans, formulate policy, and monitor
121
implementation of project. Primary responsibility for theenvironment in general lies with the state governments.
The National Committee on Environmental Planning andCoordination (NCEPC), established under the Ministry of Scienceand Technology in 1972, is the closest thing to a chiefenvironmental agency. NCEPC formulates policy, and reviews andadvises the central government on environmental matters.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation has divisions forgroundwater study and flood control; the Ministry of Works andHousing encompasses the national Water Supply and SanitationProgram; the Ministry of Science and Technology has the nationalCommittee on Science and Technology and the NCEPC; and theMinistry of Health and Family Welfare includes the Central PublicHealth Engineering and Environment Organization (CPHEEO). CPHEEOappears to play a large role, in assisting the state governmentsin the preparation and execution of water supply and sanitationprojects.
Another nonministerial agency, the national-level CentralBoard for Prevention and Control of Water Pollution, wasestablished in 1974. This board functions as a policymakingbody, coordinates activities of similar state-level boards,trains personnel, monitors water pollution, and sets standards.
The national Planning Commission oversees preparation of thefive-year plans and approves all centrally funded projects. TheSixth Plan (1980-1985) included for the first time anenvironmental section and recognized the need to promote smalltowns and medium-sized cities. The Seventh Plan (1985-1990)tries to integrate environmental considerations with economicplanning. It also includes aggressive goals for infrastructureimprovements: urban water supply service of 100% and urbansanitation service of 80% (100% for class I cities, 50% for ClassII cities, and others, for an overall 80% rate). The sanitationgoals are a huge increase over current levels.
There are several problems with the current state of India'senvironmental protection structure. Environmental legislation isconsidered inadequate, because its approach is one of pollutioncontrol rather than environmental management. An inadequatetechnical work force, political interference, inadequatepenalties, and lengthy litigation have been cited asimplementation and enforcement problems in India.
Specific state-level responsibilities include water qualitypreservation, solid waste disposal, public health and sanitation,land use, and industries. Unlike the national government, somestates do have Departments of the Environment. Planning isconsidered to be weak or nonexistent at the state level, but
122
several of the mega-cities have their own planning capacity.Water supply is the responsibility of the municipality.
The Bombay metropolitan region (BMR) inherited a planningtradition from the British. The 1973 regional plan sought tolimit Bombay City's population and to create a twin city, NewBombay. The implementation of the plan has been slow, but NewBombay was established with 250,000 people in 1985 and continualprogress is being made in relocating industry and workers to NewBombay. The main agency is the BMR Development Authority, withinwhich the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board is responsible forprevention and control of water pollution (mainly effluentmonitoring and setting standards for surface water). Planning inBombay is limited by its sectoral nature (physical, economic, andenvironmental), but prospects for greater integration couldimprove with general conditions in the city. The Bombay industrylocation policy has undergone a series of changes; current policyis based on allowing progressively higher value investments inareas progressively farther from the central city. Environmentalconsiderations are not a direct part of this process.
Calcutta is a unique case within India. The CalcuttaMetropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) was established in 1970by a presidential act responding to the extremely high incidenceof cholera. This agency is very powerful; it has control overmany aspects of the environment that are often treated sectorallyin developing countries. Its current priorities are watersupply, sanitation, and area development; other responsibilitiesinclude transportation, planning, and improvement of squattersettlements. As part of a transmunicipal infrastructure program,CMDA plans and executes projects in water and sanitation, and ithas been successful in improving water supply quantity andquality in the district.
Sources:
Center for Science and Environment. The State of India'sEnvironment 1984-1985: The Second Citizens' Report (New Delhi:1986).
World Health Organization. International Drinking Water Supplyand Sanitation Decade: The Process of Planning and Implementationin India, draft (Geneva: 1984).
Phatak, V.K., and G.N. Warade. "Environmental Management andMetropolitan Development Planning: A Case Study of Bombay" inUnited Nations Environment Program, United Nations Center forRegional Development, Environmental Management for Local andRegional Development. Part II: Developing Countries' Perspective(New York: 1986).
123
Library of Congress, Science and Technology Division. DraftEnvironmental Report on India (Washington, D.C.: 1980).
Philippines
The Philippines has enacted environmental protectionlegislation, and in 1977 established a main agency, the NationalEnvironmental Protection Council by presidential decree. TheNEPC, comprised of the President of the Philippines and cabinetmembers, is responsible for policy formulation, guidelines forthe establishment of environmental quality standards, guidelinesfor environmental impact assessment, recommendation of newlegislation, and coordination and integration of agencies chargedwith environmental protection and enforcement. In addition, theNEPC prepares an annual environmental status report and conductseducation projects. The Environment Center of the Philippines isthe participatory agency of the council in environmental planningand management at regional and local levels.
Three other agencies are significant. The National Economicand Development Authority (NEDA) provides the link betweenpolicymaking/planning and program implementation. The NEDA is across-sectoral agency that implements five-year plans, includinginfrastructure projects, and is generally responsible for allplanning for areas outside Metro Manila. The Ministry of LocalGovernments and Community Development (MLGCD) provides guidelinesfor the formulation of solid waste management programs. TheNational Pollution Control Commission (NPCC), under the Office ofthe President, is the primary agency for the prevention andcontrol of environmental pollution; the NPCC monitors pollutionand is charged with taking the necessary measures toprevent/abate pollution. An Inter-Agency Advisory Council madeup of representatives from various sectoral interests is attachedto the NPCC.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and the Ministry of PublicWorks, Transportation, and Communication/National Water ResourcesCouncil are also involved in resource management.
Land use planning is conducted by the Ministry of HumanSettlements and Ecology, which makes nationwide recommendationsto the NEPC. There does not appear to be a national industriallocation policy; Manila has a limited policy of tax incentives.
Problems cited include the context forplanning—environmental policies are of secondary importancecompared with economic, social, and political issues and the rateof implementation is slow because financial resources are limitedin relation to the large-scale work required. The Philippinesgovernment is trying to raise awareness of the environment andpollution among the population, but environmental educationshould be included at all levels of schooling.
124
Sanitation and water supply are generally the responsibilityof the national government (notably NEDA and MLGCD), and thelocalities (province, city, or municipality) are responsible forsolid waste management, as well as health and shelter issues.For Manila, however, the regional government is effectivelyresponsible for all infrastructure planning and projects.
Metro Manila, the capital and primate city, includes 4cities and 13 municipalities. The Metro Manila Commission (MMC)was instituted in 1975 and has direct legislative,administrative, and fiscal control over the constituentgovernments. The MMC is responsible for health, sanitation,water supply, flood control, and other environment-relatedconcerns. The MMC's Office of the Commissioner for Planning(OCP) develops plans in conformance with national developmentobjectives, but most planning (and implementation) is done by theMMC metropolitan operations centers. The OCP and other agencieswere responsible for a series of plans for Manila, whichconsisted mainly of intentions and goals. The main concern ofthe 1985 Regional Development Framework Plan of the OCP isphysical planning—provision of infrastructure in areas mostsuitable for new urban growth. The MMC is assisted by theCapital Investment Folio, which is essentially a method forprioritizing the funding and scheduling of infrastructureprojects. Allocation of 1984 MMC expenditures was dominated bywater supply projects (40%) and shelters/social infrastructure(30%).
Problems with Metro Manila plans and programs include thefact that there is no agreed development strategy and explicitpolicy or implementation measures to promote decentralization arelacking. One source stated that the MMC has not been able tocontrol development or to coordinate activities of variousagencies and that Manila's development is the result more ofmarket forces than government policy.
Sources:
Library of Congress, Science and Technology Division. DraftEnvironmental Report on the Philippines (Washington, D.C.: USDepartment of State, 1980).
Porter, Gareth with Delfin J. Ganapin, Jr. Resources,Population, and the Philippines' Future: A Case Study, WRI Paper44, (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1988).
Melchor, Alejandro. Urbanization in the Philippines (ExecutiveSecretary, Government of the Philippines: no date).
