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Environmental Aspects, Impact and Effects
What is an Environmental Aspect?
It is any activity, product or service of an organization that has the potential to interact with the
environment thus causing a noticeable or measurable change to it.
Types of Environmental Aspects.
Environmental Aspects are Direct or Indirect
Direct Environmental Aspects: These are activities, products or services resulting from facilities
under direct control of an organization.
Indirect Environmental Aspects: Activities, products or services resulting from facilities under the
influence, but not direct control, of an organization.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS E & P ORGANIZATIONS
Oil Exploration and Production activities life cycle includes:
Geophysical Seismic Exploration Development Production Decommissioning
Aspects can be considered as a consequence of:
Normal operating conditions Abnormal operating conditions Incidents, accidents and potential emergencies Past, current and planned activities
For oil and gas operations they include the following:
Air emissions- Flaring. Venting and Hydrocarbon Gas leakage Discharges to water-Aqueous Effluent/Oily Water Discharge Solid and other wastes-Drilling mud and Chemicals/Hazardous Wastes Land and groundwater contamination Oil Spillage Use of natural resources-Land Use and Degradation Water management Noise and vibration Effects on ecosystems Social impacts
Evaluation of Environmental Aspects
The determination of significant environmental aspects is a three step process whereby we;
1. Identify the aspect.
2. Assess the data available on the environmental impact of the aspect.
3. Evaluate the significance of the impact from the aspect.
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Identification of Environmental Aspects
We can identify an aspect through many sources of documentation including:
Environmental Impact Assessment; Internal and external audit reports; External communications, such as complaints or inquiries; Internal incident reports and corrective action reports; Environmental baseline reports; Environmental Evaluation Report; Environmental studies associated with Field Development Plans;Environmental Impacts
Everything we do impact on the environment. From the highly energy intensive industrial activities
like dredging and drilling to the individual and natural impact. The extent of impact or prolong
impact that leads to effect is dependent on the level of energy exerted.
The impact of E & P activities on the environment can be:
Temporary or permanent Acute or Chronic Short term or Long term Positive or Negative Beneficial or Adverse
Significant Aspects
A significant Environmental Aspect is an environmental aspect that has or can have a significant
environmental impact.
When does it become significant?
When it poses a risk to the environment There is a law concerning it Communities are worried about it Affects reputation Theres a better technology to do it There is insufficient information on it
Aspects vs. ImpactsforE & P organizations
Aspects Impacts
Geological survey
Seismic - loss of biodiversityExploration
Well drilling - air pollution
Chemicals - water/ groundwater pollution
Production
Pipe laying - land pollution
Flaring - thermal pollution
Transportation
Refining - socio-economic/health
Decommissioning
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ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS AND LEGISLATIONS
In a bid to curb environmental damage, responsible governments around the globe have enacted
laws to restrict or restrain, as applicable, industrial activities from impacting negatively on the
environment.
In Nigeria, there have been various attempts by the federal government to enact legislations for
the protection of the environment. There have been increasing regulations and legislation on the
environment. This upsurge was accentuated by the worsening of the environment brought about
by the oil boom of the 70s and rapid industrial development which accompanied it.
List of Environmental Regulatory Agencies
1. Federal Ministry of Environment2. The Department of Petroleum Resources3. State Environmental Protection Agencies4. Local Government Environmental Protection Agencies5. International Conventions
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF REGULATORY AGENCIES
Federal Ministry of Environment
Specification and enforcement of environmental standards Regulation of industrial effluent discharges Review and approval of EIAs submitted
Department of Petroleum Resources
Licensing authority with regards to E & P operations Responsible for the enforcement of environmental legislation for E & P operations
In pursuance of success in executing their roles and responsibilities, DPR has enacted specific
standards and guidelines for the petroleum industry. These requirements are documented in DPRs
Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the Petroleum Industry (EGASPIN)
DPRs Specific Standards
Production
-No discharge to Environment without permission
-Set Limits for all Effluent Discharges
-Set Limit for Noise, Heat, Radiation and Smoke for Flare gas.-Noise- 80Db
-Heat-6.31kw/m2
- Smoke- 60% light transmission
- Monitoring Oily waste
- Gaseous emissions
- Monitoring of PH, THC & Metal concentration
-Monitoring of all recipient environment when waste is discharged.
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Considerations for Regulatory Compliance
The benefits from complying are the driving force for regulatory compliance. They include:
- Assets integrity- Risk and liabilities reduction- Cost reduction- Improved environmental condition
Other regulatory compliance drivers, mainly internal are:
- Company Policy- Company Reputation- Good Performance- Industry Benchmark
International Policies and Practices
The international community has many Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) that work with
national governments and industry to help establish policies, standards, and practices that help
protect people and the environment. The World Bank (WB) and its related International Finance
Corporation (IFC) are important NGOs that play a major role in many large industrial projects
around the world. The WB and IFC have established environmental guidelines and standards for
projects that they participate in. The WB Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook includes
elements for General Environmental Guidelines as well as onshore Oil and Gas Development
The World Bank guidelines cover the following environmentally related issues for the petroleum
industry:
Air Emissions Liquid Effluents Hazardous Materials and Wastes Solid Wastes Ambient Noise Monitoring Recordkeeping and Reporting Environmental Control - energy efficiency, environmentally sound processes, proper
maintenance and operation of facilities
The WB has specific recommendations for onshore oil and gas
development project. For drilling, the WB recommends that
gel-based based muds be used and that diesel based muds be
eliminated. If chemicals are to be used in drilling and other
operations, then the less toxic chemical should be selected.Flaring should be minimized and low NOx burners should be
used. Sulfur should be removed from gas before burning and
knockout drums should be used to capture condensates. Spill
prevention should be in place and control measures taken,
including leak detection and prevention, repair programs, and
tank and vessel monitoring and corrosion prevention
programs. Oil should be recovered from wastewaters. Finally,
good housekeeping should be practiced and appropriate
operating and maintenance programs should be in place.
Air EmissionsVOCs, including benzene 20 mg/m3 max.
Hydrogen sulfide 30 mg/m3 max.
Sulfur oxides 1000 mg/m3 max.
Gas fired nitrogen oxides 320 mg/m3 max.
Oil fired nitrogen oxides 460 mg/m3 max.
Odor Not offensive
Liquid EffluentsOdor Not offensive
pH 6-9
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 50 ppm, max.
Total Suspended Solids 50 ppm, max.
Oil and Grease 20 ppm, max.
Phenol 1 ppm, max.
Sulfide 1 ppm, max.
Total Toxic Metals 5 ppm, max.
Temperature Increase
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The IFC offshore guideline addresses the EHS
management system, environmental guidelines
for air, water, wastes, and NORM, environmental
best practices, emergency response, health,
safety, monitoring, reporting, and supervision.
The recommended IFC standards for offshore
discharges are listed in the adjacent figure.
Other policies and practices have been proposed by other NGOs. In 2001, the Government of
Norway and the World Bank Group proposed the Global Initiative on Natural Gas Flaring Reduction.
The initiatives goal is to support national governments and the petroleum industry to reduce
flaring and venting of gas associated with the extraction of crude oil by:
Commercialization of associated gas Development of regulations for associated gas Establishing a voluntary flaring and venting reduction standard Capacity building related to carbon credits for flaring and venting reduction projects
Guidance to achieve the voluntary standard includes recommendations to eliminate routine
sources of venting gas that could be captured, conserved, or routed to a flare. An additional
recommendation is to reduce large sources of associated gas flaring, primarily those sources
associated with production, except for those related to emergencies, safety, and operational
upsets.
Other international organizations also have programs and guidance related to environmental
protection. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources has
issued guidelines for environmental protection during oil and gas exploration in the tropics,
mangrove areas, and artic offshore regions (www.iucn.org). Conservation International haspublished a policy paper on oil development in the tropics called Reinventing the Well:
Approaches to Minimizing the Environmental and Social Impact of Oil Development in the Tropics
The Equator Principles are followed by more than two dozen financial institutions in 14 countries
that have pledged not to provide loans for projects unless certain environmental conditions are
met as listed below (www.equator-principles.com):
Risk categorized according to environmental/social screening Environmental assessment completed Environmental and social conditions addressed Environmental management plan prepared Consulted with stakeholders and NGOs Environmental expert to monitor and report In compliance with environmental and social covenants
The International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (OGP) is a key industry group that provides
standards, practices, and guidance in the environmental aspects of O&G operations. Among the
documents and guidance from the OGP are the following:
Environmental management in oil & gas exploration and production; Guidelines for produced water injection;
Oil and Grease 42 ppm daily avg., 29 ppm mo. avg.
Deck Drainage No sheen
Non WB mud/cutting No discharge w/o LC50 compliance
WB mud/cutting No discharge w/o LC50 compliance
Diesel mud/cutting No discharge
Chemicals Toxicity testing for hazard/impact
Produced Sand Re-inject or dispose onshore
Produced Water Meet guidelines if disposed offsite
Sanitary 1 ppm ChlorineCooling Water < 3 C increase
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can be used to work with regulators improve and establish the regulations under which the
industry operates.
Environmental Management System
An Environmental Management System is define as an organizations structure of responsibilities
and policies, Practices, procedures, processes and resources for the protection of environmental
management issues.
An EMS is a way of working which enables the organisation to control the environmental effects of
operations and improve its environmental performance
The EMS is structured around the continual improvement cycle of Plan, Do, Check and Review.
PLAN - Decide what needs to be done
DO - Put in place an action program for achieving it
CHECK - Confirm that implementation is achieving the plan
IMPROVE- Re-examine progress and change the plan if needed
Essential Elements of an EMS1. Demonstrable Management Leadership2. Policy and Strategic Objectives3. Organisation and Responsibilities4. Hazards and Effects Management Process5. Standards, Procedures and Document Control6. Implementation, Monitoring and Corrective Action.7. Training8. Audit
EMS and ISO 14000ISO stands for Internationale Standard de Organisation
The ISO sets standard for management system in various business disciplines such as quality and
environment. ISO 14001 establishes the required standard of a management system to ensure
continuous improvement in environmental performance
ISO 14001 is a system to controland reduce environmental impacts. Organizations with an existing
EMS may seek ISO certification from any of these accredited external agencies
KPMG Lloyd
The certification process itself entails the following
- Initial assessment- Final assessment- Issue of certificate- Surveillance contract
It is important to note that ISO certification is not a regulatory requirement, at least not at the
moment. So why bother about ISO, why external certification?
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1. It serves as a reassurance to stakeholders that you are dedicated to upholding yourenvironmental policy
2. It helps in risk reductionOther benefits include
1. Improvement in environmental performance2. There is enhanced competence development3. Excellence in operations4. Energy consumption reduction5. Stakeholders relationship improvement6. Cost savings
Summarily, ISO means------
- Be aware of environmental aspects of your work- Be in control of your environmental aspects- Be responsible and act wisely- Manage your work to reduce impacts- Improve your performance
Remember, ISO is a means to an end not an end in itself. Organizations must be seen to produce
real performance improvements in aspects that their stakeholders regard as important
Environmental Impacts of Petroleum Operations
There are many sensitive environments in the Niger Delta and most petroleum operations will have
the potential to produce environmental impacts if not properly managed. Mangroves and salt and
freshwater habitats have particular environmental importance in areas such as the Niger delta.
Impacts of petroleum operations vary depending on the location, type of operation, and otherfactors. On a gross scale, offshore facilities create different impacts than those on land. Those in
pristine habitats are likely to generate greater environmental concerns than operations planned in
areas already modified by human activity. Tropical forests are more diverse and generally less
disturbed by Man than are biological communities in Nigerias savanna grasslands.
Evaluation of and sensitivity to the facility location during the planning process can help to
minimize adverse impacts even when the operation is located in an area rich in biodiversity.
Whether facilities are concentrated or spread out affects dispersal patterns for migratory animals
like caribou. The need for roads, pipelines, electrical power generated offsite, etc. can affect the
habitat disturbance pattern. If new facilities are remote from human settlement and activity, they
can allow for influx of development that isnt necessarily related to the operation (secondaryimpacts). For example, new communities are settling on dredge spoils deposited on river banks in
swamp operational area.
Petroleum operations can have both primary impacts, those closely tied to the operation in time
and space, and secondary impacts, those occurring later as a consequence. Vegetation removal
and grading for roads and drill pads, gravel mining, and dredge/fill activities lead to primary
impacts such as direct habitat loss or excess erosion or interference with natural drainage. When
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land is left bare, fast colonizing, weedy species usually have the advantage, resulting in secondary
impacts of changes to community composition.
Harm to individual organisms may occur through impaired behavior or mortality from noise,
vehicles, and accidents such as fires. Animals can become trapped in well cellars, open pipeline
trenches or open sections of pipeline in staging areas. Harm can also result from exposure to toxic
substances or creation of attractive nuisances such as wetlands overlying contaminated areas or
reserve pits.
Harmful exposures may also be posed by waste discharges such as flares, produced water, drill
cuttings discharge, and oil spills. Biologically available materials and nutrients from such discharges
into water bodies can change their character from clear, nutrient poor waters to those clogged
with algae and starved for oxygen as algae and vegetation grows, accumulates, and decomposes.
Impacts such as those above can be avoided or minimized by proper evaluation and planning.
Understanding how to mesh petroleum extraction with biodiversity conservation starts with
effective planning on a regional scale. Individual companies are usually only able to influence
practices carried out in the concession areas they are responsible for. But understanding how topromote resource development so it minimizes conflicts with biodiversity values starts at an early
stage and should involve the appropriate government ministries.
The location of facilities should take into account the local distribution of sensitive plants and
animals. These can be evaluated through appropriate surveys and by accessing existing
information. Mapping efforts utilizing GIS can be very helpful tool.
A source of information and guidance on preventing impacts is the Energy and Biodiversity
Initiative (EBI), convened by CELB (www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/ebi.xml). The
EBI brings together energy companies and conservation organizations to develop and promote aframework of best practices for integrating biodiversity conservation into upstream oil and gas
development. EBI has created a set of practical guidelines and tools to minimize impacts to
biodiversity and maximize contributions to conservation wherever oil and gas resources are
developed. The guidelines address all stages of the project lifecyclefrom pre-bid to
decommissioningand are designed to be integrated into existing company management systems.
It is also important to understand the relationships and needs for biodiversity conservation and
integrate this with community development activities. Oil companies may have greater resources
than local governments to devote to conservation that can be brought to bear on mitigation and
extend efforts to promote biodiversity through education, land set asides, acquisitions, training,
and management of conservation areas.
Oil and gas operations occur in several ecosystems in Nigeria. Onshore acreage and operations are
located predominantly in the wetland forest, marshes and shorelines, except for some blocks
located in the Derived Savanna vegetation zone. The wetland ecosystem of Nigeria has some very
distinctive characteristics that make it very sensitive to construction activities. The rest of the
blocks are located in the Atlantic Ocean
http://www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/ebi.xmlhttp://www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/ebi.xmlhttp://www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/ebi.xmlhttp://www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/ebi.xml -
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Petroleum operations can impact the environment through three main processes. The first of
these is habitat loss which is one of the major impacts of human activities on ecosystems. Oil and
gas development contribute to the overall cumulative impacts of habitat loss, but other activities
like logging, tourism and urban development exert far greater pressure. In Nigeria, the major
pressures on mangrove resources are clearing for timber and charcoal production, shrimp farming
and tourism development. In Nigeria, it is estimated that mangrove forests are lost at a rate of 500
Ha/year to these pressures (out of an estimated 10,000 Km2). Rapid population growth in the last
50 years has exacerbated this problem.
The second major process impacting environments is habitat fragmentation, the breaking up of
large pieces of habitat into smaller, less functional pieces. Fragmentation can lead to reduction in
plant and animal species numbers and diversity and to population losses of common species.
Plants and animals need continuous space to feed and reproduce. When space is broken into
pieces this can impact the area available for shelter, food, and behavioral activity which can
adversely affect plants and animals.
The third major process that impacts environments is habitat degradation. Human presence or
disturbance can lead to subtle changes in the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics ofhabitats. Disturbance can lead to edge effects that erode habitat quality of adjacent ecosystems.
Small alterations in elevation in wetland systems can introduce saltwater into freshwater habitats
and destroy or degrade the freshwater systems. Excessive nutrients or toxic materials can have
biological impacts.
The following are likely impacts that may occur due to petroleum operation activities:
Loss of Species and Habitat Loss and Fragmentation -The breaking up of large pieces ofhabitats into smaller less functional pieces can lead to loss of habitat and a reduction in
plant and animal species numbers and diversity.
Wetland Loss Leading to Increased Erosion and Siltation: Vegetation provides protectionagainst erosion of coastlines, rivers, streams and creeks. Mangroves act as filters in the
swamp, trapping sediment and stabilizing banks preventing erosion. If mangroves and
other vegetation are removed this can result in increased sediments washed into the river.
This may result in numerous impacts such as degradation of water quality, a need to
increase dredging of channel, and additional loss of land. The removal of mangroves and
other vegetation must be carefully considered and, when necessary, re-establishment of
the vegetation and/or erosion controls should be carefully considered to reduce impacts.
The natural control of coastal erosion is often not appreciated until an engineering solution
is sought to combat erosion following the clearing of coastal vegetation.
Hydrology Changes: Intrusion of saltwater into freshwater systems can adversely affectthem. Hypersalinity (e.g., saltwater from the ocean or from produced water) will affecteven brackish systems. So too small alterations in elevation can influence hydrology and
mangrove wet and dry fluctuations. Changes in the flows and salinities of water will cause
changes in the aquatic community and vegetation. This may cause adverse impacts to
fisheries and cause vegetation to die.
Oil Spills: Wetland and terrestrial vegetation can be affected by oil in different ways.Mangroves rely on their pneumatophores (prop root systems) for respiration. If coated
with oil, pneumatophores become sealed and the mangroves may suffocate. Furthermore,
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oil can cause damage to root membranes, leading to the failure of salt control in saltwater
systems leading to death by loss of water through a process called osmosis.
Spoil Areas and Drained Wetlands: Many marine, coastal, and wetland sediments have thepotential to generate acid runoff when they are dried and exposed to oxygen. These
sediments contain sulfides that react with oxygen to form sulphuric acid when exposed to
air when the wetland is drained or when spoils are deposited on dry land. Runoff from such
areas may be acidic and can have detrimental impacts in rivers and canals, and may also be
corrosive to pipelines and other equipment.
Secondary Impacts: Opening new areas with roads and canals invites people to relocateand settle in the new areas. This will lead to secondary impacts from the communities that
arise, even though they are not directly related to petroleum operations.
Experience has shown that it is both easier and cheaper to avoid environmental impacts than to try
to reverse them. Later chapters will cover some ways to minimize and avoid impacts. As a best
practice, the following are Prevention and Avoidance Principles that work well under most
circumstances
1. Upfront planning2. Limit access to undisturbed or highly sensitive areas3. Minimize footprint4. Maintain natural conditions5. Manage construction wastes
Air Emissions
Air Pollutants are gaseous emissions that can cause undesirable modification of atmospheric
constituent, which may have harmful effects on Flora, Fauna or Materials.
Pollutants from E & P Activities
Hydrocarbons Methane Non-methane hydrocarbons Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) Nitrogen Oxides Carbon Oxides (Carbon dioxide and Carbon monoxide) ParticulateImpacts of Air Pollutants
Carbon dioxide traps radiation rays in the atmosphere, this heat up the Environment resultinginto Global warming. Other gases like Sulphur dioxide which also have this effect are termedGreen house gases.
Air pollutants can cause negative impacts on Human health. Carbon monoxide reduces theoxygen carrying capacity of blood, impairs mental function and aggravates cardiovascular
disease. A large number of Volatile Organic Carbon compunds are carcinogenic.
Sulphur oxides and Nitrogen oxides when oxidized and hydrolyzed results into acid rain. Sulphur dioxide is known to reduce atmospheric visibility and damages plants.
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Climate Change and Global Warming
Greenhouse gases trap heat from the sun that is normally reflected back into space from theEarth's surface, thus acting like glass panels, which let light in and keep heat inside.
Without greenhouse gases the World would be a lot colder, but recently levels of somegreenhouse gases have begun to increase. The increase of greenhouse gases and global climate
change are partly associated with each other, which could have detrimental effects such as
rising sea levels and extinction of species that cannot cope with the change.
Sources of Air Pollution
Drilling Emission Sources Flaring, well tests, flowbacks Pits Controlled Combustion Sources Pits and Ditches Equipment Leaks Floating Roof Tanks (Rim seals and other Fittings) Fugitive Emissions Tank cleaning Vapor displaced from Oil tanker vessels
Regulatory Requirements on Air Emissions
Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR)
Prescribe Emission Limits that represents the maximum allowable levels of pollutants fromgaseous emission sources.
Part 3, section 3.8.8.1 of the DPR Guidelines and Standards stipulates that Waiver and permitbe obtained for gas flaring and also the payment of fine for flaring Gas. The section further
mandates that only pretreated and clean gas can be flared.
Part3, section 4.4.2, stipulates the development of emission inventory, sampling and laboratoryanalysis of ambient air around Flare sites and Production facilities for the following- Particulate,
Hydrogen Sulphide, Ozone and Volatile Organic Compounds
Best Practices to Manage Air Pollution
Gas Flaring/Venting Emission
Gas Recovery Preferable if high value products are obtainable Liquefied Petroleum Gas obtained by refrigeration is the most common Gas Recovery Product.Emissions from Pits and Ditches
Eliminate pits and ditches and replace with tanks and pipes. Cover pits and ditches.Combustion Sources
Optimize Equipment Performance Reduce excess oxygen Install Retrofit Controls Particulate collection from flue gas using: Electrostatic Precipitator
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Environmental Impacts of Air Emissions
E&P facilities produce various types of air emissions. An evaluation of the potential environmental
impacts from air emissions requires an identification of the equipment and facilities that emit air
emissions and an understanding of type and quantity of air pollutants emitted by the operations.
Flaresact as control devices burning waste. Flares also convert greenhouse gases (GHGs) like
methane to CO2, which on a volume basis have much lower global warming factor. However,
burning gas produces excessive amounts of CO2, which is usually the largest greenhouse gas
contributor from petroleum operations.
Offshore platforms tend to contain both oil processing equipment and gas processing equipment
such as dehydrators and compressors. Due to limited space and the need to carefully manage
weight, gas turbines may replace engines as compressor and generator drivers. Depending on the
quality of the gas being burned, gas turbines will emit air pollutants such as oxides of sulfur (SOx),
oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulates.
Gas plants are typically much larger facilities than compressor stations or tank batteries. In thesefacilities, most emission point sources like vents are hard piped to a flare. This means that most
emissions are burned in the flare and reduced approximately 98%. The flare does produce CO2 and
SO2 (if H2S is present in the gas sent to the flare). CO2 is a greenhouse gas and SO2 can contribute
to acid rain. The other large source of emissions at gas plants can be fugitive emissions.
Tank batteries may have flash gas, the gas that comes out of the production stream when pressure
is reduced in equipment or tanks *like CO2 coming out of a Coke can when its opened+. Emissions
can be controlled by capturing the vapors in a small compressor called a vapor recovery unit or
by routing them to a flare. Flaring of this gas can reduces hydrocarbon emissions by 98% but
produces CO2.
Compressor station enginesare the typical large source at compressor stations. Engines emit
mostly NOx, CO, and CO2 as combustion products or byproducts.
Glycol dehydratorsremove moisture (water) from natural gas using a glycol compound and these
can emit BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylenes). Benzene is a toxic air pollutant that
can cause cancer and other health effects. Properly installed and operating controls can reduce
BTEX and most other emissions from these units by 90-98%.
As noted above, most oil and gas
operations emit pollutants, whichcan enter the environmental and
may have negative impacts
depending on concentration,
toxicity and volumes over time.
Pollutants can be grouped
according to their type and source.
The adjacent figure lists some of the
important pollutants for the
Hydrocarbons Methane (CH4) (a greenhouse gas)
Non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC)Volatile organic compounds (VOC)
Combustion Byproducts SOx, NOx, CO, Particulates
Products of incomplete
combustion (PIC)
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S
Carbon Dioxide CO2 (a greenhouse gas)
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petroleum industry. Oil and gas are made of hydrocarbons and some of these are important
pollutants. Pollutants called combustion byproducts form when fuel is burned and are a natural
byproduct of combustion. Hydrogen sulfide is one such byproduct and can be fatal at certain
concentrations. Carbon dioxide is another and it is the major greenhouse gas. It sometimes occurs
naturally in our produced gas and is one of the principal products of combusting fuels containing
carbon (e.g. wood, coal, oil, natural gas).
Combustion byproducts include products of incomplete combustion (partially oxygenated),
hydrocarbons, particulates, and large, complex aromatic hydrocarbons. NOx means molecules with
one nitrogen atom and any number of oxygen atoms (e.g., NO and NO2 and N2O). SOx means
molecules with one sulfur atom and any number of oxygen atoms (e.g., SO2 and SO3).
CO2 is the primary emissionof ALL hydrocarbon combustion processes. The amount of CO2
emitted depends only on the amount of carbon burned. The main negative impact of CO2 is that
it is the major man-made contributor to global warming. Control of CO2 is very difficult and
expensive. The best control is not to make it in the first place (e.g., to conserve energy).
Air pollutants dont stay in the atmosphere forever. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such asBTEX, are usually oxidized to form CO2 and water. SOx, NOx, and particulates wash out in the rain,
or deposit onto the ground or water bodies. Acid rain from SO2 dissolved in rainwater to form
sulfuric acid is an example of this. CO2 is taken up by plants and dissolves in the oceans. The
problem is that, before they can be removed, pollutants have time to interact with and affect
people and the environment.
Air emissions can produce health effects that range from immediate effects associated with
exposure to high levels of H2S to chronic or long term effects such as cancer from long term
exposure to pollutants like benzene. For example:
500 ppm of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can kill in a few minutes. H2S can be emitted from gasand oil production. Flaring gas and fugitive emissions from oil and gas operations convert
H2S to SOx, a significantly less toxic form.
SOx forms sulfuric acid when in contact with water and moisture, and can irritate lungs andeyes.
High ozone levels cause eye and lung irritation. Ozone if formed from an atmosphericreaction from NOx emissions.
Exposure to particulates can cause irritation to the lungs and over time can cause lungdamage.
For both acute and chronic effects, there are pollutant concentration levels below whichthere are no adverse health effects.
Carcinogenic pollutants promote cancer. This could be considered a chronic effect, but it isusually shown as a separate category. A major difference is that for carcinogenic pollutants
there may be no safe level - ANY exposure increases the chance of developing cancer, at
least slightly. Medical experts are not in complete agreement about this.
Pollutants can fall into one, two, or all three of these categories. (Or none, if they dontdirectly impact human health. CO2 is an example.)
.
Beyond health effects, there are also issues related to destruction of the ozone layer in the
atmosphere, acid rain, and odors. The ozone layer acts to shield UV and cancer causing rays.
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Emission of halons from fire fighting equipment, Freon from refrigerators and air conditioners, and
Arklone solvent used in oil in water testing react with ozone and can contribute to loss of the ozone
layer. Acid rain pollutants, like SOx and NOx, form acids in the atmosphere that are deposited in
rain. This can cause changes in acidity of soil and natural waters that may lead to loss of forest and
aquatic animals. Many pollutants, such as CO2, CO, and NOx, will not produce any odors, but VOCs
and substances such as H2S can produce objectionable odors even at small concentrations in air.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has set an objectionable odor threshold for H2S at 5 ppb.
The impacts of pollutants are not only a function of their
concentration but also their lifetime in the atmosphere.
As you can see from the adjacent figure, the lifetimes of
different pollutants vary considerably. The shorter-lived
pollutants can be local or regional problems. Since CO2
and methane are relatively inert, they have time to spread
across the globe and, as GHGs, they will have an effect on
the temperature of the whole earth. This is an example of
Starting Local Looking Global. Emissions of CO2 and
methane occur locally but have global impact.
As previously noted, some air emissions such as CO2, NOx and methane are greenhouse gases, so
named because they act much the same was as glass panes do on a greenhouse to trap the heat
from solar radiation and thereby warm the interior of the greenhouse. Without these gases, heat
would escape back into space and Earths average temperature would be about 60F colder.
Greenhouse gases help regulate the temperature of the earth and their effect can be greater as
their atmospheric concentrations increase.
To illustrate this, the adjacent figure is a graphical
look at the greenhouse effect. Energy comes fromthe Sun in the form of incoming solar radiation.
Some of the radiation is absorbed by water vapor
and gases in the atmosphere, some by the earth,
and some is reflected back into space. The
radiation absorbed by the earth is radiated back as
longwave radiation. Some of this energy is
absorbed by GHG molecules in the atmosphere.
This causes the atmosphere to heat up.
The greenhouse effect is not bad. Without it, we
could not live on earth. However, there isconcern about the enhanced greenhouse
effect that is caused by increased concentrations
of GHGs, particularly CO2, that cause the
atmosphere to be warmer than it would be
without the addition of extra CO2 from burning
fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas.
How Long Do Pollutants Stay In the Atmosphere
CO2 120 years
Methane 12 years
CO 2 months
Benzene 2 weeks
H2S 1 week
Formaldehyde 1 day or less
Man-madegases that trap radiation from the earths surface:
Relative importance*
Carbon Dioxide 60%
Methane 20%
CFCs 10%
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 6%
Other 4%
*Relative importance to the enhanced greenhouse effect
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The major GHG gases and their relative importance to the enhanced greenhouse gas effect are
shown in the adjacent figure. Carbon dioxide is the major source of the enhanced GHG effect.
Almost all of this carbon dioxide is created by burning fuels that contain carbon. In the combustion
process, the carbon in the fuel is converted to CO2.
Methane is the next largest contributor to the enhanced GHG effect. Methane comes from natural
sources such as organic decomposition in swamps and from some human activities. Oil and gas
exploration and production activities contribute about 10% of the methane that is in the
atmosphere.
Nitrous oxide is the only other GHG gas that is routinely produced in oil and gas operations. NOx is
a combustion byproduct produced in small amounts from flaring and fuel fired compressors,
turbines, and engines. However, it is relatively small compared to CO2. CFCs are chlorinated
fluorocarbons released from fire fighting and refrigeration equipment.
An enhanced greenhouse effect can effect changes in global temperatures, rain fall rates, and sea
levels. Changes in climate may have the following impacts:
Health impacts More rain may create a wetter climate that results in more mosquitoes andmore cases of malaria.
Vegetation and species impacts Nigeria could develop a drier climate which could convert theNiger River Delta to a vast grassland or even a forest over a century or so. Animal species that
inhabit grasslands could move into the area. Valuable fish species could be lost if spawning and
nursery grounds are lost in the Niger Delta. Local crops could be impacted or even fail due to
changes in temperature and rainfall.
Coastal impacts Rising sea levels from melting ice caps could flood large areas of the coastmaking these inhabitable and changing the marine and terrestrial habitats along the shore.
In summary, air emissions from oil and gas operations not only represent a loss of potentiallyvaluable product, but they can also have environmental and health impacts.
Produced Water
For as long as oil is produced, water must be produced along with it. The associated water that
comes with produced crude is referred to as produced water.
Oil and gas reservoirs may contain significant quantities of water, which is separated from the well
stream fluids following extraction volumes tend to increase with reservoir life
The separated produced water is typically discharged overboard following treatment or it is re-
injected into the reservoir. Re-injection may reduce environmental impact (depending on where
the water is re-injected.
Since oil production is a daily event, discharged of produced water into natural water bodies must
also be a daily occurrence thus making produced water the main source of oily water.
Regulatory Standards for discharge
In a bid to eliminate the negative impact produced water poses to the marine/aquatic ecosystem,
DPR requires that produced water must be treated before disposal
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The DPR standards
In the past
Oil in water< 10ppm for inland disposal Oil in water< 0ppm for offshore disposal
Current
Oil in water- zero discharge inland Oil in water- 10ppm to zero
Potential Effects of Produced water
The effects from produced water are usually localized ( within 200m of discharge ) but can include:
- Bioaccumulation and tainting of fish due to BTEX and PAH compounds - Persistence and accumulation in sediments and seabed communities
Treatment Techniques
The techniques employed in the treatment of produced water before discharge overboard includes
but not limited to
Gravity separation Gas separation Gas flotation Hydocyclones Advanced treatment technologies
Environmental Impacts of Produced Water
The oil and gas industry not only produces oil and gas, but also significant quantities of water. In
many cases, the amount of water produced can equal or exceed the amount of oil that is produced.
When the water is in contact with oil, chemicals will be transferred from oil into the water. Even if
the solubility is greater in the oil, the chemicals will still partition into the water. For many organicchemicals we can expect that about 1 % of their weight will enter the water.
In addition the mixing of the oil and water causes minute droplets of oil to be suspended in the
water. Other chemicals in the water include salts and metals. The dissolved and dispersed oil and
chemicals can have an impact on the receiving water and habitats in contact with the water. This
includes people who live and work nearby and who may use the water. To prevent and reduce
impacts from produced water, it is critical to have an understanding of the chemicals in the water
and how they can have impacts.
Produced water presents a biological risk. In order for biological risk to be a factor we have to have
a chemical of concern present at a concentration that will cause an impact and we also needexposure, that is, a way that the chemical will reach either aquatic or human life. Chemicals of
concern include those that occur naturally in oil such as BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene,
xylene), PAHs (polyaromatic hydrocarbons such as naphthalene) and H2S (hydrogen sulfide).
Treatment chemicals are also potentially toxic. When mixed in the water, people can be exposed
to these chemicals through eating contaminated fish, by drinking or cooking with contaminated
water and by bathing or swimming in contaminated water.
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Even though a chemical of concern may be present in water, its toxicity will depend on its
concentration, or dose. Generally, the higher the dose, the more toxic the chemical will be.
Produced water toxicity is important because it is usually the largest production waste stream and
the quantity tends to increase with time as a field matures. Hence the dose may also increase as
the field matures.
The chemical composition of the produced water will vary by field and it will contain various
amounts of chemicals that are potentially toxic.In Nigeria, produced water typically contains 75 to
100 ppm O&G and
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Ecological impacts from toxicity of produced water can include elimination of a key food source or
death of mangroves and freshwater species due to higher salinities. Fish tainting can occur when
fish can take up chemicals into their bodies from water, sediment, or food. This causes the fish to
taste oddly when eaten. Many hydrocarbons in produced water can cause tainting.
Although produced water may have very low
concentrations of chemicals when discharged and
dispersed, these chemicals may bioaccumulate within
plants and animals that are exposed to them. The
adjacent figure illustrates bioaccumulation, whereby
small animals and plants take up chemicals by ingesting
contaminated particles or adsorption through physical
contact, and are then eaten by larger animals that
accumulate the chemicals. Bioaccumulation is a
concern that chemicals will accumulate in fish resulting
in exposure to consumers of fish, which might be people, birds and other aquatic life.
Bioaccumulation increases the dose component of biological risk because the amount of the
chemical becomes higher at each food level. A chemical that bioaccumulates reaches higherconcentrations in animal tissues as it moves up the food chain. Good examples are DDT and PCB,
which are highly stable, fat soluble chemicals. Produced water constituents rarely bioaccumulate,
but PAHs, mercury, and biocides containing tin are constituents of concern.
In summary, it is important to remember that produced water can be a major emission from
production that tends to increase as the field grows older. Produced water contains constituents
from oil and production treatment chemicals that can have environmental and health impacts, and
impacts on mangroves and fish have been noted for some production fields due to the discharge of
produced water. Whether or not produced water will have an impact depends on the type and
amount of constituents in the produced water, the amount of water discharged, and how well it isdispersed in the receiving water body.
Environmental Impacts of Drilling
In order to understand environmental
impacts, we must understand the
drilling process. The adjacent diagram
illustrates the drilling process and the
generation of the main waste stream
from drilling, the drill cuttings. The drill
string, which connects to the drill bit, isin the riser. Drilling muds or fluids are
pumped down through the riser to
improve drilling lubrication, maintain
pressure on the well to prevent
blowouts and to return drill cuttings
back to the rig.
On the offshore rig, the drilling mud is separated from the drill cuttings and the drill cuttings are
then discharged overboard or taken onshore for disposal. For onshore drilling operations, if water
Understanding the Drilling Process
Riser used for later sections ofhole drilled to return drillingmud and cuttings to rig
Drill string is inside riser
Drill cuttings must be disposedof after they are separated fromdrilling fluid
Cuttingsdischarge
Riser
BlowoutPreventer
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based drilling muds were used, muds are often disposed in a landfill. If oil based muds are used,
cuttings are either landfilled, landfarmed or, more recently, are being injected back into a
subsurface formation. If land filled, cuttings may also go through a thermal desorption unit to
remove oil prior to final disposal.
While regulations often drive the decisions on
environmental technologies to be employed
for drilling wastes, the potential
environmental impacts must also be
considered. The adjacent figure illustrates the
fate of drill cuttings in the ocean environment.
Perhaps the most important point is that
environmental impacts from drill cuttings
generally occur in only a small area around the
well head. This is where a small pile of drill
cuttings will occur, particularly in shallow
waters.
Drill cuttings disperse as they descend through the water column. Once reaching the sea floor, they
biodegrade, disperse due to seafloor currents and mix with clean sediment by means of
bioturbation, the movement of sediment by sediment-dwelling animals. The ester based drilling
fluid used offshore in Nigeria is the most biodegradable and least toxic non-water based drilling
fluid on the market. These features ensure environmental impacts will be minimal and short in
duration.
Benthos refers to living grasses and organisms on the floor of the water body, whether it be canal,
near-shore or offshore. The presence of flora or grasses in this area creates a habitat and breeding
ground for small organisms up to larger fish. Not only are they a vital part of aquatic ecosystem,they also act to stabilize the seabed floor and prevent turbidity which can in turn affect aquatic life,
such as clogging of fish gills or covering of benthos communities.
Drilling rig movements and operations can affect these seabed communities. First, rig movement
can clear flora, however in most instances this is reversible and it will re-grow and marine life will
re-establish. Then, discharge of cuttings leads to a build up of piles around the rig and smothering
of the sea grasses and marine life. It depends on the distribution and toxicity of the cuttings
whether the marine life will reestablish.
The adjacent figure of a bulls-eye
diagram further illustrates the potentialimpacts of drill cuttings containing non-
water based drilling fluids on the sea floor.
However, note that beyond 200m of the
discharge there is little or no
environmental effects are observed. TPH is
total petroleum hydrocarbon. It is a means
of analyzing for non-aqueous drilling fluids.
Sediment toxicity is evaluated by exposing
5
Spotty Benthic ImpactsLittle or No ToxicityLow TPH3 Mo.-2 Yr RecoveryNo Benthic Impacts
No ToxicitySpotty TPH
Benthic ImpactsSediment ToxicityHigh TPH6 Mo.-3 Yr Recovery
2,000 500 200 50 50 200 500 2,000 Meters
Environmental Impact of Drill Cuttings
w/ Non-Water Based Fluids
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sediment dwelling organisms to sea floor sediments. The number of organisms that die during the
test indicates the level of toxicity, in that higher toxicity results in more dead organisms. Benthic
impacts are evaluated by measuring the number and diversity of benthic (seafloor) organisms on
the seafloor. Reduced populations of organisms indicate significant ecological impact.
While drill cuttings can cause significant impacts under some conditions, using drilling fluids with
low toxicity and high biodegradability and applying state of the art treatment technologies to the
drilling wastes can certainly reduce environmental impacts.
Drilling in onshore and coastal areas presents different problems than offshore and requires
considerations for minimizing footprint and managing wastes. Roadways, canals, pits, and disposal
areas can increase the area directly affected by the drilling operation and leave a lasting impact.
Chemicals, materials, and wastes need to be carefully transported to and from the site to avoid
contamination of offsite areas. On site, these need to be securely stored and safely handled.
Waste disposal needs to be carefully managed to prevent environmental impacts.
In addition, there will be local requirements and regulations regarding the environmental aspects
of drilling that must be met. In Nigeria for example, drill cuttings are not allowed to be dischargedto swamps and the near shore environment. This means that drill cuttings must either be re-
injected into the subsurface or treated and disposed onshore. Discharge is allowed in areas greater
than 3 km offshore. In these offshore areas, water based drilling fluids and synthetic ester-based
drilling fluids are allowed, and drill cuttings discharged containing ester based fluids must contain
no more than 5% drilling fluid.
While drilling performance traditionally focuses on improving drilling efficiency and reducing
drilling time, the environmental impacts of drilling must also be considered. The environmental
goal should be that once drilling is complete, what is left is smallest environmental footprint
possible and little or no environmental impact.
Oil Spill
An oil spill is simply the loss of oil from its primarycontainment and the subsequent polluting of the
environment by the escaped oil. The primary containment for oil includes pipelines, flowlines,
tanks and separators while the secondary containment include saverpits and bundwall.
Contaminated environment
The release of oil from its containment leads to environmental pollution. The contaminated
environmental media include air, surface water, groundwater and land. The contaminated
resources as a result of the spill will include soil, inland water, farmlands, swamps, mangroves,fishing grounds, tourist sites, archeological sites and the open seas.
REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
The release of oil into the environment is regulated by governmental agencies. These governmental
agencies include the Directorate of Petroleum Resources (DPR) and the FME.
The regulatory requirements by the agencies include the followings:
1. Prevention of oil spill through pipeline corrosion prevention and intelligent pigging.2. Development and documentation of an oil spill response plan and procedures.
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3. Statutory reporting of oil spill to the DPR and the Federal Ministry of Environmentwithin 48 hours of incidents.
4. Activation of oil spill response planning through trainings and drills.5. Stockpiling of a minimum quantity of oil spill response equipment and materials.6. Restoration of polluted sites, clean-up and remediation.
The Tiered Spill Response and the National Oil Spill Response Plan
The oil industry in Nigeria has developed an industry wide oil spill response plan depending on thesize of the spill and the proximity (location).
Tier 1: Referred to as a minor spill, this is a spill that is less than 100bbls and occurring within
the operators premises. The operator using in-house spill responders and resources
contains this spill
Tier 2: Referred to as a medium spill, this is a spill that is greater than 100bbls but less than
500bbls and occurring within the operators premises but flowing beyond the operators
field. This spill is contained by using industry-wide spill response initiative. The other
operators pool resources, human and material to contain the spill.
Tier 3: This is a major spill with the releases of more than 1,000bbls of oil into the environment.
The spill response requires the activation of the National Oil Spill Contingency Plan. The
operator alerts the relevant regulatory agency and the National Commander of the
NOSDRA invite international companies like Oil Spill Responders Limited UK who
mobilizes for response immediately.
SOURCES AND CAUSES OF OIL SPILL
Sources of Oil Spill
There are several sources of oil spill pollution. Oil can be spilled during exploration and production
activities. The sources of oil spill are namely:
Equipment failure Pipeline rupture, Damage to hull, Tank failure, Blow out Tanker accident Fire Leakages
Human errors Failure of operators to follow standard operating procedures (SOP) and
violation, Wrong attitude Carelessness Ignorance
Intentional discharges- This is often carried out for the purpose of Pressure relief Safety of equipment Safety of people
Operational upset - Start up and shut down procedures
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Sabotage- This is a deliberate action that is human induced with the intention of Theft of equipment Theft of product Compensation claim
Cost of Oil Spill
The cost of an oil spill can be divided into two main headings: Financial cost to the company and
economic loss to the environment
Financial Cost- Cost of oil lost- Cost of equipment loss or damaged- Cost of oil deferred- Cost of clean-up- Cost of compensation- Legal cost- Medical cost- Cost of remediation and replacement of damaged resources
Economic cost
- Loss of Revenue to Government- Loss of income - fishermen, farmer, tourism- Loss of sensitive biodiversity ecosystem- Loss of life and productivity- Impact on socio-economics- Loss of aesthetic and impact on resource value
FATE AND EFFECT OF OIL SPILL
Key Considerations
The considerations for oil spill are based on the properties of oil as a chemical which includes:a. Toxicityb. Biodegrabilility/Persistencec. Bioaccumulation and tainting
Fate of Oil
The fate of oil in the environment is the pathway of pollution. It is a factor of both pollutants, the
environment and other physical factors such as climate and hydrology. When oil is released into
the environment the following process occur
1. Evaporation of light fractions2. Dissolution3. Dispersion on seas4. Spreading on land5. Emulsification of oil6. Sedimentation7. Absorption and adsorption8. Bio-uptake, biodegradation and bioaccumulation
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Environmental Impact
The environmental impact of oil includes:
1. Introduces toxic substance into soil and water environment
2. Smothering of bird and mammals.
3. Long term effect such as bio-accumulation in the food chain may result
4. Water/Groundwater Contamination.
5. Contaminates the plumage of bird.
Socio-economic Impact
1. Loss of revenue/income for fishermen, tourism worker e.t.c.
2. Loss of value due to poor aesthetic community.
3. Contamination of water bodies renders water non-usable to meet needs.
OIL SPILL PREVENTION
The management of oil spill can be categorized into four main headings:
Elimination of contamination
Use of tight shut off valves Where practical weld rather than use flanges connections
Prevention of contamination
o Install ESDVo Install Leak detection systemo Carry out surveillance exercises
Minimisation of contamination
Use liquid seals Minimise number of pipework connections Contain at source Carry out regular drill and trainings
Minimization of impact
Clean Up spill Provide surrogate materials for affected community
Environmental Impacts of Spills
Oil spills can occur during many industry activities for many reasons, including equipment failure,
human error, emergencies, or sabotage. Action should always be taken to prevent spills and be
prepared to respond to spills if they occur.
Oil spills can have many serious impacts depending on the amount and type of oil spilled and
actions affecting it in the environment. There are many different types of actions that affect oil
spills which can make it more complicated to respond to them and/or act to dilute the oil and help
reduce toxicity within the environment. Some actions that can with oil spills are:
Spreading - gravity driven Advection - movement from wind & currents Evaporation - determined by composition Emulsification droplet phase is water Dispersion - wave and wind energy break into small droplets Dissolution some oil components dissolve in water Biodegradation (long-term) Photo-oxidation
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The impacts of oil spills are not just confined to surface waters. They can impact the air through
evaporation and fires, the land by contact and oil-soaked soils, and even groundwater as oil moves
through the soil. This could produce impacts to wildlife and vegetation, even people, far removed
from the spill site. Key considerations for environmental impacts of oil spills include:
Toxicity Determined by characteristics of the material as well as the eventualconcentration and means of exposure in the environment.
Biodegradability/persistence Materials which do not degrade quickly will tend to bepersistent in the environment.
Bioaccumulation - Concentrations of contaminants increase up the food chain, for examplestarting with microorganisms and phytoplankton, and moving up to crabs and fish, then to
humans
Smothering - Smothering of bird and mammals impairs their mobility, is an irritant to theirskin and eyes, and exposes them to a higher toxic dose. Oil coatings on vegetation and the
roots of mangroves will impede the flow of oxygen and water and can lead to death.
Scale of the effect - The volume of the spill is a large determinant of the aerial extent towhich it will spread and significance of the impact.
Duration - Is the spill leaking small amounts over a long period of time, or massive amountin one release?
The toxicity, biodegradability, and persistence are determined by the properties of the oil and the
nature of the environment where it impacts. Some oil properties that determine toxicity or degree
of impact include density, viscosity, interfacial tensions, and the type of components in the oil, such
as BTEX or sulfur. Ambient conditions may also affect the eventual impact of a spill on the
environmental such as proximity to shoreline and sensitive habitats, the prevailing wind and
current conditions, and water and ambient air temperatures.
As example, in March 1989 the tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground on Blight Reef in Prince WilliamSound, Alaska, spilling approximately 11 million gallons of North Slope crude oil. This was a very
cold, frigid environment. The forces of nature (waves, currents that break up the oil, evaporation)
were at work but very slow. The conditions meant that breakdown of the oil by naturally occurring
bacteria was slow. Oil can still be found in areas today and may be impacting the environment.
This adjacent slide illustrates the relative toxicity of
crude by volume compared with the components of
gasoline, BTEX and other components. For example
crude is a million times less toxic than DDT, or a
thousand times less toxic than ammonia or BTEX
(benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene or xylene).
The primary defense any facility has against spills is
the action taken by the operator before a spill occurs.
Spill prevention should be a priority. By making it a
part of the everyday job routine, the behavior becomes integrated in to the job. New facilities
should have equipment tested before being placed into operation and prior to commissioning spill
prevention equipment should be in place and process monitoring and testing implemented. Check
valves, piping and tanks for drips or seeps. Notice whether the rainwater drains on the
Crude Oil
Gasoline/Kerosene
BTEX
Low MW PAHs
Ammonia
NaCl
Copper
mg/Lppm
ug/Lppb
g/LPp
thous
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containment areas are closed, and if necessary, locked. When equipment is taken out of service,
check it for both corrosion (pitting, etc) and for accumulation of corrosion by-products from other
areas. And, finally, make sure that a plan is in place should a spill occur so that response is rapid
and effective.
Tools for Environmental Protection and Impact Mitigation
Oil and gas companies have many sources that provide guidance and information for
environmental protection and mitigation of impacts.
An important tool for assessing and mitigating environmental impacts is the Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA). The EIA is the key environmental document that the project team will produce
and its submission and approval is usually a regulatory requirement. It is also serves as the baseline
for developing the environmental management plan and frequently contains an evaluation and
assessment of socio-economic issues.
The EIA determines how environmental and socio-economic considerations are managed in capital
projects. The EIA will is more fully discussed in a later section.
Environmental Impact Assessment ProcessAn Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of identifying, predicting, evaluating, and
mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of proposed projects and physical
activities prior to major decisions and commitments being made. EIAs should be completed on all
projects and can be conducted on various levels ranging from a desk top study to a detailed field
study. EIAs should be considered a process that begins early in the life of a project and continues
through the life of the project. Its a living document.
The purpose of an EIA is primarily as a planning and management tool that supports strategic
business objectives. Its aim is to identify positive and adverse environmental impacts of the projectand to determine how environmental standards can be met and adverse impacts minimized. The
EIA will help determine what levels of environmental change will be acceptable and will define
what the environmental management objectives will be for the project. Because of this, the EIA is
part of:
Industry Standards of Performance Ethical Obligations Regulatory Requirements
An EIA should be used as a policy and
management tool to mitigate environmental and
other impacts and improve performance. To be
an effective as a planning and management tool,
EIAs are recommended from beginning to end of
a project. Exploration projects often provide the
first opportunity to understand the risks,
liabilities and benefits of a project and to
establish relationships with governments,
communities and other stakeholders.
The EIA also provides the first understanding of5
The EIA Process
Screening
What types of projectsrequire an EIA?
Scoping
What must be considered?
Determining Baseline
Establish current conditions
Assessing
Determine the significance ofany project impacts, includingsocio-economic impacts
Mitigating
Plan for mitigatingunavoidable impacts
Monitoring & managing
Proponent develops plan formonitoring impacts
Reporting
Summarize findings andconclusions
Decision-making
Management and regulatorsevaluate the project
Public involvement
Public stakeholders mayparticipate in the process
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what the decommissioning plan will be and what monitoring and mitigation will be required during
operations. The adjacent figure shows the major steps in the EIA process.
The EIA is a policy and management tool for both planning & decision-making. It assists to identify,
predict & evaluate the foreseeable environmental consequences of proposed development
projects, plans, and policies. It also specifies the necessary environmental protection measures that
include mitigation measures and monitoring programs. The outcome of an EIA study assists
decision makers and the general public in determining whether a project should be implemented
and in what manner.
As previously stated, the EIA is a living
document, a process that grows with the
project. As such, environmental assessments
will be conducted at several stages during the
life of a project, each building upon the
previous, as shown on the adjacent figure.
The EIA can begin as a desktop study, and
then become a full EIA followed by fieldmonitoring for a period of time after the
environmental license is issued for the work
being done. The EIA is used to develop the
environmental management plan.
One of the studies usually required in an EIA is an Oil Spill Trajectory Model to assist with the
planning process to avoid or reduce environmental impacts. By doing an oil spill trajectory model,
the project representative can understand what the probability of impacting the coastline and if it
does what type of environment is likely to be impacted, such as a resort or sensitive environmental
area. This helps in deciding on redundancy systems such as double hull tanks for floating andonshore facilities or other preventative measures that need to be decided early in the project.
Another study usually required is a trajectory model for the dispersion of drill cuttings in the
offshore and coastal environments. This helps determine the impact of the type of drilling fluid
being planned for use and whether there is a sensitive environment in the area that will be
impacted by the cuttings. Another critical consideration is whether there be accumulation of the
cuttings since cuttings mounds can have adverse impacts from physical smothering and from
toxicity of the oil and fluids on the cuttings. In some areas, a project may need to change the type
of drilling fluid planned for use to avoid accumulation or other adverse environmental conditions,
or the project may even be prohibited from discharging any cuttings. In these cases it may be
necessary to bring the cuttings to shore for appropriate treatment and disposal or to re-inject thecuttings offshore.
Another discharge that should be considered by the EIA is produced water. The quantity and
quality of the produced water must be determined and a decision made on the type of treatment
and whether the produced water can be directly discharged or used for a beneficial purpose
onshore. If the desirable quality can not be achieved for discharge or beneficial use, then the
produced water will need to be re-injected into the producing formation or another non-potable
water formation, or handled by some other means to avoid adverse impact.
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The EIA will also evaluate air emissions and air quality issues. For greenhouse gas emissions there
is a growing interest and real possibility of savings from GHG credits or at a minimum reducing the
impact on the environment by understanding the emissions associated with a project and utilizing
energy efficient and low emission emitting equipment such as low NOx burners or highly efficient
flares. As a result of completing a greenhouse emission inventory for a project the decision may be
made to avoid flaring and instead capturing gas to be used elsewhere or sold. In addition, worker
health issues are addressed through modeling by understanding what concentrations of various
pollutants are emitted, where the primary dispersion will occur, and whether it is near a populated
or sensitive area. The information from the assessment will be used to determine equipment
specifications to control NOX, SOX, H2S, and other emissions.
Major projects represent 20-30 year investments that may impact not only the environment but
also the social and economic aspects of the region. Undertaking a development is also a
commitment to evaluate and take into consideration socioeconomic needs of the people and
communities living near project facilities and the potential impacts that may be posed by the
project. To address the socioeconomic aspects of that commitment, the EIA should include a socio
economic baseline setting of any villages and community activities within or near project facilitiesand operations. This study will consider the impacts of the projects on the potentially affected
communities as a whole and:
Describe the initial state of the communities near the proposed support facilities thatmight be affected by the construction or operations of these facilities (data acquired here
can be used in follow-up monitoring studies);
Identify key stakeholders with interest in the projects activities; Identify the presence of indigenous peoples or other groups that might warrant additional
consideration;
Perform an impact assessment and develop recommendations for the project (and the EIA)relating to project development and operations so that the project can minimize oreliminate adverse impacts (and/or enhance benefits on local populations; and
Provide data that will aid in designing public consultation programs.A project with many different phases may have more than one EIA completed prior to each phase,
such as for seismic exploration, exploratory drilling, field development and project
decommissioning activities. Whenever possible each phase should build on previous work.
Whether the project is basic or detailed will depend upon the sensitivity of the area and the
expected significance of project impacts, so the project may start with an initial assessment of
potential environmental issues or identification of environmental liabilities.
Environmental Baseline Studies are completed to help assess the current status of the property anddocument it for future comparisons. This provides the state of the environment before the project
begins. As the project progresses a measurement can be made and compared to the baseline to
determine any impact the operation may be having on the specific environment and how well
these are being mitigated. The same approach is applied for Sea Bed Surveys which are conducted
to understand potential risks and how to mitigate them for sea bed structures such as pipelines and
other. These will identify and categorize the status of marine life on the sea bed to determine
upfront potential impact and how it can be mitigated.
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Environmental Evaluation Studies and Environmental Audits will take place through the life of the
project to monitor the environment and as a check to ensure findings and mitigation measures
from the earlier EIAs. Monitoring is frequently required by regulations, but the EIA will also
determine the appropriate monitoring that must be conducted under the environmental
management plan to assure that environmental controls are working and that no impacts are
occurring. This is important because the environmental licenses are issued based on commitments
made in the EIA to mitigate various impacts.
The EIA Process can run anywhere from 6 months to 2 years for a major project, so a strong
planning process is needed. It requires identifying a contractor, going out to bid, and awarding a
contract. Additional items include understanding the regulations and what is required for the
specific project such as discharge modeling, oil spill response modeling, or other studies that need
to be included in the EIA. There are various approval stages that may include public participation in
the form of a hearing.
In Nigeria, EIAs are regulated by two government bodies, the Federal Ministry of Environment
(FMEnv) and the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR). The DPR requires that a preliminary
assessment of impacts (PAIR) be completed prior to submittal of the actual EIA for projectapproval. This has the benefit of identifying any impacts to the environment that will require
mitigation if not already planned by the project. This is a good planning tool that is done up front
instead of having an EIA submitted later in the project with a major issue showing up that needs to
be addressed. However, the requirements for the two bodies can sometimes be in conflict of each
other so it requires a thorough understanding, planning and working closely with both groups. The
major steps in the process are:
1. Project Proposal/Initiation -This is the first step in the EIA Process. The FMEnv will benotified in writing by the submission of a project proposal and a dully completed EIA
Registration/Notification Form, which is made available upon payment of N10, 000.
2.
Screening - On receipt of the project proposal, the FMEnv will carry out InitialEnvironmental Examination (IEE) and assign the project to Category I, II or III. Criteria for
categorization include magnitude, extent or scope, duration and frequency, risks,
significance, and mitigation measures available for associated/potential environmental
impacts. Various categories require different levels of effort and content in the report.
3. Scoping - On receipt of the screening report from FMEnv, the company/responsible partywill carry out a scoping exercise to ensure that all significant impacts and reasonable
alternatives are addressed in the intended EIA.
4. Draft EIA Report - Project proponent will submit at least 20 copies of a Draft EIA Report toFMEnv for review. Evidence of public participation (proceedings of communication with
adjoining communities and stakeholders) are to be included.
5. Review Process: The Draft EIA Report will be reviewed by FMEnv. The form of review canbe either of the following:
In-house (i.e. FMEnv only) Panel Review (sitting may be public) Public Review, which involves public, displays and reviews of the document for a
period of 21 working days
6. Final EIA Report: A final EIA Report will be submitted to the FMEnv within 6 months ofreceipt of the Technical comments from the review process
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7. Technical Committee/Decision Making and Issuance of EIS: The Technical Committeeconsiders and approves the issuance of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) if the
comments from the review process are satisfactory and the Final EIA Report submitted
acceptable.
8. Certification: The Minister of Environment will issue a Certificate upon receipt of an EIS.9. Project Implementation: Implementation of the project will commence after Certification,
in accordance within the stipulated mitigation measures and specification presented in the
Final EIA Report.
The specific steps for DPR Process include the following:
1. An operator or licensee initiates the project2. An initial assessment/environmental screening and scoping of significant issues are carried
out by the initiator and the DPR.
3. A preliminary assessment of impacts (PAIR), focused on the selected project option iscarried out.
4. The Department of Petroleum Resources and the project initiator, screen the project forpotential significant and adverse environmental effects. The screening and the decision on
significant impact of the project shall commence and be made within thirty (30) days ofreceipt of project preliminary assessment. If no significant impacts, the project may proceed
with appropriate mitigating measures and monitoring programme. If the PAIR identifies
potentially significant impacts then other requirements are triggered.
Mitigation and Management of Construction Impacts
Experience has shown that it is both easier and cheaper to avoid environmental impacts than to try
to reverse them. Basic prevention and avoidance principles work well for the construction phase of
projects and include:
Upfront planning
Limiting access to undisturbed or highly sensitive areas Minimizing physical and environmental footprint Maintaining natural conditions Managing construction wastes
The first principle, upfront planning, involves incorporating long-term environmental protection,
remediation and restoration plans during the front end load (FEL). This should include a structured
process and cross functional team with appropriate experts in the environmental issues of concern.
In many cases it may be appropriate to include creative solutions such the temporary road through
the jungle made from interlocking mats instead of a permanent asphalt road. All issues should be
screened issues upfront with a plan for resolution.
An inventory of habitat resources and an initial site assessment are likely upfront actions that will
provide a good baseline for project analyses and decisions on operations and mitigation. For this
purpose, remote sensing technologies can be very valuable for providing regional views and can
reveal spatial patterns and relationships not visible otherwise.
The second prevention principle is to limit access to undisturbed areas. Access is required in order
to move either oil exploration or oil and gas production equipment into an undeveloped site, and
to provide operational access. Such access should be located to minimize potential damage to
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sensitive areas, and limited in size to minimize the footprint of the operations. The baseline and
remote sensing results will be valuable in making a determination of where these should be located
to minimize impacts.
In addition, local communities may take advantage of the new access to increase harvests of local
plants and animals. Such issues should be considered prior to access construction. Consider the
network of roads that can fragment a tropical rainforest and canals that can do the same thing in a
wetland environment and discuss. In these cases, there may be secondary impacts that will need to
be taken into consideration.
When possible, it is preferable to use existing roads than to build new ones. If new roads are likely
to contribute to poaching or encroachment, then physical roadblocks or removal of bridges should
be considered if feasible. New tracks may be stopped short of junctions with existing roads in
order to camouflage their presence. In wildlife or forest conservation areas, further support to
staff may be necessary, such as the establishment of new ranger posts on new access points into
conservation areas.
Other types of activities can also open up remote areas. For example, seismic survey lines createaccess routes that may be exploited by others to harvest local forest resources. Access routes
should be as narrow as is practical, and should be disguised after use.
Helicopters can be used to transport equipment, material and people into remote areas and so
avoid the creation of permanent accesses like roads or canals. It also avoids altering existing
watershed drainage patterns when canals are dredged. In some situations, heli-rigs can be
transported by helicopters and assembled on site.
Aerial roadways or roads on piles can also be used in some circumstances to avoid cutting through
vegetation and reduce other impacts. Dredged spoils, placed by the banks of the dredgedchannels, create high solid grounds that are attractive to local settlers and encourage settlements.
These new settlements exert pressures on the local forests resources, and can very quickly degrade
a large area of previously undisturbed forests. Consideration should be given to alternate disposal
of dredge spoils, for example, at a centralized low habitat value or previously degraded land area.
Placing dredge spoils far away from drill sites and facilities also keeps settlements far away, thereby
not exposing them to hazards from the operations.
To prevent potential impacts, new access areas should be considered for removal if they are no
longer needed for oil and gas operations. Encroachment is an insidious process, which will occur
unless actively designed against and controlled. It is also important that the location and
construction of any new roads is integrated with any future development plans.
The third prevention principle is to minimize the footprint. A final site should be selected with
careful consideration of existing and adjacent land use, drainage and subsequent restoration in
mind. Whether a terrestrial, wetland or aquatic site, there may be some flexibility in location
choice to allow the selection of a sensible site that maximizes the ultimate restoration of the site
and minimizes both the final footprint and the ultimate costs. The site should be located to
minimize impact to landscape, conservation areas, important fish and wildlife habitats, human
settlements, cultivated areas and tourist destinations.
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For any site, use only the minimum amount of land necessary. This usually calls for some creativity.
Where feasible, multiple wells drilled from one site by directional drilling can reduce the amount of
land and reduce clearance and dredging or road access. The use of satellite production facilities
such as remot