INTRODUCTION TO LAW

Traducere1.Dreptul reprezintă totalitatea regulilor, normelor de conduită stabilite sau sancționate de

stat și care sunt puse în aplicare prin forța de constrângere a statului.The law represents the body of rules, conduct norms established or sanctioned by the

state, which are enforced by the coercive power of the state.2.Sistemul dreptului se împarte pe ramuri: drept penal, drept civil, drept constituțional,

drept administrativ, dreptul muncii, etc.The law system is divided into branches: criminal law, civil law, constitutional law,

administrative law, employment (labour) law.3.Dreptul civil este acea ramură a dreptului românesc care reglementează atât raporturi

patrimoniale în care părțile apar ca subiecte egale în drepturi, cât și raporturi nepatrimoniale ce privesc individualitatea persoanei. De asemenea, ea stabilește condiția juridică a persoanei fizice și a altor subiecte ce iau parte la raporturile juridice civile. Dreptul civil își are rădăcinile în Codul civil din 1864.

The civil law is that branch of the romanian law which regulates both economical relations, where the parties appear as subjects equal in rights, and noneconomical relations concerning the person as an individual. It also sets the legal condition of the natural person and other subjects taking part in civil legal relations. Civil law is rooted in the 1863 Civil Code.

4.Dreptul penal este o ramură a sistemului de drept ce apare ca subsistemul normelor juridice care reglementează relațiile de apărare socială prin interzicerea, ca infracțiuni, sub sancțiuni specifice, a acțiunilor sau inacțiunilor ce periclitează valorile sociale, în scopul apărării acestor valori, fie prin prevenirea infracțiunilor, fie prin aplicarea pedepselor persoanelor care le săvârșesc.

Criminal law is a branch of the law system which appears as the subsystem of legal norms that regulates the social protection relations by prohibiting, as crimes, under specific penalties, the actions or inactions which jeopardize the social valors, for the purpose of protecting these valors, either by preventing crimes, or by inflicting punishments on persons who commit them.

5.Dreptul este o știință, dar și o artă.Law is a science, but also an art.6.Nu cunosc circumstanțele de drept și de fapt ale cauzei.I don’t know the legal and factual circumstances of the case.7.Multe tribunale administrative nu au reguli privind dreptul de a pleda.Many administrative courts don’t have rules regarding the right to audience.8.Statele trebuie să asigure protecția împotriva încălcării drepturilor omului.The states must ensure protection against the infringement of human rights.9.Nu este suficient ca o lege să fie bună, ea trebuie aplicată corect.It is not sufficient that a law should be good, it must be inforced correctly.10.Dreptul se împarte pe ramuri: drept civil, drept penal, drept constituțional, dreptul

familiei.The law is divided into branches: civil law, criminal law, constitutional law, family law.11.Guvernul a introdus noi legi privind protecția mediului.The government has introduced new laws on the environmental protection.

12.Studiul științific al dreptului se numește jurisprudență.The scientific study of law is called jurisprudence.13.Familia și școala trebuie să formeze cetățeni care să respecte legea.Family and school must educate law-abiding citizens.14.Faptele sale au avut drept consecință pierderea drepturilor civile.He was disfranchised as a result of his actions. (His acts resulted in the loss of his civil

rights.)

THE COMMON LAW

DefinițiiThe most important meaning of the term “common law” refers to that part of English law

based on rules developed by the royal courts during the first three centuries after the Norman Conquest (1066) as a system applicable to the whole country, as opposed to local customs.

The definition of equity implies the following aspect:a.the application of the dictated of conscience or the principles of natural justice to the settlement of disputes;b.a system of jurisprudence or a body of doctrines and rules developed in England and followed in the United States, serving to supplement and remedy the limitations and the inflexibility of the common law.

Statute law denotes the written law established by enactments expressing the will of the legislature, as distinguished from the unwritten law or common law.

Traducere1.Noțiunea de izvor de drept are 2 sensuri:

-izvor material, prin care se înțeleg condițiile materiale, naturale, de existență a societății care dau conținutul, esența dreptului; și-izvor formal, adică formele specifice de exprimare a normelor juridice prin care se determină voința care a stat la baza adoptării lor.

The notion of source of law has two meanings:-material source, namely the material, natural, existence conditions of the society giving the content, essence of law; and-formal source, namely the specific forms of expressing the legal norms determining the will on the basis of which they have been adopted.

2.Din punct de vedere istoric, dreptul anglo-saxon a luat ființă prin extinderea competenței instanțelor regale în toate regiunile din Anglia și Țara Galilor, creându-se astfel un sistem de drept comun întregii Anglii, spre deosebire de cutumele și legile locale, diferite de la o regiune la alta. Termenul definește, de asemenea, totalitatea regulilor de drept complementare noțiunilor de echitate și acte legislative.

From historically point of view, the Anglo-Saxon law came into being through expanding the royal courts in all the regions of England and Gale Country (Walles), thus creating a law system common to the whole England, unlike local customs and laws which deffered from one region to another. The term also defines the body of legal rules cimplementary to the notions of equity and statute law.

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

Traducere1.Dreptul constituțional se referă la normele juridice care reglementează relațiile sociale

dintre individ și stat, relații ce apar în procesul instaurării, menținerii și exercitării statale a puterii.

Constitutional law refers to legal norms which regulates social relations between the individual person and the state, relations arising in the process of establishing, maintaining and exercising the power of the state.

2.Art.1: Statul român(1) România este un stat național, suveran și independent, unitar și indivizibil.(2) Forma de guvernământ a statului român este republica.(3) România este stat de drept, democratic și social, în care demnitatea omului, drepturile și libertățile cetățenilor, libera dezvoltare a personalității umane, dreptatea și pluralismul politic reprezintă valori supreme, în spiritul tradițiilor democratice ale poporului român și idealurilor Revoluției din decembrie 1989, și sunt garantate.(4) Statul se organizează potrivit principiului separației și echilibrului puterilor – legislativă, executivă și judecătorească – în cadrul democrației constituționale.(5) În România, respectarea Constituției, a supremației sale și a legilor este obligatorie.

Art. 1: Romanian state(1) Romania is a sovereign, independent and unitary National State.(2) The form of government of the romanian state is the republic.(3) Romania is a democratic and social state governed by law in which the human’s dignity, the right and freedom rights, the free development of human personality, justice and politic pluralism represent supreme valors, following the democratic traditions of the Romanian state and the ideals of the Revolution from December 1989, and they shall be guaranteed.(4) The state shall be organised in accordance with the principle of separation and balance of powers – legislative, executive and judicial – within constitution democracy.(5) In Romania, the observance of the Constitution, of its supremacy and laws shall be mandatory (binding).

3.Curtea Constituțională are următoarele atribuții:-se pronunță asupra constituționalității legilor, înainte de promulgarea acestora, la sesizarea președintelui României, a unuia dintre președinții celor 2 camere, a guvernului, a ÎCCJ, a avocatului poporului, a unui număr de cel puțin 50 de deputați sau de cel puțin 25 de senatori, precum și din oficiu asupra inițiativelor de revizuire a Constituției.

The Constitutional Court shall have the following powers:-it adjudicates on the constitutionality of laws, before their promulgation, upon notification by the president of Romania, by either of the presidents of the two chambers, by the government, by the High Court of Cassation and Justice, by the advocate of the people, by a number of at least 50 deputies or at least 25 senators, as well as ex officio on initiatives to revise Constitution.

4.Curtea Constituțională se pronunță asupra constituționalității regulamentelor parlamentului, la sesizarea unuia dintre președinții celor 2 camere, a unui grup parlamentar sau a unui număr de cel puțin 50 de deputați sau de cel puțin 25 de senatori. Hotărăște asupra excepțiilor de neconstituționalitate privind legile și ordonanțele ridicate în fața instanțelor judecătorești sau de arbitraj comercial; excepția de neconstituționalitate poate fi ridicată și direct de avocatul poporului.

The Constitutional Court shall adjudicate on the constitutionality of the Standing Orders of Parliament, upon notification by either of the presidents of the two chambers, by a parliamentary group or a number of at least 50 deputies or at least 25 senators. It shall decide upon the objections as to the unconstitutionality regarding the laws and ordinances raised before courts of law or comercial arbitration; objections as to the unconstitutionality may also be brought up directly by the Advocate of the People.

5.Legile organice și hotărârile privind regulamentele camerelor se adoptă cu votul majorității membrilor fiecărei camere. La cererea guvernului sau din proprie inițiativă Parlamentul poate adopta proiecte de legi sau propuneri legislative cu procedură de urgență stabilită potrivit regulamentului fiecărei camere. Legea se trimite spre promulgare președintelui României. Promulgarea legii se face în termen de cel mult 25 de zile de la primire.

Organic laws and regulations regarding the Standing Orders of Chambers are passed by the majority vote of members of each chamber. At the request of the government or on his own initiative, the Parliament may pass bills or legislative proposals under the emergency procedure established in accordance to the standing orders of each chamber. The law shall be sent to promulgation to the president of Romania. The law’s promulgation is done within 25 days after the law has been received.

Întrebări1.What is a constitution?A constitution refers to the rules and practices that determine the composition and

functions of the organs of central and local governments in a state and regulate the relationship between the individual and the state.

2.Define constitutional law.Constitutional law stands for the body of law deriving from the constitution and dealing

primarily with governmental powers, civil rights and civil liberties. Constitutional law also represents the body of legal rules that determine the constitution of a state with a flexible constitution.

3.Is the British Constitution flexible or rigid?The British Constitution is considered a flexible constitution.4.What does the British Constitution consist of?The British Constitution consists of: statutes/Acts of Parliament, common law rules and

constitutional conventions.5.Which is the legislative power in the UK?In the UK the legislative power belongs to Parliament.6.General elections VS by-election.General elections are held every five years, but it is possible to hold elections sooner if

the Prime Minister wants it. A general election for the House Of Commons involves all UK constituencies and takes place when the monarch dissolves Parliament and summons a new one.

A by-election is caused by the resignation or death of an MP during his life of a Parliament.

7.Does the US have a written Constitution?Yes, US has a written Constitution.8.What does the US Constitution set out?The US Constitution sets out to protect the nation and to ensure justice, peace and liberty

for all.

9.How many parts is the US (american) Constitution divided into?The US Constitution is divided into three parts: the Preamble, the Document and the

twenty-six Amendments.10.Is it of a rigid or flexible type? (US Constitution)The US Constitution appears as a rigid one.11.What is the name of the first 10 amendments together?The First 10 Amendments together are called the Bill of Rights.12.Why does the US Constitution share power among groups?The US Constitution shares power among groups in such a way that each has a certain

authority over the others.13.What does Congress represent?The Congress represents the legislative power and consists of two houses, the Senate (to

which each state elects two senators for a period of six years) and the House of Representatives (in which the number of representatives from each state depends on its population).

14.What institutions represent the judicial power?The judicial power is represented by the courts.15.In what capacity does the President represent the country?The President represents the country as Head of State, but also has real political power.

BRITISH PARLIAMENT

Întrebări1.What does the British Parliament consist of?The British Parliament consists of the sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of

Commons.2.Which is the role of the two chambers?The business of the Parliament takes place in two Houses: the House of Commons and

the House of Lords. Their work is similar: making laws (legislation), checking the work of the government (scrutiny) and debating current issues. The House of Commons is also responsible for granting money to the government through approving Bills and raise taxes. Generally, the decisions made in one House have to be approved by the other. In this way the two-chamber system acts as a check and balance for the both Houses.

3.Who can stand as a candidate in a UK Parliamentary general Election?To stand as a candidate in a UK parliamentary General Election one needs to be at least

18 years old and: -a British citizen;-a citizen of the Republic of Ireland;-a citizen of a commonwealth country who does not require leave to enter or remain in the UK, or has indefinite leave to remain in the UK.

4.Who are the members of the House of Commons Commission?The House of Commons Commission is chaired by the Speaker of the House of

Commons, a sitting MP elected to the position of Speaker through a ballot of all MPs. The other members are the Leader of the House, the Shadow Leader of the House (or another MP appointed by the Opposition) and three backbench MPs from the three largest parties.

5.Of how many types are the members of the House of Lords?The members of the House of Lords belong to three categories: life Peers, bishops and

elected hereditary Peers.

ELECTIONS AND VOTING

TraducereCetățenii au drept de vot de la vârsta de 18 ani împliniți până în ziua alegerilor inclusiv.

Au dreptul de a fi aleși cetățenii cu drept de vot care îndeplinesc condițiile prevăzute în art. 16 dacă nu le este interzisă asocierea în partide politice potrivit art. 40.

Citizens having turned 18 up to on election day shall have the right to vote (shall be entitled to vote). The eligibility (the right to vote) is granted to all citizens having the right to vote which meet the requirements provided under art. 16 unless they are forbidden to join a political party in accordance with art. 40.

Întrebări1.When is a general election held? Exceptions.General elections are held on the first Thursday in May every five years. There are two

provisions that trigger an election other than at five year intervals:-a motion of no confidence is passed in Her Majesty’s Government by a simple majority and 14 days elapses without the House passing a confidence motion in any new Government formed;-a motion for a general election is agreed by two thirds of the total number of seats in the Commons including vacant seats.

2.Where and how can voting take place?Most voting takes place in polling stations, but anyone eligible to vote can apply for a

postal vote. British citizens living abroad are also entitled to a postal vote as long as they have been living abroad for less than 15 years.

An additional way to vote is by proxy, which can be useful if you are unable to get to a polling station. A proxy vote means that you appoint someone you trust to vote on your behalf. This can be helpful if you fall ill or if you are abroad on Election Day. Anyone over 18 years can apply for a proxy vote if you are on the electoral register but you will need to provide a reason.

3.What do by-elections refer to?A by-election takes place when a seat in the House of Commons becomes vacant between

general elections. A by-election does not automatically take place if an MP changes political party.

BILLS

Întrebări1.What is a Bill?A Bill is a proposal for a new law, or a proposal to change an existing law that is

presented for debate before Parliament.2.What is a draft Bill?Drafts Bills are Bills issued for consultation before being formally introduced to

Parliament.

3.Who can introduce Bills?Bills can be introduced by:

-The government-Individual MPs or Lords-Private individuals or organizations.

4.How many types of Bills do you know?There are three different types of Bill: Public, Private and Hybrid Bills. There is also

another kind of Public Bill called Private Members’ Bills.5.Which are the stages that a Bill has to go through before it becomes law? (Bill starting

in the House of Commons)A Bill starting in the House of Commons has to go through the following stages before it

becomes law:A.House of Commons

a.First readingb.Second readingc.Committe staged.Report stagee.Third reading

B.House of Lordsa.First readingb.Second readingc.Committe staged.Report stagee.Third reading

C.Consideration of amendmentsD.Royal Assent6.Bill starting in the House of Lords.A Bill starting in the House of Lords has to go through the following stages before it

becomes law:A.House of Lords

a.First readingb.Second readingc.Committe staged.Report stagee.Third reading

B.House of Commonsa.First readingb.Second readingc.Committe staged.Report stagee.Third reading

C.Consideration of amendmentsD.Royal Assent

7.How do changes to Acts operate?Future changes to the law happen through the passing of another Act or delegated

legislation. An Act can be also be repealed so that its provisions no longer apply. Parliamentary committees examine UK laws and recommend the removal of out of date legislation.

CRIMES

Crimes against the person

ClasificareIn the American legal system, crimes are divided into:

-felonies-misdemeanors;-treason.

In the British legal system, offences are commonly classified into:-indictable offences;-summary offences;-offences which are triable “either way”.

Întrebări1.Define a crime.A crime is defined as an act (or sometimes a failure to act) that is deemed by statute or by

the common law to be a public wrong and is therefore punishable by the state in criminal proceedings. The modern tendency is to refer to crimes as offences.

2.What is the difference between crime and offence?There is no difference. Crime is a term used in the American legal system and offence is

used in the British legal system. The modern tendency is to refer to crimes as offences.3.What was meant by a felony? What categories of offences exist now and to what extent

do they overlap?A felony is an offence punishable by imprisonment for more than one year or by death or

imprisonment generally. Felonies are usually more serious crimes.Now the main offences against the person are: fatal offences and non-fatal offences. Fatal

offences overlap with felonies and indictable offence. Non-fatal offences overlap with misdemeanors and summary offences.

4.What is meant by actus reus? Can a person be guilty of an offence by omitting to act?In most cases, the actus reus will simply be act accompanied by specified circumstances,

or it may just consist in an omission to act. A person can be guilty of an offence by omitting to act.

5.What is mens rea?Mens rea is a guilty mind.6.Define and distinguish between murder and manslaughter. What is meant by “malice

aforethought” in the former?Murder is the unlawful killing of a person. Manslaughter is the unlawful killing of a

person, but without malice aforethought.The mens rea for murder is traditionally known as malice aforethought. It means that the

defendant intended to cause the death of the victim or to do serious bodily harm to the victim.

7.What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary manslaughter?Voluntary manslaughter arises when the defendant had the intent to kill, but mitigating

circumstances, such as provocation or diminished responsibility, reduce the offence to manslaughter.

Involuntary manslaughter is the killing of a person without mens rea. Death results from an accident or from an unlawful act of omission.

8.Distinguish between assault and battery. Give examples of aggravated assault.Assault is an intentional or reckless apprehended as an act of violence, whereas battery is

the actual application of force to a person.Aggravated assault include assault with intent to resist lawful arrest and assault with

intent to rob.9.What offences involving sexual intercourse can you define?Offences involving sexual intercourse are: rape, buggery.Rape is the crime of having sexual intercourse with someone without his or her consent

and against his or her will.It is also rape:

-to have intercourse with a girl under 16;-to have intercourse with mental defectives.

Buggery is defined as sexual intercourse in an unnatural matter or with an animal.10.Which are the defences available in the case of bigamy?Bigamy in the act of marrying someone when already married to someone else. There is a

defence if the accused honestly and reasonably believed that his/her first spouse was dead (or presumed to be dead because the defendant’s spouse had been continuously absent for seven years or more) or that their previous marriage was void or had been dissolved.

Crimes against property

Întrebări1.What is arson?Arson is the intentional and malicious burning of another person’s property. It is

sometimes expanded by statute to include acts similar to burning such as exploding.2.Give examples of criminal mischief.Criminal/malicious mischief, also known as vandalism, is the willful damaging of the

property of another. It may include throwing rocks through windows, slashing car tires, ripping down fences, breaking off car aerials.

3.Is there any difference between larceny and theft?Before 1969, in the British legal system, the offence of theft was called larceny with the

distinction that larceny was more limited than theft and it required the carrying away of the property.

4.How many types of larceny do you know?According to the value of property taken or the method used, larceny is sometimes

classified into grand larceny, which is a felony, and petit (petty) larceny, which is a misdemeanor.

5.What is embezzlement?Embezzlement is the fraudulent taking of property by someone to whom it was entrusted.

It is often associated with bank employees, public officials, who during their lawful activities may happen to take for their own use property, such as money, which actually belongs to others.

6.Distinguish between robbery and burglary.Robbery is the unlawful taking of property from a person’s immediate possession, by

using force against that person or putting him/her in fear if being subjected to force.Burglary is the breaking and entering any structure, such as a building, with the intent to

commit a crime (theft, inflicting grievous bodily harm, causing criminal damage).7.Imagine the following situations:

a)A well-executed pickpocketing;b)Some boys surrounded a young man threateningly, and the young man, in fear for his safety, offered money which was accepted.

Can these come under the offence of robbery?The first case is not robbery, because robbery involves force.The second case is robbery, because the young man was scared by the boys.8.What threats do extortion statutes generally cover?Extortion statutes generally cover the future physical harm, destroying property or

damaging someone’s character.9.What is forgery? Explain the phrase “false instrument”.Forgery is generally defined as the making of a false instrument with the intention that it

shall be used to induce somebody to accept as genuine, thereby causing harm to others.A false instrument may be a false document or any device in which information is

recorded or stored.10.What other offences against property do you know?Keeping lost property and receiving stolen property are also crimes against property.

THE LEGAL PROFESSION

Traducere1.În România avocatul este persoana cu studii juridice superioare a cărui activitate constă

în principal în asistarea sau reprezentarea persoanei fizice și a persoanei juridice în raportul acestora cu autoritățile publice, instituțiile și orice persoană română sau străină.

In Romania a lawyer is the person with legal higher qualification whose activity mainly consists in assisting or representing natural persons and legal persons in their relations with public authorities, institutions, and with any romanian or foreign person.

2.Atât la nivel național, cât și internațional, în exercitarea dreptului la apărare, avocatul are dreptul și obligația să asigure prin toate mijloacele legale liberul acces la justiție, un proces echitabil soluționat într-un termen rezonabil.

At above national and international level, when exercising the right to defence, the lawyer has a right and duty to ensure through all legal means free access to justice, a fair trial within a reasonable time.

3.Intrarea în profesie presupune 2 etape: dobândirea calității de avocat și înscrierea în barou în vederea exercitării efective a profesiei.

Admission to the legal profession inplies two stages: acquiring the status of lawyer and registering in the bar for the actual exercise of the profesion.

4.Contractul de asistență juridică încheiat între avocat și clientul său reprezintă acordul de voință expres exprimat și încheiat între forma de exercitare a profesiei de avocat și client, prin care avocatul acceptă mandatul acordat de clientul său, în temeiul căruia se obligă să efectueze tot ceea ce este necesar și legal în vederea asigurării drepturilor, libertăților și intereselor legitime ale persoanei fizice sau juridice contractante.

The legal assistance contract concluded between the lawyer and his client represents the mutual agreement expressly set out and concluded between the form of exercising lawyer’s profession and the client, under which the lawyer agrees to represent the client, representation on the basis of which he undertakes all that is necesarily and legal in order to ensure the protection of the legitimate rights, freedoms and interests of the contracting natural or legal person.

Întrebări1.Are there any differences between a lawyer and an attorney-at-law?An attorney-at-law is a lawyer qualified to represent clients in legal proceedings in the

US, while the term lawyer is covering both solicitor and barrister.2.Does a lawyer differ from a solicitor or a barrister?No, the term lawyer is covering both solicitor and barrister.3.What is a counsel?A counsel is a barrister who is intructed by a solicitor to prepare a document known as

instructions to counsel or a brief to counsel.4.Which are the main branches of the legal profession in England and Wales?The main branches are solicitors and barristers.5.What particular activities does a work of a barrister cover?A barrister is a specialist in advocacy that represents his client in court and also provides

specialist legal advice. Also, the barristers increasingly specialise in particular areas of law such as commercial law, criminal law, chancery law (estates and trust).

6.Which are the training stages for a barrister?The training stages for a barrister are the academic stage, vocational stage and pupillage.The academic stage consists in a degree in law (three years full-time), or in any other

subject followed by the conversion course (Graduate Diploma in Law); the vocational stage consists in the Bar Professional Course, one year full-time or two years part-time; the pupilage is one year in an authorised pupillage training organisation (barristers chambers or another approved legal environment).

7.What is a QC?A QC is a Queen’s Counsel. When a member of the Inn is appointed a QC, he is called

into the bar.8.What are the Inns of Court?The Inns of Court have the sole right to call members to the Bar and also deal with the

discipline of barristers, including the severe sanction of removing a barrister (Middle Temple, Inner Temple, Gray’s Inn, Lincoln’s Inn).

9.What particular activities does the work of a solicitor cover?The solicitors undertake the general aspects of giving legal advice and conducting legal

proceedings, they have the rights of audience in the lower courts and, if they have acquired appropiate advocacy qualification, in the higher courts. They also prepare cases for barristers to present in superior courts.

10.Which are the training stages of a solicitor?The training stages for a solicitor are the academic stage, vocational stage and practice

based training.The academic stage consists in a degree in law (three years full-time) or in any other

subject followed by the Common Professional Examination/Graduate Diploma in Law; another route is through the Institute of Legal Executives. The vocational stage consists in the Legal Practice Course – one year full-time. Practice based training (training contract) incorporates the Professional Skills Course – two years full-time.

THE COURT SYSTEM

Traducere1.O funcție importantă a justiției o constituie posibilitatea controlului constituționalității

legilor. Magistratura este activitatea desfășurată de judecători în scopul înfăptuirii justiției și de procurori în scopul apărării intereselor generale ale societății, a ordinii de drept și a drepturilor și libertăților cetățenilor.

An important function of justice is the possibility of the judicial review of laws. Magistracy is the activity performed by judges with the purpose of doing justice and by prosecutors with the purpose of defending the general interests of the society, the order and the citizens’ rights and freedoms.

2.Judecătorul este persoana cu studii juridice superioare care în condiții prevăzute de lege este învestit în funcție de către stat prin reprezentanții săi constituționali și având drepturi și obligații specific ce derivă direct din Constituție și din lege și care au dreptul și responsabilitatea aplicării legii în cadrul sistemului instanțelor judecătorești.

A judge is a person with higher legal education who, as provided by law, is invested in office by state through its constitutional representatives, with specific rights and duties deriving from (arising out of) the Constitution and the law, with the right and responsibility to enforce the law within courts systems.

Întrebări1.How can courts be classified?Courts can be classified at several levels:

-civil courts and criminal courts;-original jurisdiction courts and appellate jurisdiction courts;-superior courts and inferior courts.

2.Which are the courts of original jurisdiction?The courts of original jurisdiction are: the magistrates’ courts, county courts, the Crown

Court and High Court.3.Magistrates’ CourtsThey primarily have a criminal jurisdiction, as well as limited civil jurisdiction. They are

also responsible for the enforcement of fines and community punishments.4.County CourtsThe county court deals with civil matters and its jurisdiction is set out in statute.

5.The Crown CourtThe Crown Court deals with more serious criminal cases (murder, rape, robbery), some

of which are on appeal or referred from magistrates’ courts. As a court of appellate jurisdiction, the Crown Court hears appeals against decisions of magistrates’ courts.

6.The High CourtThe High Court deals with higher level civil disputes within three divisions (the Queen’s

Bench Division, the Chancery Division, the Family Division) and deals with other jurisdictions including the Administrative Court. It has unlimited jurisdiction in civil matters, but it also has important appellate and reviewing jurisdiction in respect of criminal matters.

7.The Court of AppealThe Court of Appeal deals with civil appeals from the High Court and the county court,

as well as appeals from certain tribunals (Employment Appeals Tribunal). Criminal appeals include appeals against convictions in the Crown Court, and points of law referred by the Attorney General following acquittal in the Crown Court or where the sentence imposed was unduly lenient.

8.The Supreme CourtThe Supreme Court assumes jurisdiction on points of law for all civil law cases in the UK

and all criminal cases in England and Wales and Northern Ireland. Before the creation of the Supreme Court, the highest court of appeal was the House of Lords. As an appeal court, the Supreme Court cannot consider a case unless a relevant order has been made in a lower court.

INTRODUCTION TO LAW

law – drept, legeright – drept subiectivrules – regulilaws – legiregulations – reglementărito regulate – a reglementaregulatory framework – cadru de reglementarenorms – normeconduct norms – norme de conduităto establish (to set up) – a stabilito sanction – a sancționato enforce – a pune în aplicarecoercive power – forță de constrângererelations – raporturiparty – partenatural person – persoană fizicălegal person – persoană juridicăto be rooted in – a-și avea rădăcinile încrime (offence) – infracțiuneto prohibit – a interzicepenalty (sanction) – sancțiuneto jeopardize – a periclitafor the purpose of – în scopul (cu scopul)to inflict a punishment on – a aplica o pedeapsăto commit – a săvârșicriminal (offender) – infractorto exercise – a exercitato arise – a apăreain force – în vigoareto come into force – a intra în vigoarecustom – obiceicourt – instanțăgrounds – motive, temeiurischolar – savantprevalent – întâietateinfringement – încălcareto infringe a right – a încălca un dreptlegal and factual – de drept și de faptenvironmental protection – protecția mediuluilaw-abiding citizen – cetățean care respectă legeato disfranchise – a pierde drepturi civile

THE COMMON LAWsource of law – izvor de dreptto adopt (to pass) a norm – a adopta o legecustoms – obiceiuri, cutumebodies – organismeadjudication – luarea unei deciziiwhereby – prin carejustices – judecătoriassizes – curte cu juri, magistrațiforfeiture – confiscarefine – amendărevenue – venituricourt of record – curte cu sesiuni publicejurisdiction – competențăabolished – desființatto come into being – a lua ființă

CONSTITUTIONAL LAWto alter – a modificato repeal – a abrogaas subsequently amended – cu modificări ulterioarejudicial review – control al constituționalitățiiimpeachment – acuzație adusă unui înalt demnitarterm of office – mandatprimary election – alegeri generaleby-election – alegeri parțialevoting booth – cabină de votpolling station – secție de votareconstituency – circumscripție electoralărule of law – supremația legiiBill of Rights – Carta de drepturi, primele 10 amendamente din Constituția SUAbill – proiect de legeto bring a bill – a face o propunere de legeUpper House – camera lorzilorLower House – camera comunelorassent – consimțământwhip – un membru al parlamentului care determină pe colegii de partid să se prezinte în parlamentframers – fondatorito hold – a organizaresignation – demisiepowers – atribuțiito adjudicate on – a se pronunța asupraupon notification by – la sesizareaex officio – din oficiuadvocate of the people – avocatul poporuluiStanding Orders of Parliament – regulamente ale parlamentului

chamber – cameră a parlamentuluiobjection – excepțieto raise (to bring up) an objection – a ridica o excepțiecomercial arbitration – arbitraj comercialarbitral award – decizie a unui tribunal arbitralresolutions – hotărârito pass a bill – a adopta un proiect de legeemergency procedure – procedură de urgențăwithin 20 days – în termen de cel mult 20 de zile

BRITISH PARLIAMENTchaired – prezidatballot – votShadow Leader – posibil liderbackbenchers – membri ai parlamentului care nu dețin funcții importante

ELECTIONS AND VOTINGto turn – a împlinito meet a requirement – a îndeplini o condiție

CRIMESstatute – text de legeomission – inacțiunesummary offences – infracțiuni ușoareindictable offences – infracțiuni gravecriminal mischief – vandalismarson – incendierelarceny (theft) – furtembezzlement – abuz de încredere, fraudărobbery – jafburglary – spargere, intrare prin efracțieextorsion – șantajforgery – falsuttery – uz de falsslander – insultălibel – calomnie în scrisperjury – să minți în instanță, mărturie mincinoasă

THE LEGAL PROFESSIONto draft – a redactasettlement – rezolvarebrief – dosarcounsel – avocatul apărăriiright to defence – drept la apărareto ensure – a asigurafair trial – proces echitabilto rule on – a soluționastatus – calitateto register – a se înscrieto conclude – a încheia un contract

contracting parties – părți contractantelegal assistance – asistență juridicăto terminate – a denunțalegitimate – legitimto breach – a încălca prevederile contractualeon the basis (on the ground) – în temeiulmutual agreement – acord de voințăto undertake – a se obliga

THE COURT SYSTEMoriginal jurisdiction court – instanță de fondappellate jurisdiction court – instanță de apelto make an appeal – a face o cale de atacclaim form – cerere de chemare în judecatădefence – întâmpinarecounterclaim – cerere reconvenționalămortgage – ipotecăjudicial review – control constituționalitățiimagistracy – magistraturăto perform (to carry out) an activity – a desfășura o activitateto challenge a judgement (a decision) – a declara apelappeal – cale de atac