ENGLISH HISTORICAL GRAMMAR. NOUNS present-day English: 3 (natural) genders: masculine, feminine,...
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Transcript of ENGLISH HISTORICAL GRAMMAR. NOUNS present-day English: 3 (natural) genders: masculine, feminine,...
ENGLISH HISTORICAL GRAMMAR
NOUNS
present-day English:
3 (natural) genders: masculine, feminine, neuter (inanimate)2 numbers: singular, plural2 cases: common case, possessive case
most nouns 2 (spoken) or 4 (written) forms:
[boɪ] boy boys
[boɪz] boy’s boys’
All creatures, heavens and angels, the sun and the moon, the stars and the earth, animals and birds, the sea and all fish, God created and made in six days.
Ealle gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan,steorran and eorþan, ny tenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas, God gescēop and geworhte on six dagum.
OE NOUNS
3 (grammatical) genders: masculine, feminine, neuter
2 numbers: singular, plural
4 cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative
8 different forms (stem + case/number ending)
Different inflectional patterns > different DECLENSIONS
6 major, several minor declensions:
4 vocalic (strong) declensions – stem ends in a vowel (a, ō, u, i)1 consonantal (weak) declension – stem ends in a consonant (n)1 root declension – stem equals the root
a-declension: n-declension root declension
stān stānas nama naman mann mennstānes stāna naman namena mannes mannastāne stānum naman namum menn mannumstān stānas naman naman mann menn
word word sunne sunnanwordes worda sunnan sunnenaworde wordum sunnan sunnumword word sunnan sunnan
THE FINAL FRICATIVE VOICING
wolf-wolves, thief-thieves, bath-baths, mouth-mouths, house-houses, loaf-loaves, half-halves, life-lives
BUT: dwarfs/dwarves, hoofs/hooves, scarfs/scarves…AND: beliefs, chiefs, roofs…
OE N/A sg. wulf, OE N/A pl. wulfas
OE wulfas > ME wulves > NE [wʊlvz] wolves
THE ZERO PLURAL
neuter nouns in the a-declension, monosyllabic, long syllable
OE N/A sg. word, N/A pl. word
OE N/A sg. hūs, N/A pl. hūs
but: OE sg. scip, pl. scipu ny ten, pl. nytenu
ME. word + es hūs + es …..
But: sheep < OE scēap deer < OE dēor….
so also: fish, trout, quail…
THE MUTATION PLURAL
mouse-mice, louse-lice, man-men, tooth-teeth, goose-geese, woman-women
PALATAL MUTATION/ i-MUTATION
Germ. *mūs-, pl. *mūs-iz-
OE N/A sg. mūs, N/A pl. mysME mūs, pl. mīsNE [maʊs] mouse, [maɪs] mice
A sound law operating in North Germanic and West Germanic dialects:
pre-OE*a > OE æ, e/_ [+nasal]pre-OE *o > OE epre-OE *u > OE ypre-OE *eo, *ea > OE ie
under the influence of *i in the next syllable
The same rules apply to long accented vowels and diphthongs
OE sg. wīf-mann, pl. wīf-menn
ME sg. wimman, pl. wimmen
sg. wumman, pl. wummen
NE sg. [‘wʊmən] woman, pl. [‘wɪmɪn] women
THE n-PLURAL
ox-oxen, child-children, brother-brethren…
OE n-declension (masculine)oxa oxanoxan oxenaoxan oxumoxan oxan
OE oxan > ME oxen > NE [ɒksn] oxen
OE cild, N/A pl. cildru
OE cildru > ME childre, childer + en > NE [ʧɪldrən] children
OE brōþor, pl. brōþorME brōther, pl. brōther, brōther+es, brēther+enNE [brʌðəz], [breðrən] brothers, brethren
FOREIGN PLURAL MARKERS
alumnus – alumnibacillus – bacillidatum – datastratum – stratagenus – generaanalysis – analysescriterion – criteriaphenomenon – phenomena…
Ealle gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan, steorran and eorþan, nytenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas, God gescēop and geworhte on six dagum.
DO [ealla gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan, eorþan and steorran, nytenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas,]S [God] P [gescēop and geworhte] A [on six dagum].
ealle > ME all(e) > NE allgesceafta – A. pl. fem., N. sg. gesceaftheofonas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. heofonenglas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. engelsunnan – A. sg. fem., N. sg. sunnemōnan – A. sg. masc., N. sg. mōnaeorþan – A. sg. fem., N. sg. eorþesteorran – A. pl. masc. N. sg. steorranytenu - A. pl. neut. N. sg. nytenfugelas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. fugelsǣ - A. sg. neut. fiscas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. fisc
God – N. sg. masc. gescēop – 3rd p. sg. preterite, indicative; infinitive: (ge)sceapangeworhte – 3rd p. sg. preterite, indicative; infinitive: wyrcandagum – D. pl. masc., N. sg. dæg
THE CASE
OE four cases – nominative, genitive, dative, accusative
a-declension: n-declension mutation plurals
stān stānas nama naman mann mennstānes stāna naman namena mannes
mannastāne stānum naman namummenn mannumstān stānas naman naman mann menn
The only surviving ending : -es (Genitive singular, a-declension
OE –es > ME – [əz] > NE [z] Mary’s > NE [s] Mat’s > NE [ız] Bruce’s
From late OE – spreading to all masculine, all neuter, all feminine and plural nouns
Apostrophe: since 1650 in singular, since 1780 in plural
In ME case endings replaced with prepostional endings
OE ….hit liīode Herode and eallum þe him mid ston…ME … and (it) pleside to Eroude and also to men restynge…NE … and pleased Herod and them that sat with him
THE FUNCTION OF SAXON GENITIVE
OE Hwæs bidde ic? …. Iohannes heofod þæs fulluhteres…verbs and adjectives governed different cases
we synt Abrahames cynnes partitive meaning
Herodiascan dohtor possessive meaning
In NE – mostly restricted to possessive function and human beings
PERSONAL PRONOUNSPERSONAL PRONOUNS
NE: NE: I I youyou he he she she ititmeme youyou himhim herher itit
wewe youyou theytheyusus you you themthem
-unlike nouns, case distinctionunlike nouns, case distinction-2nd person singular = 2nd person plural2nd person singular = 2nd person plural-common case = objective casecommon case = objective case-gender distinction in 3rd person singular onlygender distinction in 3rd person singular only-Scandinavian pronouns in 3rd person pluralScandinavian pronouns in 3rd person plural
OE PERSONAL PRONOUNSOE PERSONAL PRONOUNS
1st 2nd 3rd
singular:
ic þū hē hēo hitmīn þīn his hiere hismē þē him hiere himmē þē hine hēo hit
plural:
wē ʒē hīeūre ēower hieraūs ēow hem, heom, himūs ēow hīe
1st singular, 3rd singular masculine, 1st plural:
NE common case < OE nominative caseNE objective case < OE dative
ic þū hē hēo hitmīn þīn his hiere hismē þē him hiere himmē þē hine hēo hit
wē ʒē hīeūre ēower hieraūs ēow hem, heom, himūs ēow hīeOE ic > ME i(c, ī > NE [aı] I
OE mē > ME mē > NE [mi:] me
OE hē > ME hē > NE [hi:] heOE him > ME him > NE [hım] him
OE wē > ME wē > NE [wi:] weOE ūs > ME ūs, us > NE [Λs] us
3rd person singular neuter:
OE common case = OE accusative case = NE common, objective case
OE hit > ME hit > NE [ɪt] it
3rd person singular feminine:
OE nominative lostNE common case < ?OE dative case > NE objective case
ic þū hē hēo hitmīn þīn his hiere hismē þē him hiere himmē þē hine hēo hit
wē ʒē hīeūre ēower hieraūs ēow hem, heom, himūs ēow hīe
OE hēo > ME hē, hjē, hjōME sjē, shē > NE [∫i:] she
OE hiere > ME her(e > NE [hз:] her
2nd person singular, plural
OE nominative singular > NE common case singular (obsolete)OE dative singuar > NE objective case singular (obsolete)
OE þū > ME thou > NE [ðau] thouOE þē > ME thee > NE [ði:] thee
OE nominative plural > NE common case plural (obsolete)OE dative plural > NE common/objective case singular/plural
OE ʒē > ME yēK > NE [ji:] yeOE ēow > ME you > NE [ju:] you
plural → singular (13th - 18th century)objective case → common case (14th – 17th century)
þū ʒēþīn ēowerþē ēowþē ēow
3rd person plural
OE nominative case > lostOE objective case > lost?
OE hīe > ME hēK ; thei (12th c.) > NE [ðeɪ] they
OE hem, heom > ME hem, NE [əm] ‘em, them (14th c.) > [ðem] them
And specially from every shires endeof Engelond to Caunterbury they wendethe holy blisful martyr for to sekethat hem hath holpen whan that they were seke…
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNSPOSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
OOE genitives of personal pronouns also used as possessives.
Possessives were declined, they displayed gender and numberagreement
… ūrne gedæghwāmlican hlāf syle ūs tðdægand forgyf ūs ūre gyltasswā swā wē forgyfað ūrum gyltendum…
1st 2nd 3rd
singular
ic þū hē hēo hitmīn þīn his hiere hismē þē him hiere himmē þē hine hēo hit
plural:
wē ʒē hīeūre ēower hieraūs ēow hem, heom, himūs ēow hīe
NE my, mine his our, oursyour, yours her, hers your, yours
its their, theirs
1st person singular:
OE mīn > ME ‘mīn > NE [‘maın] mine (disjunctive)
ME ˚mi, mī > NE [mɪ], [maɪ] my (conjunctive)
2nd person singular (obsolete)
OE þīn > ME ‘thīn > NE [‘ðaɪn] thine (disjunctive)
ME Mthi(n, thī > NE [ðaɪ] thy (conjunctive)
2nd person plural
OE N. sg. masc. ēower > ME your > NE [jɔə], [jɔ:] your
3rd person plural
OE N. sg. masc. hiera > ME her(e ME their > NE [ðɛə] their
CONJUCTIVE (ATTRIBUTIVE) AND DISJUNCTIVE (PREDICATIVE) POSSESSIVES
mine, thine – accent related
hers, ours, yours, theirs
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
In OE regular personal pronouns were used in reflexive position
Bycgaþ eow ele ….Hē hine restan wolde…
Occasionally, reinforced with the adjective self:
Romane selfe sædon ……Ic swerige ðurh me selfne
The “old system” of reflexive pronouns:
me self us selfthee self you selfhim self them selfher selfit self
self adjective > self noun
⇒ personal pronouns > possessive pronouns
The “new system” of reflexive pronouns:
my self our selfthy self your selfhis self their selfher selfit(s) self
self pluralized, combination of the old system (3rd person) and of the new system (1st and 2nd persons):
myself ourselvesyourself yourselveshimself themselvesherselfitself
Modern English usage:
cf. :
She dressed and left for work. The little girl dressed herself and came down the stairs.
DEMONSTRATIVESDEMONSTRATIVES
Old English demonstratives: Old English demonstratives:
‘‘this’this’
N. sg. masc. N. sg. masc. þesþes N. pl. N. pl. þāsþāsN. sg. fem. N. sg. fem. þēosþēosN. sg. neut. N. sg. neut. þisþis
‘‘that’that’
N. sg. masc. N. sg. masc. se, sēse, sē N. pl. N. pl. þāþāN. sg. fem. N. sg. fem. sēosēoN. sg. neut. N. sg. neut. þætþæt
ARTICLESARTICLES
THE DEFINITE ARTICLETHE DEFINITE ARTICLE
In OE – unaccented In OE – unaccented ‘that’ ‘that’ demonstratives demonstratives occasionally used as the definite articleoccasionally used as the definite article
masc. sg. masc. sg. fem. sg. fem. sg. neut. sg. neut. sg. pl.pl.
N. N. sese ssēoēo þætþæt þāþāG. G. þesþes þǣreþǣre þesþes
þāraþāraD. D. þǣmþǣm þǣreþǣre þǣmþǣm
þǣmþǣmA.A. þoneþone þā þā þætþæt þāþāL. L. þēþēI.I. þþyy
ME the > NE [ME the > NE [ððǝ] theǝ] theME ‘the > thē[ > NE [‘ME ‘the > thē[ > NE [‘ðði:] thei:] the
ME [+vowel, -long] ME [+vowel, -long] → → [+long] / - V ⇒ thē[ apple [+long] / - V ⇒ thē[ apple > NE [> NE [ðði:] applei:] apple
the + comparative/superlative of adverbs:
The sooner the better.He runs (the) fastest
..forþām wæs sanctus Paulus þy strangra on gōdum weorcum…
.. þæt hēr þy māra wīsdom on lande wǣre…þy wē mā geþēoda cūþon….
= ‘even more’
OE þy, þē > ME the > NE the [ðə]
The indefinite articleThe indefinite article
OE:OE:
þæt dyde unhold mann… ‘an enemy did that’he bestēalcode on land swā swā wulf…’he stole into the land like a wolf’
occasionally:
.. ān mann wæs eardiende on Israhēla þēode… ‘a man lived in Israel’
... nim sume tigelan… ‘take a tablet’
OE ān > ME ǭn, wǭn, wōn > NE wūn, wun > [‘wʌn] one
OE °ān > ME an, a(n) > NE [ən], [ə] ME ‘an > NE [‘æn], [‘eɪ] a, an = RESTRESSED FORMS
ADJECTIVESADJECTIVES
Old English adjectives displayed number, gender and case agreement with the nouns which they modified.
strong and weak declension
…ān gōd mann wæs eardiende…. Se gōda mann wæs hālig…
The choice of the declension depended on the specific or non-specific referenceof the modified noun
STRONG ENDINGS = NON-SPECIFIC (INDEFINITE) REFERENCE
WEAK ENDINGS = SPECIFIC (DEFINITE) REFERENCE
Strong declension:
singular pluralmasc. fem. neut. all
cwic cwicu cwic cwicecwices cwicre cwices cwicracwicum cwicre cwicum cwicumcwicne cwice cwic cwicecwice (cwicre)
Weak declension
cwica cwice cwice cwicancwican cwican cwican cwicracwican cwican cwican cwicumcwican cwice cwican cwican
MIDDLE ENGLISH: The ending –e was the only ending retained:
strong singular: strong plural:(an) good man (many) goode men
weak singular: weak plural:(the) goode man the goode men
The final –e ceased to be pronounced in the 14th century.
Chaucer (Canterbury Tales):
Whan that Aprille with his shoures sootethe drought of March hath perced to the roote…Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth inspired hath in every holt and heeth the tendre croppes…… and smale foules maken melodyethat sleepen al the nyght with open ie….
In Modern English adjectives are invariable, except in the system of comparison.
COMPARISON: inflectional, periphrastic, irregular
Inlectional comparison
comparative degree:OE –ra (masc.), -re (fem.), -re (neut.), -ran (pl.) weak declension (endings)ME –r[ə] > NE [ə] –er
OE heardra (N.sg.masc.) > ME hardr(e, harder > NE harder [‘hɑ:də]
superlative degree: strong or weak declension
OE –ost, -est > ME –[ə]st > NE [ɪst] -est
OE heardost > ME hardest > NE [‘hɑ:dɪst] hardest
PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON
“competes” with inflectional comparison since ME:
comparative/superlative of ‘much’ + positive degree
The origin of more, most:
OE micel ‘great’; comp. māra, sup. mǣst
OE micle ‘greatly’, comp. mā, sup. mǣst
OE mā > ME mǭ, mǭre > NE [mɔ:] more
OE mǣst > ME męst; mǭst > NE [‘məʊst] most
Shakespeare:
….to some more fitter place…… I am more better than Prospero……. in the calmest and most stillest of the night…… most unkindest cut of all…
present-day English:
inflectional comparison: all monosyllabic, disyllabic adjectives in -er, -le, -ow, -y
periphrastic comparison: disyllabic adjectives in –ed, -ish, -ful,-ing, -ive, -st, all adjectives longer than two syllables
IRREGULAR COMPARISON
1.good – better – the best
gōd bet(e)ra be(t)st
yfel wiersa wierst
micel māra mǣst
lytel lǣssa lǣst
b) old – older/elder - the oldest/eldest
OE eald , ald (Anglian) > ME ǭld > NE [əʊld] old
OE ieldra, eldra > ME eldr(e > NE [eldə] elder
> NE [əʊldə] older (17th c.)
OE ieldest, eldest > ME eldest > NE [eldɪst] eldest
> NE [əʊldɪst] oldest (17th c.)
OE læt, lat- > ME lāt > NE [leɪt] late
OE lætra > ME latr(e > NE [lætə] latter
ME lātr(e > NE [leɪtə] later
OE * lætst > ME last > NE [lɑ:st] last
ME lātest > NE [leɪtɪst] latest
OE nēah > ME neigh > NE [naɪ] nigh
OE nēarra > ME nęrre > NE [nɪə] near
OE nēahst > ME nehst > NE [nekst] next
OE forþ (adverb)
OE furþra > ME furthr(e > NE [fɜ:ðə] further
ME furthest > NE [fɜ:ðɪst] furthest
OE feorr (adverb)
OE fierra > ME ferre, farre > NE [fɑ:ðə] farther
OE fierrest > Me ferrest, farrest > NE [fɑ:ðɪst] farthest
ADVERBSADVERBS
according to form: SIMPLE, DERIVED, PERIPHRASTICaccording to form: SIMPLE, DERIVED, PERIPHRASTIC
SIMPLE: SIMPLE: now, then, here, there, well, hard, fast….. now, then, here, there, well, hard, fast…..
origin: origin:
a)a)OE OE simple adverbssimple adverbs: : nū, hēr, þǣr, wel….nū, hēr, þǣr, wel….
b)b)OE OE derived adverbs: heardderived adverbs: heardee, fæst, fæstee, wīd, wīdee……
OE hearde > ME harde > NE [hɑ:d] hardOE hearde > ME harde > NE [hɑ:d] hard
DERIVED ADVERBS: DERIVED ADVERBS: widely, strongly, hardly, eastward(s), clockwise… widely, strongly, hardly, eastward(s), clockwise…
origin: origin:
a)a)OE adjective + suffix OE adjective + suffix –līce–līce
OE noun sōþ + OE noun sōþ + līc līc (adjectival suffix) +(adjectival suffix) + e e (adverbial suffix) > sōþ(adverbial suffix) > sōþ-līce-līce
OE –līce > ME li(ch(e > NE -[lɪ] –lyOE –līce > ME li(ch(e > NE -[lɪ] –ly
ME –lich(e, -ly competes with –(e) ME –lich(e, -ly competes with –(e)
Shakespeare: Shakespeare: thou didst it excellentthou didst it excellentshe will speak most bitterly and strangeshe will speak most bitterly and strange
since 18th c. simple adverbs - exceptionssince 18th c. simple adverbs - exceptions
double adverbial forms:
Peter works Peter works hardhard..Peter Peter hardly hardly (ever) works.(ever) works.
I hate arriving I hate arriving late.late.I haven’t been to the theatre I haven’t been to the theatre latelylately
He can jump very He can jump very highhigh..He is He is highly highly spoken of.spoken of.
Come Come close.close.They are They are closely closely related.related.
Take it Take it easy.easy.This can be arranged This can be arranged easily.easily.
b) OE nouns/adverb + weardb) OE nouns/adverb + weard
OE weard ‘in direction of’ > ME ward > NE -ward(s)OE weard ‘in direction of’ > ME ward > NE -ward(s)
c) OE nound + wīs –e ‘in the manner c) OE nound + wīs –e ‘in the manner
OE –wīse > ME – wīs(e > NE –[waɪz]OE –wīse > ME – wīs(e > NE –[waɪz]
PERIPHRASTIC ADVERBIALS: PERIPHRASTIC ADVERBIALS: in a (adjective) manner/ wayin a (adjective) manner/ way
cf overboard, uphill, downside, upstream….cf overboard, uphill, downside, upstream….
NUMERALSNUMERALS
words representing numberswords representing numbers
cardinal – quantity: cardinal – quantity: one, two, threeone, two, threeordinal – sequential order: ordinal – sequential order: first, second, thirdfirst, second, thirdranking – order of relevance: ranking – order of relevance: primary, secondary, tertiaryprimary, secondary, tertiarypartitititve – division into fraction: partitititve – division into fraction: whole, half, thirdwhole, half, thirdcomposite – composition: composite – composition: unary, binary, ternaryunary, binary, ternarymultiplicative – repetition: multiplicative – repetition: once, twice, thriceonce, twice, thricereproductive – replication: reproductive – replication: single, double, triplesingle, double, triplecollective – sets: collective – sets: pair, triad, dozenpair, triad, dozendistributive – alternating patterns: every other, every third…(distributive – alternating patterns: every other, every third…(singuli, bini, ternisinguli, bini, terni…)…)……
OE cardinalOE cardinal OE ordinalOE ordinal
1 ān1 ān formaforma2 twā, twegen2 twā, twegen ōþerōþer3 þrēo, þrīe3 þrēo, þrīe þirda, þriddaþirda, þridda4 fēower4 fēower fēorþafēorþa5 fīf5 fīf fīftafīfta6 siex6 siex siextasiexta7 seofon7 seofon seofoþaseofoþa8 eahta8 eahta eahtoþaeahtoþa9 nigon9 nigon nigoþanigoþa10 tīen10 tīen tēoþatēoþa
22 twegen and twentig 22 twegen and twentig
1 – 3 : declined, gender distinction1 – 3 : declined, gender distinction
4 - 19 : not declined, but the ending 4 - 19 : not declined, but the ending –e –e when used alonewhen used alone
fīf menn - fīfe fīf menn - fīfe
Ordinal numerals: cardinal + Ordinal numerals: cardinal + oþaoþa
IE * -to- > Germ. * -þa- > OE – (o) þa > ME –th(e > NE – [IE * -to- > Germ. * -þa- > OE – (o) þa > ME –th(e > NE – [θθ]]
after voiceless fricatives – dissimilation of [after voiceless fricatives – dissimilation of [θθ] to [t] : fīfta] to [t] : fīfta
Ealla gesceafta […..] God gescēop and geworhte on six dagum.
And an þǣm seofoþan dæʒe hē ʒeendode his weorc and geswācþā and hīe wǣron swīþe gōde. (Ælfric) Henry the Fift, Twelft Night (Shakespeare)
Irregular ordinal numeralsIrregular ordinal numerals
one : (the) firstone : (the) first
OE ān > ME ǭn, w ǭn, wōn > NE wūn, wun, [wʌn] oneOE ān > ME ǭn, w ǭn, wōn > NE wūn, wun, [wʌn] one
OE forma, foremest, ǣrest, fyrstaOE forma, foremest, ǣrest, fyrsta
OE fyrsta > ME first(e > NE [fɜ:st] firstOE fyrsta > ME first(e > NE [fɜ:st] first
two : (the) secondtwo : (the) second
OE twā (fem., neut.) > ME twǭ > twō[ > NE [tu:] twoOE twā (fem., neut.) > ME twǭ > twō[ > NE [tu:] two
OE twegen (masc.) > ME tweien > NE [tweɪn] twainOE twegen (masc.) > ME tweien > NE [tweɪn] twain
OE OE ōþer > ME ō[ther > NE ūther, uther > [ʌðə] otherōþer > ME ō[ther > NE ūther, uther > [ʌðə] other
ME secounde > NE [‘sekənd] secondME secounde > NE [‘sekənd] second
three : (the )thirdthree : (the )third
OE þrēo (fem., neut.) > ME thrē > NE [OE þrēo (fem., neut.) > ME thrē > NE [θθri:] threeri:] three
OE þrīe > ME thrē[ > NE [OE þrīe > ME thrē[ > NE [θθri:] threeri:] three
OE þridda, þirda > ME third(e > NE [OE þridda, þirda > ME third(e > NE [θθɜ:d] thirdɜ:d] third
five : (the ) fifthfive : (the ) fifth
OE fīfe > ME fīv(e > NE [faɪv] fiveOE fīfe > ME fīv(e > NE [faɪv] five
OE fīfta > ME fift(e > NE fift, fifth [fɪfOE fīfta > ME fift(e > NE fift, fifth [fɪfθθ]]
VERBSVERBS
verbal categories: person, tense, mood, (voice?)verbal categories: person, tense, mood, (voice?)
PERSON - PERSON - Who is the doer of the action? I, you or somebody elseWho is the doer of the action? I, you or somebody else
AGENT > SUBJECT > NOUN PHRASE AGENT > SUBJECT > NOUN PHRASE and/or personal ending and/or personal ending
OE present tense (indicative)
singular plural
wrīt-e wrīt-aþwrīt-estwrīt-eþ
1st person – loss of the ending –e in ME
OE (ic) wrīte > ME wrīt(e > NE [raɪt] write
2nd person – loss of the 2nd person singular loss of singular reference in the 2nd person
3rd person singular:
OE –(e)þ, -t (in contracted forms) remains in ME, but gradually replaced with –es from the north
OE (hē) wrīteþ, wrītt > ME wrīteth, writt, wrītes
OE –es > ME [ə]s, [ə][z] > NE
ME (hē) wrītes > NE [‘raɪts] writes
[s]
[z]
[ɪz]
plural:
OE –aþ preserved as ME –eth, but soon replaced with –en
OE (hīe) wrītaþ > ME wrīteth, wrīt(e(n > NE [‘raɪt] write
The ending –es the only personal ending preserved, but even this onerestricted to the present tense and to the indicative mood.
Why not in the past tense?Why not in the subjunctive and the imperative?Why not in modal verbs?
PERSONAL ENDINGS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE
OE present subjunctive singular : wrīteOE present subjuctive plural: wrīten
OE preterite subjunctive singular: writeOE preterite subjunctive plural: writen
PERSONAL ENDINGS IN THE IMPERATIVE
OE imperative singular: Wrīt! Lufe!OE imperative plural: Wrītaþ! Lufaþ!
PERSONAL ENDINGS IN MODAL VERBS
OE cunnan ‘know’
present: 1. cann2. canst plural: cunnon3. cann
OE sculan ‘be obliged’
present: 1. sceal2. scealt plural: sculon3. sceal
TENSE TENSE
relation between the time when the reported action relation between the time when the reported action occurred and the moment of speakingoccurred and the moment of speaking
NOWNOW
TENSE = MANDATORY FORMAL ENCODING OF TEMPORAL RELATIONS
OLD ENGLISH: two formal tenses: preterite and present (non-preterite)
NOWNOW
PRETERITENON-PRETERITE
OLD ENGLISH: two formal tenses: preterite and present
PRESENT TENSE: PRESENT TENSE: BASE FORM (+ PERSONAL ENDINGS)BASE FORM (+ PERSONAL ENDINGS)
PRETERITE TENSE: the marking depended on the type of the verbPRETERITE TENSE: the marking depended on the type of the verb
4 types of verbs:4 types of verbs:
1.1.STRONG VERBSSTRONG VERBS2.2.WEAK VERBSWEAK VERBS3.3.PRETERITE-PRESENT VERBSPRETERITE-PRESENT VERBS4.4.ANOMALOUS VERBSANOMALOUS VERBS
STRONG VERBS
Indo-European vowel gradation
gradation (Ablaut) = alteration of vowels in the stems of related words or different grammatical forms of the same word
IE: 2 gradation lines: e-gradation, a-gradation
e-gradation – potential grades:
*e ~ * ē ~ * / ~ * o ~ * ō
e-grade: present stem
o-grade, ē-grade, ō-grade, zero-grade: perfect stem
present stem (e-grade) : present tense indicative,present tense subjuctiveimperative,infinitive, present participle
perfect stem (o-grade) : 1st and 3rd p.sg. preterite indicative
perfect stem (ē/ō/zero-grade) : 2nd p. sg., plural preterite indicative,preterite subjunctive
perfect stem (zero-grade) past participle
OE wrīt-an
present indicative preterite indicative
1 wrīt-e wrāt2 wrīt-est writ-e3 wrīt-eþ wrāt
pl. wrīt-aþ writ-on
pres. part. wrīt-ende past part. ge-writ-en
representative forms: infinitive, 1st/3rd sg preterite, plural preterite, past participle
wrītan, wrāt, writon, gewriten
OE wrītan < Germanic * unrīt- < IE * unrei nt- IE *ei > Germ. * ī > OE ī > ME ī > NE [aɪ]
OE wrāt < Germanic * unrai nt- < IE * unroi nt-IE *o > Germ. * a; Germ. * ai > OE ā > ME ǭ > NE
[əʊ]
OE ge-writen < Germanic * - unrit- < IE * unrit-IE * / + *i n = *i > OE i > ME i > NE [ɪ]
OE drincan < Germanic * drink- < IE * drenk-IE *e > Germ. * i /_ [+nasal]
OE dranc < Germanic * drank - < IE * dronk- IE *o > Germ. *a > OE a,o > ME a > NE [æ]
OE gedruncen < Germanic * -drunk- < IE *-drnpk- IE * / + sonorant > Germ * un/um/ul/ur > OE u > ME u
> NE [ʌ]
SEVEN CLASSES OF STRONG SEVEN CLASSES OF STRONG VERBSVERBS
class Infinitive 1/3 pret.sg
Plural preterite
Past participle
I wrītan wrāt writon -writen write
II cēosan cēas curon -curen choose
III drincan dranc druncon -druncen drink
IV beran bær bǣron -boren bear
V sprecan spræc sprǣcon -sprecen speak
VI scacan scōc scōcon -scacen shake
VII feallan fēoll fēollon -feallen fall
WEAK VERBSWEAK VERBS
new Germanic formation:new Germanic formation:
only one stem (present stem)only one stem (present stem)
tense encoded with the dental sufifixtense encoded with the dental sufifix
3 CLASSES OF WEAK VERBS:
Class 1: infinitive ending –an, preterite ending –(e)de, pp -(e)d
Class 2: infinitive ending -ian, preterite ending –ode, pp ending –od
Class 3: habban, libban, secgan, hycgan
3 CLASSES OF WEAK VERBS:
Class 1: infinitive ending –an, preterite ending –(e)de, pp ending -(e)d
Class 2: infinitive ending -ian, preterite ending –ode, pp ending –od
Class 3: habban, libban, secgan, hycgan
class 1 class 2 class 3
inf. hieran lufian habbanpret. hier-de luf-ode hæfdepp. ge-hier(e)d ge-lufod ge-hæfd
OE -ede, -ode > ME [OE -ede, -ode > ME [ə]d[ə] > NE [d], [t], [ɪd] ə]d[ə] > NE [d], [t], [ɪd]
played, worked, embeddedplayed, worked, embedded
PRETERITE PRESENT VERBSPRETERITE PRESENT VERBS
one stem (perfect stem)one stem (perfect stem)
preterite tense – dental suffixpreterite tense – dental suffix
STRONG WEAK PRETERITE PRESENT
PRESENT STEM
PERFECT STEM
DENTAL SUFFIX
PRETERITE- PRESENT VERBS
present preterite
mæg mightemægst mightestmæg mighte
magon mighton
ANOMALOUS VERBSANOMALOUS VERBS
bbēon/wesan, dōn, gān, willanēon/wesan, dōn, gān, willan
bbēon/ ēon/ wesan,wesan,
eomeom bēobēoearteart bistbistisis biþbiþsindonsindon bēoþbēoþ
wæs, wǣron, wæs, wǣron, bbēonēon
dōn: dō, dōþ, dydon…dōn: dō, dōþ, dydon…gān: pret. ēodegān: pret. ēodewillan: pret. wolde….willan: pret. wolde….
FROM OE TO NE:FROM OE TO NE:
a)a)the levelling of the singular and the plural form of strong verbsthe levelling of the singular and the plural form of strong verbs in northern dialects since the 14th century:in northern dialects since the 14th century:
2nd form (1st, 3rd sg) 2nd form (1st, 3rd sg) 3rd form (plural)3rd form (plural)
OE OE wrwrītan ītan wrātwrāt writon writon gewritengewriten
MEME wr wrīten īten wrǭtwrǭt (y)writen(y)writen
b) in NE the preterite form (occasionally) extended to past participle:
OE standan stōd stōdon gestanden
NE stand stood stood
c) in NE the past participle form (occasionally) extended to preterite
OE stingan stang stungon gestungen
NE sting stung stung
The levelling still ongoing in non-standard varieties (dialects)
NON-STANDARD DIALECTS:
•the past participle used as the past tense form: I see I seen (yesterday)I have seen
•the past tense form used as the past participle: I go I went I have went
•the present tense form generalized:I give I give I have give
•“relict” forms:I write I writ I have writ
d) the change of classes
strong verbs turning weak ( = regular) – an ongoing process
WEAK verbs turning irregular
1. keep - kept - kept ALTERATION OF LONG AND SHORT VOWEL
OE cēpan cēpte ge-cēptME keepen kepte keptNE [ki:p] [kept] [kept]
also: hear-heard-heardmeet – met – metbleed-bled-bledread-read-read
2. set – set - set ALL THREE FORMS THE SAME
ME setten sett-(d)e (y) sett-(ed)NE set set set
Also: cast-cast-castcut-cut-cuthit-hit-hitshut-shut-shut
3. tell - told - told MUTATED PRESENTS
OE tellan tealde (WS), talde (Ang) getaldME tellen tǭlde (y)tǭldNE tell told told
also: teach-taught-taught, bring-brought-brought, think-thought-thoughtsell-sold-sold, seek-sought-sought etc.
4. send - sent - sent DEVOICED DENTAL SUFFIX IN THE PRETERITE
OE sendan sende gesendME senden sente (y)sentNE send sent sent
t replaced d in 12th-13th century, first if the stem ended in a sonorant + d, later extended to stems ending in a sonorant:
spend-spent-spent, build-built-built, dream-dreamt-dreamt, feel-felt-felt,learn-learnt-learnt etc.
! went (from OE wendan)
5. make - made - made SYNCOPATED PRETERITE AND P.P.
OE macian macode gemacod
ME māken ma(k)ede (y)ma(k)ed
māde mād
NE [meɪk][meɪd] [meɪd]
PERIPHRASTIC TENSES
OE PRESENT TENSE – “real” present, universal time, future reference:
Þā flōtmenn cumaþ and þē gebindaþ – ‘the pirates are comingand they will fetter you’
OE PRETERITE TENSE – a single act in the past, a continuous act in the past, present perfect, past perfect
þā þā menn slēpon, þā cōm his fēonda sum – ‘when the men were sleeping, one of his enemies came’
ic mid ealre heortan þē gewilnode – ‘I have wished for you with all my heart’
PERIPHRASTIC TENSES COMMON IN OE, BUT THEIR USE NOT CONSISTENT WITH THEIR MODERN ENGLISH FUNCTIONS:
a)bēon/wesan + present participle –ende
þā wæs se cyning openlīce andettende þæt hē wolde fæstlīce þǣm
deofolgiendum wiþsācan – ‘then the king publicly acknowledged that he would resolutely renounce the idols’
present participle: present stem + ende (< IE *-nt-)
Around 1200 the participle –ende was replaced with the –ing form, possibly under the influence of the construction been on + verbal noun –ing(e)
From 16th century on, the use of “expanded” tenses spread from the north,since 18th century in the function of progressive tenses.
b) bēon/wesan/habban + past participle
OE past participle: strong verbs: ge + perfect stem (zero-grade) + en
OE ge-writ-en > ME y-writ-en, y-write, writ-en > NE written
weak verbs: ge + present stem – ed/od/d/t
OE ge-luf-od > ME y-lov-ed, y-love, lov-ed > NE loved
In OE the auxiliary habban was used with transitive, bēon/wesan with intransitive verbs, the meaning of the construction not necessarily perfective.
In ME the auxiliary haven spread to intransitive verbs, and the past participle lost its adjectival properties. The use became consistent with the function of perfect tenses
c) willan/sculan + infinitive
After the year 1200 shal ‘to be obliged’ and will ‘to want’ lost some of their modal meaning and started to be used for future time reference.
18th century: will volition in the 1st person, simple futurity in the 2nd and 3rd; shall obligation in the 2nd and 3rd, simple futurity in the 1st person.
Infinitive (nomen actionis: < *-ono-, inflected in West Germanic in the Genitive and in the Dative singular)
OE uninflected (bare) infinitive: present stem + anOE inflected infinitive: tō + present stem + -enne/anne (supine)
ME: tō becomes a simple infinitive marker, -enne/anne merges with –an to –en, which subsequently disappeares.
The supine function rendered (for a while) with the for to infinitive.
1 Whan that Aprille, with his shoures soote
The drought of March hath perced to the roote
And bathed every veyne in swich licour,
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
5 Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
Inspired hath in every holt and heeth
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne,
And smale foweles maken melodye,
10 That slepen al the nyght with open eye -
(So priketh hem Nature in her courages);
heath, heatherfugol > fowleage > eyerennen ran runnenrinnan ræn -runnen (III)
Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages
And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes
To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;
15 And specially from every shires ende
Of Engelond, to Caunterbury they wende,
The hooly blisful martir for to seke
That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke.
cūþ > couth > couth, uncouth
Bifil that in that sesoun, on a day,
20 In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay
Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage
To Caunterbury with ful devout courage,
At nyght were come into that hostelrye
Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye
25 Of sondry folk, by aventure yfalle
In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle,
That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde.
befallen - impersonal verb (befallen, befel/befil, befallen (VII)
cumen cam, cām cumen
cuman cōm cōmon cumen (IV)
THE MOOD
OE: indicative, imperative, subjunctive
imperative singular: base form (SV) or base + e/a (WV)
imperative plural: same as present indicative plural
Lufe þīn nēahstan! Nim sume tiʒele!Bycʒaþ ēow ele!
subjunctive singular: present stem + eperfect stem + e
subjuntive plural: present stem + enperfect stem + en
The use of subjunctive in OE:
• in independent sentences wish or command:Gōd sīe þē milde!Ne hē ealu ne drince oþþe wīn!
• in dependent clauses after verbs of desire, command, purpose, potentiality, hypothetical comparison, concession…
Geongum mannum gedafenaþ þæt hīe leornien sumne wīsdōm.
Ic wilnode þæt þū! hām wǣre
In ME both subjunctive endings were lost. The only distinctive preterite subjunctive form left is were.
The use of modal auxiliaries spread in ME and NE.
Modal Verbs
can, could
OE cunnan ‘know’
cann canstcann
pl. cunnonpret. cūþe p.p. cūþ
OE cann > ME can > NE [‘kæn]
OE cūþe > ME cude > NE could (remodelled after would, should)
may, might
OE magan ‘to be able’
mægmeaht, mihtmæg
pl. magonpret. meahte, mehte, mihtep. p. meaht, miht
OE mæg > ME mai > NE [meɪ] may
OE mihte > ME mīhte > NE [maɪt] might
must
OE ‘to be allowed to’
mōtmōstmōt
pl. mōtonpret. mōste
OE mōste > ME mōste > NE mūst, must > [mʌst] must
! mustn’t = obliged to not do sth <‘not to be allowed to’
shall, should
OE sculan ‘to be obliged’
scealscealtsceal
pl. sculonpret. scōlde
OE sceal > ME shal, shaul > NE [ʃæl]
OE scōlde > shōlde > NE [ʃʊd] should
shan’t > shaln’t < shall not
wiil, would
OE: willan ‘want’
willewiltwille
pl. willaþ
pret. wolde
OE wolde > ME wōlde > NE wūld, owu(l)d [wʊd]
NE won’t < woll not < ME wolle = new formation, variant of wille
ought
OE agan ‘have, owe’
āg/āhāhstāg/āh
pl. āgon
pret. āhte
OE āg > ME ǭw > NE [əʊ] owe ‘< have the obligation/grudge’
OE āhte > ME ǭughte > NE [ɔ:t] ought (monophthongized before –ht)
Shakespeare: You ought him a thousand pounds.
own = backformaion of owner or < p.p. own < āgen 17th c.