Engineers Reference Handbook

A B R A S I V E S

AB

RA

SIV

ES

1

Belts, Coils & Sheets 2 - 3

Carbide Burrs 4 - 6

Diamond Burrs 7

Fibre Discs 8

Flap Discs & Grinding Discs 9

Grinding Wheels 10 - 18

Hand Pads 19

Mounted Points 20 - 27

Spindle Mounted 28 - 30

Section

1

File Belts

Suitable for a wide range ofpower tools. Aluminium oxidedesigned for a wide range ofmaterials including metal, steel,aluminium and non-ferrousmetals.

Common sizes available: 6 x 330mm, 13 x 610mm,20 x 480mm and 20 x 520mm.(Many other sizes available)

Portable Sander Belts

Resin bond aluminium oxidesanding belts are designed forindustrial applications. Durabilitycombined with flexibility ensuresa long life and first classperformance. Suitable for woodand metal work.

Common sizes available: 75 x 553mmand 100 x 610mm(Many other sizes available)

Linishing Belts

Resin bond aluminium oxidefinishing belts are designed forindustrial applications. Durabilitycombined with flexibility ensures along life and first classperformance. Designed for a widerange of materials such as wood,steel, aluminium and non-ferrousmetals.

Common sizes available: 100mm x 915mm, 50mm x 1520mm, 25mm x 1065mm,50mm x 1065mm,and 150mm x 1090mm.(Many other sizes available)

2

A B R A S I V E S Belts, Coils & Sheets

Belt Max(type m/min

File 2,500Sander 1,000Linisher 500

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Belts, Coils & Sheets A B R A S I V E S

Coils and Sheets

Aluminium Oxide ClothSuperflex aluminium oxide is resinbonded over resin on a very flexible J-weight blue twill cloth. Moistureresistant and electrostatically coatedfor polishing flat and contouredsurfaces in most materials.

Available in:25, 38 and 50mm wide x 50mtr coilsand 230 x 280mm sheets.

Wet or Dry Silicon CarbidePaperWaterproof-resin bonded to papersuitable for wet and dry productionpolishing and finishing of a widerange of materials including metals,plastics, paint work, ceramics etc.

Available in: 230 x 280mm sheets.

Emery ClothBlue twill emery cloth is glue bonded to a very flexible J-weight blue twill cloth. Suitable forgeneral purpose, light workshop use.

Available in:25, 38 and 50mm wide x 50mtr coilsand 230 x 280mm sheets.

Orbital Sanding SheetsIndustrial aluminium oxide sandingpaper is “glue” bonded and suitablefor use with hand sanding blocks andorbital sanders.

Available in:1/3 sheets (93 x 230mm)and 1/2 sheets (115 x 280mm).

Al-Oxide Mean Grade EquivalentSil-Carbide DiameterGrit No. µm EmeryGarnet Glass

P12 1,815P16 1,324P20 1,000P24 764 4P30 642 3P36 538 21/2

P40 425 3 11/2 S2P50 336 21/2 1P60 269 2 1/2 M2P80 201 11/2 0

P100 162 1 2/0 F2P120 125 F 3/0 11/2

P150 100 FF 4/0 1P180 82 5/0 1/2

P220 68 O 6/0 OP240 58.5±2.0 7/0 OOP280 52.2±2.0 8/0P320 46.2±1.5 9/0P360 40.5±1.5

P400 35.0±1.5

P500 30.2±1.5

P600 25.8±1.0

P800 21.8±1.0

P1000 18.3±1.0

P1200 15.3±1.0

P1500 12.6±1.0

P2000 10.3±0.8

P2500 8.4±0.5

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A B R A S I V E S Carb ide Burrs

Cut 3 - Rapid Cut - For use on softer non-ferrous and plastic materials. ie. aluminium,fibreglass, plastics, hard rubber and zinc alloy.

Cut 6 - Double Cut - Crosscut and doublecut to improve control and chipbreaks.Manufactured from high grade tungsten carbidefor general purpose use.

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker - Fast stock removaland improved control and reduced chips for useon hard materials, i.e. steel alloy 50RC, 60RC,carbon & cast iron

Head SizeØ x L (mm)

3 x 12*3 x 14*6 x 15*6 x 16 6 x 198 x 19

10 x 1913 x 2516 x 2519 x 25

Cylindrical-End CuttingAll sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.

Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

3 x 14*4 x 13*6 x 13*6 x 166 x 198 x 19

10 x 1913 x 2516 x 2519 x 25

CylindricalPlain EndAll sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.

Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

3 x 14*6 x 13*6 x 166 x 198 x 19

10 x 1911 x 2513 x 2516 x 2519 x 25

CylindricalBall NosedAll sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.

Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

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Carb ide Burrs A B R A S I V E S

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

3 x 13*6 x 166 x 19

10 x 1913 x 2516 x 2519 x 32

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

3 x 6*8 x 19

13 x 3216 x 36

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

3 x 13*6 x 13*

10 x 1913 x 1913 x 2516 x 25

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

3 x 3*5 x 4*6 x 58 x 6

10 x 811 x 1013 x 1116 x 1419 x 16

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

3 x 6*6 x 10*

10 x 1613 x 2216 x 2519 x 25

Round Tree

All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.

Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

Flame Shape


Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

PointedTree


Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

Ball Shape


Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

Oval


Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

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A B R A S I V E S Carb ide Burrs

ConicalAll sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

Conical 14°°All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

Conical 60°°All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank. Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Conical 90°°All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

Inverted ConeAll sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

3 x 11*6 x 13*6 x 19

10 x 1613 x 2216 x 25

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

3 x 13*5 x 13*6 x 126 x 168 x 22

10 x 2713 x 2816 x 3019 x 38

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

3 x 410 x 816 x 14

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

6 x 310 x 513 x 6

Head SizeØ x L(mm)

6 x 819 x 16

Diameter Speed Range Diameter Speed Rangeof Burr RPM of Burr RPM3mm Ø 40 - 80,000 9mm Ø 25 - 40,0004mm Ø 35 - 60,000 12mm Ø 20 - 40,0006mm Ø 30 - 60,000 20mm Ø 15 - 25,000

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Diamond Burrs A B R A S I V E S

Cylindrical

Diamond Coated Burrs

3mm shank. Overall length 45mm. Diamond grip mesh is 120/140.Suitable for precision grinding of carbide, gems, ceramics, tough alloys,cermets, tool steels etc.Recommended operating speeds 15,000 ~ 30,000 RPM.

Head Dia.Ø x L(mm)

1.5 x 92.0 x 102.5 x 103.0 x 104.0 x 105.0 x 10

Head Dia.Ø x L(mm)

1.5 x 92.0 x 102.5 x 103.0 x 104.0 x 105.0 x 10

Head Dia.Ø x L(mm)

2.0 x 93.0 x 94.0 x 105.0 x 10

Head Dia.Ø x L(mm)

2.0 x 103.0 x 103.3 x 103.3 x 10

Cylindrical Ball Nosed

Pointed Tree

Round Tree

ConicalIncluded Head Dia.

Angle x Length

70° 2 x 1210° 3 x 15

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A B R A S I V E S Fibre Discs

Disc Dia. Max(mm) rpm

100 12,400115 11,000127 10,000178 7,000


100 12,400127 12,000152 12,000

Aluminium Oxide Fibre DiscsResin fibre backed sanding discs aredesigned for a wide range of industrialapplications. High speed penetrationof tough and high tensile materialscombined with long disc life andoptimum flexibility ensure thesesanding discs give first classperformance every time.Recommended for use with allportable grinders and sanders.

Available in:100mm Diameter x 16mm Bore,115mm Diameter x 22mm Bore,127mm Diameter x 22mm Bore,178mm Diameter x 22mm Bore.

Adhesive Backed DiscsAdhesive backed aluminium oxidepaper discs require no tools tochange, when the abrasive becomesworn or a different grit is needed, justpeel off and apply a fresh disc,reducing machine downtime andtherefore increasing productivity.

Available in 150mm diameter.

Velcro backed Sanding DiscsVelcro backed aluminium oxide, resinbonded over resin and need no toolsto change. Suitable for wood, plastics,ceramics etc. 100% of sanding disccan be used, material removal rate istherefore increased. Can berepeatedly removed and re-appliedagain and again. Unaffected by dustor moisture.

Available in:115, 127 & 152mm Diameter with no Holes,115mm Diameter with 8 Holes,152mm Diameter with 6 Holes.

Also available in delta shape.

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Flap Discs & Gr ind ing Discs A B R A S I V E S

9

Flap Discs High performance alternative to sandingdiscs. Have the advantage over depressedcentre grinding discs on light gauge sheetmetal where surface finish is important.Overlapped abrasive strips slowly wearaway revealing fresh abrasive, ensuring thedisc always cuts effectively, reducingclogging, provides constant f inishthroughout disc life, generates less noiseand heat - less blueing. No backing padsneeded - fits directly onto machine. Safe touse at 80m/s on any grinder. Tested at150m/s and approved by the GermanGrinding Wheel Authority (DSA).

Available in two grades and two types ofbacking.Aluminium Oxide Grade - AluminiumBacked (General Purpose).Zirconium Grade - Aluminium Backed (For Stainless Steel).Aluminium Oxide Grade - Glass FibreBacked (General Purpose - Non-Scratch).Zirconium Grade - Glass Fibre Backed(For Stainless Steel - Non-Scratch).

Depressed Centre and FlatReinforced Grinding DiscsManufactured to assure operator safetyand optimum performance. For use withall portable grinders/cut-off machines.

Always wear safety gloves, eye, ear, andrespiratory protection. Cutting discs arenot to be used for free hand cutting, wetgrinding or general grinding. Always readthe safety instructions andrecommendations.

Depressed Centre Cutting & Grinding Discs

Grade A30For general purpose use on metals.

Grade R30For use on stainless steel.

Grade X24Special, for use on cast iron.

Flat Reinforced Cutting Discs

Grade A30/A24For general purpose use on metals.

Grade C24For use on stone and non-ferrous materials.


100 15,300115 13,300127 12,000178 8,600


100 15,000115 13,300127 12,000178 8,600230 6,600305 5,100355 4,400

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A B R A S I V E S Grind ing Wheels

How a Grinding Wheel is DefinedAny grinding wheel is defined by three specific pieces of information:(1) The Wheel SizeWheel size is the measure of the overall diameter, wheel thickness and holediameter quoted in mm:Diameter (D) x Thickness (T) x Bore (B)Diameter and thickness are usually represented as nominal dimensions butthe bore size is given to two decimal places. (2) The Shape and Minor DimensionsGrinding wheels are available in a vast range of shapes. Below are severalexamples of International Standard Shapes:

D

D

D

D

D

K

B

EU

J

UB

J

E

T

K W

B

K

J

T

E

W

J

B

D

P F

E T

B

D

B E

T

W

U

T

D

W

D

J

B U

T

T

B

T

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A B R A S I V E SGrind ing Wheels

How a Grinding Wheel is Defined (continued)(3) DesignationThe specification of a grinding wheel is given by the designation mark which is made up of six basic parts:

Abrasive Grain Size Grade Bond TypeType

ALUMINIUM OXIDE COARSE SOFT

Friable White WA 8 E

Pink 41A 10 F VITRIFIED

Ruby 46A 14 H VPink 48A 16 I RESINOID

20 B

Regular A 24 MEDIUM

Rubernite RA MEDIUM J RUBBER

Mixtures MA (WA+A) 30 K R

36 L

46 M SHELLAC

SILICON CARBIDE 60 HARD E

Regular C 80 N

*Black BC 100 O

120 P

150 Q

FINE R

180 VERY HARD

220 S

240 T

280 U

VERY FINE V

320 W

400 X

500 Y

600 Z

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A B R A S I V E S

Abrasive Types

Regular Aluminium OxideTough form of aluminium oxide whichcontains 3% titanium oxide. Furtheroxidation of the titanium oxide occurs attemperatures above 1250°C causing thecolour to change from the usual brown to agrey-blue. Suitable for grinding high tensilestrength materials.

White Aluminium OxideProduces wheels with high friability (theability to fracture, exposing sharp cuttingedges) due to the highly refined aluminiumoxide containing over 99% pure alumina.Suitable for precision grinding hardened orHSS materials.

Semi-Friable Aluminium OxideProduces wheels using an abrasive withfriabil ity, toughness and free cuttingcharacteristics. With good form holding anda high degree of versatility making 48Aabrasive suitable for cylindrical, centreless,crankshaft and angle head grinding.

Pink Aluminium OxideProduces wheels that have highly refinedaluminium oxide containing less than 0.3%of chromium oxide. A pink colour wheel,tougher and less fr iable than whiteabrasive while still retaining free cuttingproperties. Suitable for grinding highalloyed tool steels especially when a coolergrinding action is required.

Rubenite Aluminium OxideHigh performance aluminium oxide abrasiveused on shank mounted points and wheels.With free cutting characteristics. Suitable forgeneral purpose grinding of steels and mostmetals.

Silicon CarbideWheels that are harder than aluminiumoxide type abrasives but brittle. Suitablefor grinding low tensile strength materialssuch as cast iron, non-ferrous metals andnon-metallic materials. Silicon carbide isavailable in three varieties with very similarphysical properties. They are distinguishedby colour; dark green (DC) the mostcommonly used, black silicon carbide (BC)is for roughing operations and light greencarbide (GC) for specific applications.

Grind ing Wheels

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Abrasive MixturesBy mixing different types of abrasives a large range of wheels can beproduced with very different characteristics to meet specific needs.

Grain SizeThe grain or grit size is important for determining a wheels ability toproduce the required surface finish and stock removal. Grain size is denotedby a number which increases as grain sizes decrease, i.e. 10 grit, grain size= 2.00mm, 60 grit, grain size = 0.25mm. Standard sizes are used for allwheels in Europe as specified in the European Standards laid down by FEPA(Federation of European Producers of Abrasive Products).

A wheel will have the following characteristics as the grit size is madeprogressively finer: • It will cut more slowly.• It will produce a finer surface finish.• It will be more resistant to dressing by the component being ground.• It will be more likely to produce chatter marks if the grade is too hard.• The minimum form radius that can be ground will decrease.A coarser grit wheel will act in the following way:• It will be freer cutting.• It will produce a coarser surface finish.• It will be less resistant to dressing by the workpiece.• The minimum form radius that can be ground will increase.

Bond TypeVitrified BondThese wheels have a porous structure of abrasive particles bonded togetherby bridges of glass or similar vitreous material. Other fusible materials areused in formulating bonds to produce a wide range of structures each withits own characteristics. The wheels are kiln fired at temperatures exceeding1000°, because of this they are unaffected by heat generated during normalgrinding processes. Suitable for precision grinding due to their high rigidity,they can be fractured by mechanical forces.

Organic BondsOrganic bonds such as resinoid, rubber and shellac are cured at relativelylow temperatures, when compared to vitrified bonds. Their resistance tomechanical forces can be affected by the heat generated when grindingcausing the wheel to wear quickly or fracture easily. This can be altered bycontrolling the heat resistance of the bond.

Resinoid BondBased on thermosetting phenolic resin, to which fillers maybe added toimprove the mechanical properties of the wheel. As these wheels aretougher and less rigid than vitrified wheels, they are suitable for heavy stockremoval. They also produce finer finish.

Rubber BondRubber bonded wheels are suitable for grinding operations where a finefinish is necessary and on wet cutting off operations where a high degree ofaccuracy and quality of cut are required. Used for most centreless controlwheels.

Shellac BondThese wheels are cool cutting and produce very fine finishes. this makesthem particularly suitable for applications with minimal heat generation orfor grinding very soft materials such as copper.

A B R A S I V E SGrind ing Wheels

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Special TreatmentsFor particular applications it has been found beneficial to impregnate somewheels with special additives. Sulphur is most commonly used for theimpregnation of vitrified wheels, this prevents wheel loading in applicationswhere it is difficult to apply grinding fluid to the point of contact, particularlywith a large contact area.

Impregnating wax into the wheel allows it to be used for the dry grinding ofvery soft materials to avoid loading of the wheel face. Treating the wheelwith resin enables a wheel to withstand severe grinding conditions.

GradeGrade is not a measurement of abrasive hardness it is a measurement ofthe bonding strength of a wheel which effects both the hardness and theway in which it it loses abrasive grains when grinding. It is an indication ofthe durability/hardness of the wheel against wear. As it is possible to bonda very hard abrasive to a very soft wheel which will make the wheel morefree cutting and fast wearing but if the bond strength is increased thewheel will become harder.

The grade of a grinding wheel is denoted by letters of the alphabet rangingfrom “E” very soft to “Z” for the hardest. This indicates the relationship ofone wheel to the next in a particular group. Softer grade wheels will appearto have an open structure as there is a higher proportion of open poresdue to a decrease of bonding type, when compared to harder wheel. Softwheels should not be confused with open structure wheels.

Wear Characteristics

Soft: Free cutting. Wears more quickly. Produces slightly coarsersurface finish.

Hard: Will cut and wear more slowly. Resistant to dressing by the component being ground. Produces a good surface finish.

StructureThe structure of a wheel defines how closely packed the abrasive grainsare. The openness or closeness of the wheel is denoted numerically 1 or 2for close grain and up to 15 or more for open grain structures


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A B R A S I V E S

HandlingAll grinding wheels can be easily damaged by mishandling that results inthe wheel being subjected to any shock loading. This can occur byinadvertently dropping, knocking or banging against any other object.

Any grinding wheel subjected to such mishandling should be carefullyexamined for signs of damage. If in doubt do not use.

Storage• Small wheels up to 80mm diameter, together with cones, plugs,

mounted points and wheels should be stored in suitable bins, draweror boxes to prevent damage.

• Type 2 cylinder wheels, type 6 straight cups wheels, type 12 dish wheels and type 13 saucer wheels should normally be stacked on flat sides with cushioning material between them.

• Thick rim and hard grade cylinder and straight cup wheels should bestored on their periphery as for plain wheels.

• Soft grade, straight cup wheels and type 11 taper cut wheels, should be stored base to base and rim to rim to prevent chipping of edges andcracking of walls.

• Thin plain wheels, such as cut-off wheels or saw sharpening wheels should be stacked on a flat surface of steel, or similar rigid material.

• Other plain or shaped wheels, are best supported on their periphery inracks. The racks should provide cushioned, two point cradle support toprevent the wheels from rolling.

Plain Wheels

Plates

Large plainwheels

Flat cutting-offwheel

Largecentrelesswheel

Cylindricalcups

Profile wheels

Thick hardcylinders

Cup Wheels

Thin wall & soft cylinders

separators(blotters)

Medium size plainwheels

Grind ing Wheels

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Storage Conditions

During storage, grinding wheels must not be subjected to:• Humidity, water or other liquids.• Freezing temperatures.• Any temperature low enough to cause the formation of condensation.

Shelf Life of Resinoid, Rubber and Shellac Boned Wheels

Organically bonded wheels which are stored for a long time may have theouter edges affected by oxidation. These wheels should not be stored formore than two years. If there is any doubt contact the manufacturer.

Ring Test

The ring test can be performed to indicate if a wheel is cracked. The wheelis lightly tapped with a light non-metallic implement. If a clear note isemitted the wheel is not cracked, if it is cracked a dull note is emitted asthe crack dampens the sound. The ring test is dependant on theinterpretation by the inspector and is primarily for vitrified bond wheels.

To perform the ring test: • A light non-metallic implement is used to gently tap the wheel about 45°

each side of the vertical centre line and about 25 to 50mm from theouter edge as indicated in the diagram.

• Rotate the wheel 45° and repeat the test. Large, thick wheels may be given the ring test by striking on the outer edge rather than the side.A sound, undamaged wheel will omit a clear note. If cracked, there will be a dull note and the wheel should not be used.

45° 45°

Floor

Tap here

45° 45°

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SafetyThe storage, movement and use of grinding wheels are governed bystringent safety standards, the points below are a brief check list toserve as a reminder of those standards involved in the storage,movement and use of grinding wheels.

1. Grinding wheels should always be stored and handled carefully.Storage areas should be dry and free from large temperaturevariations. As prolonged storage of wheels may adversely affect theircondition, wheels should be used within two years of purchase.

2. The shape, size & specification of wheel should always be appropriatefor the job it is to be used on.

3. Before mounting the grinding wheel, it must be examined for anyvisual indication of damage. A ring test must be carried out on vitrifiedwheels.

4. Grinding wheels must only be mounted by a trained person who hasbeen certified as competent to mount abrasive wheels.

5. Most wheels require side plates and compressible washers for

mounting to transfer the driving forces from the machine spindle to the

grinding wheel.

6. Wheels must always be a good fit on the spindle. Wheels which aretoo tight a fit should not be mounted.

7. After mounting or remounting a grinding wheel onto a machine. Standwell clear and allow the wheel to run free for a short period of time.

Always treat a remounted wheelas a new wheel.

8. The initial speed of thewheel at ful l diameter

should not exceedthe maximumoperating speed(MOS) specif ied forthat wheel.

P r o t e c t i v eclothing ande y eprotection,or faceshields, mustbe worn at allt imes in anarea wheregrinding is inprogress.

Grinding Wheels A B R A S I V E S

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Trouble ShootingListed below are common problems that may be encountered duringgrinding operations. The problem, possible cause and remedy actions areshown. There may be more than one cause to a particular problem, andseveral suggested remedies in some cases.Problems Likely Cause Remedy

Chatter Marks Machine vibration Check for wear in machine bearings

Wheel out of balance Balance wheelWheel out of true Re-dress wheelWheel mounting Tighten wheelinsecure mountingWorkpiece centre loose Adjust centres

Surface scratches Wheel too soft Use finer dresser,Decrease workspeed,Use harder wheel

Coolant dirty Replace coolantCheck filtration

Spiral marks Dressing techniques Check diamond is sharp and secure,Check dress is parallel

Finish too coarse Wheel too coarse Use fine, slow traverse dress,Use finer grit wheel

Wheel too soft Decrease WorkspeedUse harder grade wheel

Metal pickup on wheel Dress more frequently,Use more open, softergrade wheel

Wheel not holding Wheel too soft Decrease workspeed,form Use harder grade wheel

Burning on diameter Wheel too coarse Use finer grit wheelWheel too hard Increase workspeed

Use softer grade wheel,Use more free cuttingabrasive

Burning on shoulders Wheel sides rubbing Relief dress wheel sidesshoulderCoolant shortage Increase coolant flow

to contact point

Workpiece not Dirt in centre holes Clean and lubricate parallel centres

Workpiece mis-aligned Check alignmentWorkpiece flexing Use steadiesExcess wheel wear Decrease workspeed

Dress with slow, finetraverse

Wheel allowed to Keep 1/3 to 1/2 wheeltraverse beyond end of width in contactworkpiece during grinding

Workpiece not round Wheel too hard Increase work speed, Use coarser dresser,Use softer grade wheel

Workpiece misaligned Check centres and chuck centralisation

Wheel not cutting Wheel glazing Increase workspeed,Use coarse dress,Use softer grade wheel


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Hand Pads A B R A S I V E S

Fibre Hand PadsA range of non-woven fibre hand pads for cleaning, blending and finishing

applications. Size: 155 x 225mm.

White Non-abrasive: For removal of oxides & coatings, overspray on glass

and brightwork, cleaning glass, ceramics, rubber and alloy wheels.

Produces a scratch free finish.

Grey XX-Fine: Silicon Carbide. For light finishing on all materials, for keying

of lacquer when making spot repairs, fading of basecoat and clear coat

system repairs.

Green X-Fine: Aluminium Silicate. A general purpose conformable hand pad

which gives a slightly coarser finish than the maroon hand pad. For

polishing, cleaning, finishing, removing corrosion and surface preparation

Maroon Fine: Aluminium Oxide. General purpose hand pad for cleaning and

light finishing of stainless steel, finishing wood, sateening brass and

aluminium, light oxide removal, surface preparation prior to painting It can

also be used for lacquer de-nibbing and matt finishing on solid surfaces.

Black Medium: Silicon Carbide. For medium to coarse finishing and

blending & matching stainless steel, de-burring wood, preparing paint and

surface finishes

Brown Coarse: Aluminium Oxide. Heaviest duty pad in the range. For

blending and matching stainless steel,

removing scale & corrosion, cleaning rust,

light deburring of sheet metal

edges to improve handling.

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A B R A S I V E S Mounted Po ints

Shape A14 A15 A21 A22 A23Grade RA60 RA80 RA60 RA60 RA60Diameter 18mm 6mm 25mm 19mm 19mmLength 22mm 27mm 25mm 16mm 25mm

Max. rpm 55,000 55,000 34,000 51,000 39,000


Max. rpm 39,000 20,000 20,000 48,000 34,000


Max. rpm 20,000 38,000 16,000 30,000 45,000

‘A’ ShapeShank Diameter 6mm

Mounted Points and WheelsSuitable for portable die and straight hand grinders. All points arealuminium oxide with “rubeniteTM” as standard. Used for all generalpurpose grinding and deburring on steels and most metals. Alsoavailable as silicon carbide grade suitable for stone/non-ferrousgrinding. Maximum speeds are quoted assuming that collet to backof point does not exceed 12.7mm (1/2”) and are for guidance only.

See Page 11 and 12 for grade explanation.

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Mounted Po ints A B R A S I V E S

Shape A24 A25 A26 A31 A32

Grade RA80 RA60 RA60 RA46 RA46Diameter 6mm 25mm 16mm 35mm 25mmLength 20mm 25mm 16mm 25mm 16mm

Max. rpm 70,000 35,000 60,000 25,000 38,000

Shape A33 A34 A35 A36 A37


Max. rpm 38,000 25,000 38,000 23,000 30,000

Shape A38 A39

Grade RA60 RA60Diameter 25mm 19mmLength 25mm 19mm

Max. rpm 35,000 47,000

‘A’ Shape (continued)Shank Diameter 6mm

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‘B’ Shape

Shank Diameter 3mm

Shape B41 B42 B43 B44 B45


Max. rpm 34,000 33,000 80,000 68,000 100,000



Max. rpm 100,000 100,000 45,000 45,000 60,000



Max. rpm 60,000 100,000 38,000 41,000 92,000


Grade RA120 RA120 RA120 RA120 RA120Diameter 6mm 3mm 19mm 16mm 13mmLength 2mm 3mm 3mm 2.4mm 3mm

Max. rpm 100,000 100,000 50,000 60,000 73,000

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‘B’ Shape (continued)

Shank Diameter 3mm



Max. rpm 50,000 76,000 87,000 100,000 34,000


Grade RA120 RA120 RA120 RA100 RA100Diameter 6mm 5mm 4.5mm 3mm 3mmLength 6mm 5mm 2.5mm 5mm 6mm

Max. rpm 81,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000

Shape B97 B101 B102 B103 B104


Max. rpm 100,000 33,000 44,000 61,000 68,000

Shape B105 B106 B111 B112 B113


Max. rpm 100,000 100,000 33,000 45,000 70,000

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‘B’ Shape (continued)

Shank Diameter 3mm

Shape B114 B115 B121 B122 B123

Grade RA80 RA100 RA120 RA120 RA80Diameter 6mm 2.5mm 13mm 10mm 5mmLength 10mm 3mm 13mm 10mm 5mm

Max. rpm 68,000 100,000 45,000 61,000 100,000

Shape B124 B131 B132 B135

Grade RA120 RA80 RA80 RA120Diameter 3mm 13mm 10mm 6mmLength 3mm 13mm 13mm 13mm

Max. rpm 100,000 34,000 45,000 60,000

Shape W142 W143 W144 W145 W146

Grade RA120 RA120 RA100 RA80 RA80Diameter 2.5mm 3mm 3mm 3mm 3mmLength 6mm 3mm 6mm 10mm 13mm

Max. rpm 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000

Shape W147 W149 W151 W152 W153

Grade RA120 RA120 RA120 RA100 A120Diameter 4mm 4mm 5mm 5mm 5mmLength 0.8mm 6mm 3mm 6mm 10mm

Max. rpm 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 80,000

‘W’ ShapeShank Dia. 3mm

CROMWELL

25


Shape W154 W158 W159 W160 W162


Max. rpm 70,000 90,000 92,000 81,000 68,000

‘W’ Shape (continued)Shank Dia. 3mm

Shape W163 W164 W167 W170 W171


Max. rpm 60,000 55,000 60,000 40,000 36,000

Shape W173 W174 W175 W176 W177


Max. rpm 70,000 60,000 50,000 45,000 33,000

Shape W178 W179 W182 W183 W184


Max. rpm 26,000 25,000 70,000 70,000 70,000

CROMWELL

26


Shape W192 W193 W194 W195 W196


Max. rpm 61,000 61,000 56,000 46,000 32,000

Shape W197 W200 W201 W202 W203


Max. rpm 21,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 25,000

‘W’ Shape (continued)Shank Dia. 6mmexceptW200 = 3mm

Shape W185 W186 W187 W188 W191


Max. rpm 34,500 51,000 40,500 30,370 61,120

Shape W204 W205 W208 W211 W212


Max. rpm 42,000 34,000 18,000 43,000 33,000

CROMWELL

27


‘W’ Shape (contiued)Shank Diameter 6mm except W244 = 10mm

Shape W215 W216 W217 W218 W219


Max. rpm 38,000 38,000 38,000 38,000 35,000

Shape W220 W222 W225 W226 W227

Grade RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46Diameter 25mm 25mm 32mm 32mm 32mmLength 25mm 50mm 6mm 9.5mm 13mm

Max. rpm 25,000 15,900 30,000 30,000 30,000

Shape W230 W236 W238 W242 W244

Grade RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46Diameter 32mm 38mm 38mm 50mm 50mmLength 32mm 13mm 38mm 25mm 50mmMax. rpm 20,000 25,000 15,000 11,000 11,000

CROMWELL

28

A B R A S I V E S Spindle Mounted

Cartridge RollsSpirally wound aluminium oxide cloth rollthat constantly wears in use exposingnew abrasive. Used for weld flashremoval, deburring, blending andpolishing applications. Available in twotypes, straight and taper.

Flap WheelsShaft mounted flap wheels can be usedin portable air or electric power tools,including tyre buffers, flexible shaftsand hand drills. Manufactured fromhighest quality industrial cloth. Used fora wide range of applications such asremoval of rust, cleaning up welds andsanding wood prior to painting.

Available sizes (diameter x height)

30 x 10mm, 30 x 15mm,

40 x 15mm, 40 x 20mm, 40 x 25mm,40 x 30mm,

50 x 10mm, 50 x 15mm, 50 x 20mm,50 x 25mm, 50 x 30mm

60 x 20mm, 60 x 25mm, 60 x 30mm,60 x 40mm, 60 x 50mm,

80 x 20mm, 80 x 25mm, 80 x 30mm,80 x 40mm, and 80mm x 50mm,

Roll Dia.Maxrpm

12mm 22,00019mm 18,00025mm 10,000

Wheel Dia.Maxrpm

30mm 20,40040mm 15,30050mm 12,30060mm 10,20080mm 7,700

Sanding Bands/DrumsAluminium oxide spiral wound with tearresistant backing fabric. For grindingand finishing edges, profiles, weldedjoints, most metals etc. For use withpower tools.

GradesP60 = Coarse.P80 = Medium.P150 = Fine.

Available sizes: - (Diameter x Width)10 x 10, 10 x 20, 13 x 10, 13 x 25, 15x 10, 15 x 30, 19 x 25, 22 x 20, 25 x25, 30 x 20, 38 x 30, 38 x 25, 45 x 30,51 x 25, 60 x 30, 75 x 30 and 100 x 40mm.

Max Operating Speeds(Peripheral=25m/sec)

Sanding Band/Drum Holders

Suitable for use with chucks/collets onall portable power and air tools. For usewith spiral bound abrasive sandingbands. Self expanding when in use for asecure grip on the band.

Band Rotation(Holder Stationary)

Spindle RotationDuring Use (Holder Expands)

29

Spindle Mounted A B R A S I V E S

Band Dia.Max(rpm)

10mm 47,50013mm 36,50015mm 31,50019mm 25,00022mm 21,50025mm 19,00030mm 15,80038mm 12,50045mm 10,50051mm 9,30060mm 7,90075mm 6,300

100mm 4,700

30

A B R A S I V E S Spindle Mounted

Screw Fitting DiscsFor general use including blendingwelds and removing machiningmarks. Also suitable for use on mildcontours as well as flat surfaces.Quick change screw fitting ensuresthat the disc is always perfectlycentred without adhesive, movingparts or centre screw damage to theworkpiece. Higher speeds can beattained resulting in faster stockremoval reduced man-hours andincreased productivity. Available in 2abrasive types, aluminium oxide forgeneral purpose use and zirconiaalumina for grinding and finishing ofstainless steels. Available in 25mm, 38mm, 50mm,75mm and 100mm diameters for theabrasive discs. Also available in asurface preparation material that isdesigned for smoothing surfacesprior to painting, removing rust,oxides, imperfections and blendingout grit disc marks to produce finefinishes on metal.

Disc Dia.Maxrpm

25mm 25,00038mm 22,00050mm 20,00075mm 18,000

A S S E M B L Y

AS

SE

MB

LY

31

Eyebolts 32 - 36

Geometrical Tolerancing 37

Hole & Shaft Tolerances 38 - 39

Screw & Hole Sizes 40

Spanner & Key Clearances 41

Tightening Torques 42

Section

2

BS4278 covers three types of eyebolt, namely collared eyebolts, eyeboltswith link, and dynamo eyebolts.

Dynamo eyebolts are intended for vertical loading only, whereas the othertwo types of eyebolt can be used at inclined angles.

Collar eyebolts are intended for permanent attachment to heavy itemswhich may need to be lifted; they will normally be fitted in pairs for use withshackles and a two-leg sling. It is important that pairs of collar eyeboltsshould be carefully fitted.

The eyebolt with link is intended for general lifting purposes. It should beused in place of the collar eyebolt whenever the loading cannot be confinedto a single point. It may be loaded in any direction to its full ratingprovided that the angle of the load to the axis of its screw thread does notexceed 15°. At greater inclinations the load must be reduced, but shorterlink lengths and larger screw threads allow these loads for inclined liftingto be about double those for the collar eyebolt.

The Dynamo eyebolt is intended for vertical lifting only; loading out of thevertical by even 5° over stress the screw thread. Dynamo eyebolts must belifted only in circumstances where the need to ensure accurately verticalloadings is thoroughly appreciated and habitually observed; in all othercircumstances the collar eyebolt or the eyebolt with link must be used.

The inspecting authorities, manufacturers and users of eyebolts haveexpressed serious concern about the possibility of an accident beingcaused by eyebolts with metric threads being screwed inadvertently intotapped holes having a BSW or UNC thread; or visa versa. Leaving asideforce fits the following thread sizes, for example, could be wrongly matchedwith a risk that the eyebolt could ‘pull-out’ below its design load e.g. 3/4

BSW or UNC eyebolt could fit in M20 hole.

The possibility of mixing threads has always existed but has beenaccentuated by the change to metric. Users are urged to take steps toavoid threads being mixed and in particular it is suggested that all tappedholes be identified with marks identical to those specified for eyebolts.

i.e. Metric: BSW: UNC with symbols as large as possible.

32

ISO Metric Coarse BSW UNC

Eyebolt Hole Eyebolt Hole Eyebolt Hole

- M20 3/4 - 3/4 -M24 7/8 - 7/8 -

M24 - - 1 - 1M30 11/8 - 11/8 -

M30 - - 11/4 - 11/4

A S S E M B L Y Eyebolts

Correct Fitting of Eyebolts

Contact Between Collar and SeatingThe underside of the collar of every eyebolt and the seating onto which it isscrewed down must be in firm contact over the whole perimeter, otherwiseany non-axial loading will be liable to over stress the screw thread.

Correct Fitting of Pairs of Collar EyeboltsThe plane of the eye of each of a pair of collar eyebolts must not beinclined to the plane containing the axis of the two eyebolts by more than5°. If at first fitting this condition is not fulfiled, it is to be achieved bymachining the underside of the collar, care being taken to preserveaccurate perpendicularity to the axis.

The load applied to a collar eyebolt must always lie in the plane of the eye.When two pairs of eyebolts are fitted to a single item, it is recommendedthat they be used with two-leg slings and a spreader bar and in all casesprecise instructions as to the proper method of lifting should always beavailable and clearly understood prior to lifting taking place.

Correct and Incorrect Methods of Slicing

The ‘correct‘ methods are permissible for eyebolts with collars (as shown),and also for eyebolts with links. They are not correct for dynamo eyebolts,which are designed for vertical lift only.

Correct Correct

Load

Load Load

Incorrect Incorrect

33

Eyebolts A S S E M B L Y

LOAD

LOAD LOAD

LOAD

34


B. Dia. C. DIa.

ThreadSize A

G

W

Ø

F

H

J

D

K

L. Rad.

L.Rad.

K. Rad.

J. Rad.

Note: Eyebolts with smaller thread than M12 are unsuitable for normallifting purposes.

CollaredEyebolts

Maximum recommended working loads for Collar eyebolts when used in pairs for inclined loading conditions.

SafeA

WorkingMetric

LoadThread

B C D E F G H J K L

(Vertical)

0.32 M12 22 15 7 15 9 20 18 1 3 9

0.63 M16 29 20 10 20 12 26 23 1 3 12

1.25 M20 40 27 14 27 16 36 32 1 5 16

2.00 M24 52 35 17 35 21 46 40 2 6 21

3.20 M30 65 44 22 44 26 58 51 2 7 26

Safe working loadMaximum load W to be lifted by a pair of

(Single eyebolt vertical)eyebolts when the angle between the sling leg is Ø

0°° < Ø < 30°° 30°° < Ø < 60°° 60°° < Ø < 90°°Metric tonne force tonne f. tonne f. tonne f.

1.25 1.60 1.00 0.63

2.00 2.50 1.60 1.00

3.20 4.00 2.50 1.60

Reduction factor 0.63 0.40 0.25

E.Dia.

35

Eyebolts A S S E M B L Y

Safe working loadMaximum load W to be lifted by a pair of

(Single eyebolt vertical)eyebolts when the angle between the sling leg is Ø

0°° < Ø < 30°° 30°° < Ø < 60°° 60°° < Ø < 90°°Metric tonne force tonne f. tonne f. tonne f.

1.25 2.50 2.00 1.60

2.00 4.00 3.20 2.50

Reduction factor 1.00 0.80 0.63

Ld

Bd

D

H

J GM

F

d

K

B DIa.

L Rad.

J Rad.

C Rad.

ThreadSize A

W

ØMaximum recommended working loads for Eyebolts with links when used in pairs for inclined loading conditions.

SafeA

Link

WorkingMetric

LoadThread B C D F G H J K L M d Bd Ld

(Vertical)

0.80 M20 39 24 9 12 20 27 1 4 14 12 13 24 53

1.25 M24 47 26 11 14 23 32 1 5 16 14 15 29 63

2.00 M30 60 37 14 18 30 41 2 6 21 18 19 37 80

LinkedEyebolts

36


Safe

Working

Load A B D E F G H K

(Vertical)

0.32 M12 17 5 22 9 27 18 3

0.63 M16 23 6 29 11 34 23 3

1.25 M20 32 9 40 15 47 32 5

2.00 M24 40 12 51 19 60 40 6

3.20 M30 51 14 64 24 76 51 7

Dynamo Eyebolts are to be used only for direct lift. If fitted in pairs ingroups a spreader frame must always be used.

B. Dia.

G

H

K

D

ThreadSize A

F

E.Dia.

DynamoEyebolts

37

Geometrical Tolerancing A S S E M B L Y

Tolerances The following extracts have been taken from BS 308 : 1990, for furtherexplanation the full standard should be consulted. Geometric tolerancingdefines relationships between different features on a component. Forexample, squareness, roundness, parallelism, flatness or concentricity canbe defined in two ways:

(a) Dependency where the limits are intended to exercise control overthe form of the feature as well as the size.

(b) Independency, where the limits of size are intended to exercisecontrol over the size of the feature only and not over its form.

Tolerance Feature and Datum Feature

Surface finish

Straightness Flatness

Roundness(Circularity)

Cylindricity

Parallelism

Perpendicularity(Squareness)

Angularity Position

Co-axiality/Concentricity

CircularRun outTotal run out

Symbols and Their Meanings

± 1’ 0.02A B

Symbol of tolerancecharacteristic

Tolerance value

Surfacefinish

Squareness

Tolerance

Datum Letter

Datum letter

Datum triangle

Datum feature

Tolerancefeature

Means:must beparallel

to featureB to within

0.02mm

Means:Squarenessto within 1minute tofeature A

M P

50 (50)

Ø6A1

15 8X R

Datum letter

A

Profile ofa Line

Profile ofa Surface

At MaximumMaterialCondition

ProjectedTolerance Zone

Datum Target

DiameterBasicDimension

ReferenceDimension

Target Point Conical Taper Slope Square (Shape)

Dimensionnot to Scale

Number ofTimes/Places

Radius

38

A S S E M B L Y Hole & Shaft To lerances

Clearance Fits Diagram to scale for 25mm Dia.

+

0

-

Holes

H11

c11

d10

e9

f7

g6h6

H9 H9

H8

H7 H7

Shafts

Nom Sizes Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance

Over To H11 c11 H9 d10 H9 e9 H8 f7 H7 e8 H7 g6 H7 h6mm mm 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

- 3 +60 -60 +25 -20 +25 -14 +14 -6 +10 -14 +10 -2 +10 -60 -120 0 -60 0 -39 0 -16 0 -28 0 -8 0 0

3 6 +75 -70 +30 -30 +30 -20 +18 -10 +12 -20 +12 -4 +12 -80 -145 0 -78 0 -50 0 -22 0 -38 0 -12 0 0

6 10 +90 -80 +36 -40 +36 -25 +22 -13 +15 -25 +15 -5 +15 -90 -170 0 -98 0 -61 0 -28 0 -47 0 -14 0 0

10 18 +110 -95 +43 -50 +43 -32 +27 -16 +18 -32 +18 -6 +18 -110 -205 0 -120 0 -75 0 -34 0 -59 0 -17 0 0

18 30 +130 -110 +52 -65 +52 -40 +33 -20 +21 -40 +21 -7 +21 -130 -240 0 -149 0 -92 0 -41 0 -73 0 -20 0 0

30 40 +160 -1200 -280 +62 -80 +62 -50 +39 -25 +25 -50 +25 -9 +25 -16

40 50 +160 -130 0 -180 0 -112 0 -50 0 -89 0 -25 0 00 -290

50 65 +190 -1400 -330 +74 -100 +74 -60 +46 -30 +30 -60 +30 -10 +30 -19

65 80 +190 -150 0 -220 0 -134 0 -60 0 -106 0 -29 0 00 -340

80 100 +220 -1700 -390 +87 -120 +87 -72 +54 -36 +35 -72 +35 -12 +35 -22

100 120 +220 -180 0 -260 0 -159 0 -71 0 -126 0 -34 0 00 -400

120 140 +250 -2000 -450

140 160 +250 -210 +100 -145 +100 -84 +63 -43 -40 -85 -40 -14 +40 -250 -460 0 -305 0 -185 0 -83 0 -148 0 -39 0 0

160 180 +250 -2300 -480

180 200 +290 -2400 -530

200 225 +290 -260 +115 -170 +115 -100 +72 -50 +46 -100 +46 -15 +46 -290 -550 0 -355 0 -215 0 -96 0 -172 0 -44 0 0

225 250 +290 -2800 -570

250 280 +320 -3000 -620 +130 -190 +130 -110 +81 -56 +52 -110 +52 -17 +54 -32

280 315 +320 -330 0 -400 0 -240 0 -108 0 -191 0 -49 0 00 -650

315 355 +360 -3600 -720 +140 -210 +140 -125 +89 -62 +57 -125 +57 -18 +57 -36

355 400 +360 -400 0 -440 0 -265 0 -119 0 -214 0 54 0 00 -760

400 450 +400 -4400 -840 +155 -230 +155 -135 +97 -68 -63 -135 +63 -20 +63 -40

450 500 +400 -480 0 -480 0 -290 0 -131 0 -232 0 -60 0 00 -860

39

Hole & Shaft To lerances A S S E M B L Y

Nom Sizes Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance

Over To H7 k6 H7 n6 H7 p6 H7 s6

mm mm 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

- 3+10 +6 +10 +10 +10 +12 +10 +20

0 0 0 +4 0 +6 0 +14

3 6+12 +9 +12 +16 +12 +20 +12 +27

0 +1 0 +8 0 +12 0 +19

6 10+15 +10 +15 +19 +15 +24 +15 +32

0 +1 0 +10 0 +15 0 +23

10 18+18 +12 +18 +23 +18 +29 +18 +39

0 +1 0 +12 0 +18 0 +28

18 30+21 +15 +21 +28 +21 +35 +21 +48

0 +2 0 +15 0 +22 0 +35

30 40+25 +18 +25 +33 +25 +42 +25 +59

0 +2 0 +17 0 +26 0 +4340 50

50 65+30 +21 +30 +39 +30 +51

+30 +72

0 +2 0 +20 0 +32

0 +53

65 80+30 +78

0 +59

80 100+35 +25 +35 +45 +35 +59

+35 +93

0 +3 0 +23 0 +37

0 +71

100 120+35 +101

0 +79

120 140+40 +117

0 +92

140 160+40 +28 +40 +52 +40 +68 +40 +125

0 +3 0 +27 0 +43 0 +100

160 180+40 +133

0 +108

180 200+46 +151

0 +122

200 225+46 +33 +46 +60 +46 +79 +46 +159

0 +4 0 +31 0 +50 0 +130

225 250+46 +169

0 +140

250 280+52 +36 +52 +66 +52 +88

+52 +190

0 +4 0 +34 0 +56

0 +158

280 315+52 +202

0 +170

315 355+57 +40 +57 +73 +57 +98

+57 +226

0 +4 0 +37 0 +62

0 +190

355 400+57 +244

0 +208

400 450+63 +45 +63 +80 -63 +108

+63 +272

0 +5 0 +40 0 +68

0 +232

450 500+63 +292

0 +252

+

0

+

0

Transition FitsDiagram to scale for 25mm Dia.

Interference Fits

Holes

Shafts

H7k6

H7 n6

H7

p6

H7

s6

40

A S S E M B L Y Screw & Hole S izes (Metr ic )

d5

d1

d3

d3

CHEESE HD.

h1

h2d4

t1 t2

t4

MINIMUM SCREWLENGTH &

TAPPING DEPTHS

FOR UNEVEN

SURFACES

HOLE PITCH TOLERANCE

FOR TOLERANCES. FROM TENON,

DOWEL, SPIGOT, ETC. HALVE

TOLERANCES SHOWN

t5 t6

STEEL

ALU

M.

BR

ON

ZE

d4

SI A/F x K DP

d4

d8

d1

d8

S3A/F

90°

d7

L2

L1

Clearance Hole

BS4186

Med. Fit

Thread Size d1 M3 M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30

Thread Pitch 0.5 0.7 0.8 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.5 3 3.5

Tap Drill BS3643 Class 6G 2.5 3.3 4.2 5 6.8 8.5 10.2 14 17.5 21 26.5

d4 3.4 4.5 5.5 6.6 9 11 14 18 22 26 33

d5 6 8 10 11 15 18 20 26 32 40 48

d3 5.5 7 8.5 10 13 16 18 24 30 36 45

51 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 14 17 19 22

K 1.3 2 2.7 3.3 4.3 5.5 6.6 8.8 10.7 12.9

h1 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30

t1 3.4 4.6 5.7 6.8 9 11 13 17.5 21.5 25.5 32

h2 2 2.6 3.3 3.9 5 6

t2 2.5 3 3.5 4.7 5.5 6.5

D 9 10 11 13 18 23 26 32 40 48 60

d6 7 9 10 12.5 17 21 24 30 37 44 56

w 0.5 0.8 1 1.6 1.6 2 2.5 3 3 4 4

S2 5.5 7 8 10 13 17 19 24 30 36 46

m1 2.4 3.2 4 5 6.5 8 10 13 16 19 24

v1 3.2 4.2 5.2 6.5 8.3 10.2 12.5 16 19.5 23.5 29

m2 5 6 7 8 9 10 12

v2 6.8 8.2 9.5 11 12.5 14.5 17

e 6.4 8.1 9.2 11.5 15 19.6 21.9 27.7 34.6 41.6 53.1

J1 2 2.8 3.5 4 5.5 7 8 10 13 15 19

d7 6.7 9 11.2 13.4 17.9 22.4 26.9 33.6 40.3

d8 5.8 7.8 9.8 11.7 15.7 19.7 23.7 29.7 35.6

L1 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.7 5 6.2 7.4 8.8 10.2

S3 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12

d7 6.3 9.0 10.0 12.0 17.0 20.0

d8 5.2 8.0 8.9 10.9 15.4 17.8

L2 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.1 4.3 4.7

±0.15 ±0.15 ±0.15 ±0.2 ±0.3 ±0.3 ±0.4 ±0.4 ±0.5 ±0.5 ±0.5

t4 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30

t5 5 5.5 7 8 10 14 16 20 25 32 36

t6 8 9 11 12 16 20 22 26 32 40 45

t4 4.5 6 7.5 9 12 15 18 24 30 36 45

t5 6.5 7.5 9.5 11 14 19 22 28 35 44 51

t6 9.5 11 13.5 15 20 25 28 34 42 52 60

t4 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 32 40 48 60

t5 8 9.5 12 14 18 24 28 36 45 56 66

t6 11 13 16 18 24 30 34 42 52 64 75

d4

d60.1

D

w

d1

v1

v2

S2A/F

d1

j1

e

m1

m2

41

Spanner & Key C learances A S S E M B L Y

For Single End, Double End & Ring Spanners

ThreadAcross

R1 R2Flats - S

T

M4 7 8 18 2.5

M5 8 9 20 2.5

M6 10 10 25 4

M8 13 12 30 4

M10 17 15 35 6

M12 19 17 40 6

M16 24 21 45 10

M20 30 25 50 10

M24 36 30 63 16

M30 46 38 70 16

For Hex. BoxSpanner

Acrossd1Flats - S

d

6 11 15

7 11.5 15

8 13 18

10 16 18

13 20.5 26

17 26 28

19 28.5 33

24 34.5 40

30 42 48

36 50 58

For Hexagon Key

ThreadAcross

Flats - S h

M3 2.5 26

M4 3 30

M5 4 37

M6 5 42

M8 6 49

M10 8 57

M12 10 65

M16 14 88

M20 17 100

M24 19 115

M30 22 135

For Square BoxSpanner

d1Flats - S d

6 12 15

8 16 18

10 20 22

13 24 28

17 34 40

22 42 48

Note: These areminimumclearance forHexagonKeys.

Make surescrew can beassembled.

S S

d

SS

h

T

R2

R1

d1

d

min 60°

d1

42

A S S E M B L Y Tighten ing Torques

Cap Head Screws: ISO Metric Threads

Countersunk Head Screws: ISO Threads

Button Head Screws: ISO Metric Threads

N.B. The tightening torque values for countersunk head and button head screws arerestricted by the related wrench key size.

Nominal Nominal Recommended Tightening Torque Nominal Included LoadSize Wrench Sizemm A/Flats mm lbf in lbf ft Nm lb f kN

M3 2.5 21 2.4 936 4.16M4 3.0 49 5.5 1632 7.26M5 4.0 99 11.2 2640 11.74M6 5.0 168 14 19.0 3744 16.65M8 6.0 407 34 46.0 6804 30.27

M10 8.0 67 91.2 10788 47.99M12 10.0 117 159.1 15684 69.77M16 14.0 291 394.8 29196 129.87M20 17.0 568 770.3 45576 202.73M24 19.0 982 1331.8 65652 292.03


M3 2.0 18 2.0 625 2.8M4 2.5 35 4.0 937 4.2M5 3.0 58 6.6 1236 5.5M6 4.0 142 12 16.0 2500 11.1M8 5.0 274 23 31.0 3630 16.1

M10 6.0 39 53.0 4964 22.1M12 8.0 94 127.0 9913 44.1M16 10.0 182 247.0 14460 64.3M20 12.0 270 365.0 17094 76.0


M3 2.0 18 2.0 681 3.0M4 2.5 35 4.0 1020 4.5M5 3.0 58 6.6 1350 6.0M6 4.0 142 12 16.0 2725 12.1M8 5.0 23 31.0 3960 17.6

M10 6.0 39 53.0 5416 24.1M12 8.0 94 127.0 10814 48.1

C O N V E R S I O N S

CO

NV

ER

SIO

NS

43

Fraction-Millimetre-Gauge-Inch 44 - 49

Indexable Inserts: ANSI to ISO 50 - 51

Spanner & Socket Sizes 52 - 55

Surface Finish 56 - 57

Tensile Strength & Hardness 58 - 61

Weights & Measures 62 - 64

Section

3

44

C O N V E R S I O N S Fraction � Millimetre � Gauge � Inch

Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch

.30 .0118

.32 .0126

.343 80 .0135

.35 .0138

.368 79 .0145

.38 .01501/64 .397 .0156

.40 .0157

.406 78 .0160

.42 .0165

.45 .0177

.457 77 .0180

.48 .0189

.50 .0197

.508 76 .0200

.52 .0205

.533 75 .0210

.55 .0217

.572 74 .0225

.58 .0228

.60 .0236

.610 73 .0240

.62 .0244

.635 72 .0250

.65 .0256

.660 71 .0260

.68 .0268

.70 .0276

.711 70 .0280

.72 .0283

.742 69 .0292

.75 .0295

.78 .0307

.787 68 .03101/32 .794 .0312

.80 .0315

.813 67 .0320

.82 .0323

.838 66 .0330

.85 .0335

.88 .0346

.889 65 .0350

.90 .0354

.914 64 .0360

.92 .0362

.940 63 .0370

.95 .0374

.965 62 .0380

.98 .0386

.991 61 .03901.00 .03941.016 60 .04001.041 59 .04101.05 .0413


1.067 58 .04201.092 57 .04301.10 .04331.15 .04531.181 56 .0465

3/64 1.191 .04691.20 .04721.25 .04921.30 .05121.321 55 .05201.35 .05311.397 54 .05501.40 .05511.45 .05711.50 .05911.511 53 .05951.55 .0610

1/16 1.588 .06251.60 .06301.613 52 .06351.65 .06501.70 .06691.702 51 .06701.75 .06891.778 50 .07001.80 .07091.85 .07281.854 49 .07301.90 .07481.930 48 .07601.95 .0768

5/64 1.984 .07811.994 47 .07852.00 .07872.05 .08072.057 46 .08102.083 45 .08202.10 .08272.15 .08462.184 44 .08602.20 .08662.25 .08862.261 43 .08902.30 .09062.35 .09252.375 42 .0935

3/32 2.381 .09382.40 .09452.438 41 .09602.45 .09652.489 40 .09802.50 .09842.527 39 .09952.55 .1004

45

Fraction � Millimetre � Gauge � Inch C O N V E R S I O N S


4.50 .17724.572 15 .18004.60 .18114.623 14 .18204.70 13 .18504.75 .1870

3/16 4.762 .18754.80 12 .18904.851 11 .19104.90 .19294.915 10 .19354.978 9 .19605.00 .19695.055 8 .19905.10 .20085.105 7 .2010

13/64 5.159 .20315.182 6 .20405.20 .20475.220 5 .20555.25 .20675.30 .20875.309 4 .20905.40 .21265.410 3 .21305.50 .2165

7/32 5.556 .21885.60 .22055.613 2 .22105.70 .22445.75 .22645.791 1 .22805.80 .22835.90 .23235.944 A .2340

15/64 5.953 .23446.00 .23626.045 B .23806.10 .24026.147 C .24206.20 .24416.248 D .24606.25 .24616.30 .2480

1/4 6.350 E .25006.40 .25206.50 .25596.528 F .25706.60 .25986.629 G .26106.70 .2638

17/64 6.747 .26566.75 .26576.756 H .2660


2.578 38 .10152.60 .10242.642 37 .10402.65 .10432.70 .10632.705 36 .10652.75 .1083

7/64 2.778 .10942.794 35 .11002.80 .11022.819 34 .11102.85 .11222.870 33 .11302.90 .11422.946 32 .11602.95 .11613.00 .11813.048 31 .12003.10 .1220

1/8 3.175 .12503.20 .12603.25 .12803.264 30 .12853.30 .12993.40 .13393.454 29 .13603.50 .13783.569 28 .1405

9/64 3.572 .14063.60 .14173.658 27 .14403.70 .14573.734 26 .14703.75 .14763.797 25 .14953.80 .14963.861 24 .15203.90 .15353.912 23 .1540

5/32 3.969 .15623.988 22 .15704.00 .15754.039 21 .15904.089 20 .16104.10 .16144.20 .16544.216 19 .16604.25 .16734.30 .16934.305 18 .1695

11/64 4.366 .17194.394 17 .17304.40 .17324.496 16 .1770

46



6.80 .26776.90 .27176.909 I .27207.00 .27567.036 J .27707.10 .27957.137 K .2810

9/32 7.144 .28127.20 .28357.25 .28547.30 .28747.366 L .29007.40 .29137.493 M .29507.50 .2953

19/64 7.541 .29697.60 .29927.671 N .30207.70 .30317.75 .30517.80 .30717.90 .3110

5/16 7.938 .31258.00 .31508.026 O .31608.10 .31898.20 .32288.204 P .32308.25 .32488.30 .3268

21/64 8.334 .32818.40 .33078.433 Q .33208.50 .33468.60 .33868.611 R .33908.70 .3425

11/32 8.731 .34388.75 .34458.80 .34658.839 S .34808.90 .35049.00 .35439.093 T .35809.10 .3583

23/64 9.128 .35949.20 .36229.25 .36429.30 .36619.347 U .36809.40 .37019.50 .3740

3/8 9.525 .37509.576 V .3770


9.6 .37809.7 .38199.75 .38399.8 .38589.804 W .38609.9 .3898

25/64 9.922 .390610.00 .393710.084 X .397010.1 .397610.2 .401610.25 .403510.262 Y .404010.3 .4055

13/32 10.319 .406210.4 .409410.490 Z .413010.5 .413410.6 .417310.7 .4213

27/64 10.716 .421910.75 .423210.8 .425210.9 .429111.00 .433111.1 .4370

7/16 11.112 .437511.2 .440911.25 .442911.3 .444911.4 .448811.5 .4528

29/64 11.509 .453111.6 .456711.7 .460611.75 .462611.8 .464611.9 .4685

15/32 11.906 .468812.00 .472412.1 .476412.2 .480312.25 .482312.3 .4843

31/64 12.303 .484412.4 .488212.5 .492112.6 .4691

1/2 12.7 .500012.75 .502012.8 .503912.9 .507913.00 .5118

33/64 13.097 .5156

47


Fraction Millimetre Inch

13.10 .515713.20 .519713.25 .521713.30 .523613.40 .5276

17/32 13.494 .531213.50 .531513.60 .535413.70 .539413.75 .541313.80 .5433

35/64 13.891 .546913.90 .547214.00 .551214.25 .5610

9/16 14.288 .562514.50 .5709

37/64 14.684 .578114.75 .580715.00 .5906

19/32 15.081 .593815.25 .6004

39/64 15.478 .609415.50 .610215.75 .6201

5/8 15.875 .625016.00 .629916.25 .6398

41/64 16.272 .640616.50 .6496

21/32 16.669 .656216.75 .659417.00 .6693

43/64 17.066 .671917.25 .6791

11/16 17.462 .687517.50 .689017.75 .6988

45/64 17.859 .703118.00 .708718.25 .7185

23/32 18.256 .718818.50 .7283

47/64 18.653 .734418.75 .738219.00 .7480

3/4 19.050 .750019.25 .7579

49/64 19.447 .765619.50 .767719.75 .7776

25/32 19.844 .781220.00 .7874

51/64 20.241 .7969


20.25 .797220.422 .804020.50 .8071

13/16 20.638 .812520.75 .816921.00 .8268

53/64 21.034 .828121.25 .8366

27/32 21.431 .843821.50 .846521.75 .8563

55/64 21.828 .859422.00 .8661

7/8 22.225 .875022.25 .876022.50 .8858

57/64 22.622 .890622.75 .895723.00 .9055

29/32 23.019 .906223.25 .9154

59/64 23.416 .921923.50 .925223.75 .9350

15/16 23.812 .937524.00 .9449

61/64 24.209 .953124.25 .954724.50 .9646

31/32 24.606 .968824.75 .974425.00 .9843

63/64 25.003 .984425.25 .9941

1 25.400 1.000025.50 1.003925.75 1.0138

11/64 25.797 1.015626.00 1.0236

11/32 26.194 1.031226.25 1.033526.50 1.0433

13/64 26.591 1.046926.75 1.0531

11/16 26.988 1.062527.00 1.063027.25 1.0728

15/64 27.384 1.078127.50 1.082727.75 1.0925

13/32 27.781 1.093828.00 1.1024

17/64 28.178 1.109428.25 1.1122

48



28.50 1.122011/8 28.575 1.1250

28.75 1.131919/64 28.972 1.1406

29.00 1.141729.25 1.1516

15/32 29.369 1.156229.50 1.161429.75 1.1713

111/64 29.766 1.171930.00 1.1811

13/16 30.162 1.187530.25 1.190930.50 1.2008

113/64 30.559 1.203130.75 1.2106

17/32 30.956 1.218831.00 1.220531.25 1.2303

115/64 31.353 1.234431.50 1.2402

11/4 31.75 1.250032.00 1.2598

117/64 32.147 1.265632.50 1.2795

19/32 32.544 1.281232.766 1.2900

119/64 32.941 1.296933.00 1.2992

15/16 33.338 1.312533.50 1.3189

121/64 33.734 1.328134.00 1.3386

111/32 34.131 1.343834.50 1.3583

123/64 34.528 1.359413/8 34.925 1.3750

35.00 1.3780125/64 35.322 1.3906

35.50 1.3976113/32 35.719 1.4062

36.00 1.4173127/64 36.116 1.4219

36.50 1.437017/16 36.512 1.4375129/64 36.909 1.4531

37.00 1.4567115/32 37.306 1.4688

37.50 1.4764131/64 37.703 1.4844

38.00 1.496111/2 38.100 1.5000133/64 38.497 1.5156

38.50 1.5157


117/32 38.894 1.531239.00 1.5354

135/64 39.291 1.546939.50 1.5551

19/16 39.688 1.562540.00 1.5748

137/64 40.084 1.5781119/32 40.481 1.5938

40.50 1.5945139/64 40.878 1.6094

41.00 1.614215/8 41.275 1.6250

41.50 1.6339141/64 41.672 1.6406

42.00 1.6535121/32 42.069 1.6562143/64 42.466 1.6719

42.50 1.6732111/16 42.862 1.6875

43.00 1.6929145/64 43.259 1.7031

43.50 1.7126123/32 43.656 1.7188

44.00 1.7323147/64 44.053 1.734413/4 44.450 1.7500

44.50 1.7520149/64 44.847 1.7656

45.00 1.7717125/32 45.244 1.7812

45.50 1.7913151/64 45.641 1.7969

46.00 1.8110113/16 46.038 1.8125153/64 46.434 1.8281

46.50 1.8307127/32 46.831 1.8438

47.00 1.8504155/64 47.228 1.8594

47.50 1.870117/8 47.625 1.8750

48.00 1.8898157/64 48.022 1.8906129/32 48.419 1.9062

48.50 1.9094159/64 48.816 1.9219

49.00 1.9291115/16 49.212 1.9375

49.50 1.9488161/64 49.609 1.9531

50.00 1.9685131/32 50.006 1.9688163/64 50.403 1.9844

50.50 1.9882

49



215/16 74.612 2.937575.00 2.9528

231/32 75.406 2.968876.00 2.9921

3 76.200 3.000031/32 76.994 3.0312

77.00 3.031531/16 77.788 3.0625

78.00 3.070933/32 78.581 3.0938

79.00 3.110231/8 79.375 3.1250

80.00 3.149635/32 80.169 3.156233/16 80.962 3.1875

81.00 3.189037/32 81.756 3.2188

82.00 3.228331/4 82.550 3.2500

83.00 3.267739/32 83.344 3.2812

84.00 3.307135/16 84.138 3.3125311/32 84.931 3.3438

85.00 3.346533/8 85.725 3.3750

86.00 3.3858313/32 86.519 3.4062

87.00 3.425237/16 87.312 3.4375

88.00 3.4646315/32 88.106 3.468831/2 88.900 3.5000

89.00 3.503990.00 3.5433

39/16 90.488 3.562591.00 3.582792.00 3.6220

35/8 92.075 3.625093.00 3.6614

311/16 93.662 3.687594.00 3.700895.00 3.7402

33/4 95.250 3.750096.00 3.7795

313/16 96.838 3.812597.00 3.818998.00 3.8583

37/8 98.425 3.875099.00 3.8976

100.00 3.9370315/16 100.012 3.93754 101.600 4.0000


2 50.800 2.000051.00 2.0079

21/32 51.594 2.031252.00 2.0472

21/16 52.388 2.062553.00 2.0866

23/32 53.181 2.093821/8 53.975 2.1250

54.00 2.126025/32 54.769 2.1562

55.00 2.165423/16 55.562 2.1875

56.00 2.204727/32 56.356 2.2188

57.00 2.244121/4 57.150 2.250029/32 57.944 2.2812

58.00 2.283525/16 58.738 2.3125

59.00 2.3228211/32 59.531 2.3438

60.00 2.362223/8 60.325 2.3750

61.00 2.4016213/32 61.119 2.406227/16 61.912 2.4375

62.00 2.4409215/32 62.706 2.4688

63.00 2.480321/2 63.500 2.5000

64.00 2.5197217/32 64.294 2.5312

65.00 2.559129/16 65.088 2.5625219/32 65.881 2.5938

66.00 2.598425/8 66.675 2.6250

67.00 2.6378221/32 67.469 2.6562

68.00 2.6772211/16 68.262 2.6875

69.00 2.7165223/32 69.056 2.718823/4 69.850 2.7500

70.00 2.7559225/32 70.644 2.7812

71.00 2.7953213/16 71.438 2.8125

72.00 2.8346227/32 72.231 2.8438

73.00 2.874027/8 73.025 2.8750229/32 73.819 2.9062

74.00 2.9134

50

C O N V E R S I O N S Indexable Inserts � ANSI to ISO

ANSI ISO

D T R L T R

4 3 2 12 04 08

4 3 3 12 04 12

6 4 3 19 06 12

6 4 4 19 06 16

Parallelogram NegativeCNMA & CNMG

ANSI ISO

D T R L T R

3 2 2 09 03 08

4 3 1 12 04 04

4 3 2 12 04 08

4 3 3 12 04 12

6 4 3 19 06 12

6 4 4 19 06 16

8 5 6 25 07 24

8 6 6 25 09 24

Square NegativeSNMA, SNMM & SNMG

ANSI ISO

D T R L T R

3 2 1 09 03 04

3 2 2 09 03 08

4 2 1 12 03 04

4 2 2 12 03 08

4 2 3 12 03 12

4 3 1 12 04 04

4 3 2 12 04 08

4 3 3 12 04 12

5 3 3 15 04 12

6 3 2 19 04 08

6 3 3 19 04 12

6 3 4 19 04 16

8 4 6 25 06 24

Square NegativeSNUN & SNGN

ANSI ISO

D T R L T R

3 2 1 09 03 04

3 2 2 09 03 08

4 2 1 12 03 04

4 2 2 12 03 08

4 2 3 12 03 12

5 3 2 15 04 08

5 3 3 15 04 12

6 3 2 19 04 08

6 3 3 19 04 12

6 3 4 19 04 16

Square PositiveSPUN & SPGN

Parallelogram

Negative

Square

Positive

51

Indexable Inserts � ANSI to ISO C O N V E R S I O N S

ANSI ISO

D T R L T R

2 2 2 11 03 08

3 2 1 16 03 04

3 2 2 16 03 08

3 2 3 16 03 12

4 3 2 22 04 08

4 3 3 22 04 12

4 3 4 22 04 16

5 4 3 27 06 12

5 4 4 27 06 16

6 6 6 33 09 24

Triangular NegativeTNMA, TNMM & TNMG

ANSI ISO

D T R L T R

2 2 1 11 03 04

2 2 2 11 03 08

3 2 1 16 03 04

3 2 2 16 03 08

3 2 3 16 03 12

4 3 2 22 04 08

4 3 3 22 04 12

4 3 4 22 04 16

Triangular PositiveTPUN & TPGN

Triangular

ANSI ISO

D T R L T R

2 2 1 11 03 04

2 2 2 11 03 08

3 2 1 16 03 04

3 2 2 16 03 08

3 2 3 16 03 12

3 2 4 16 03 16

3 3 2 16 04 08

3 3 3 16 04 12

3 3 4 16 04 16

4 3 2 22 04 08

4 3 3 22 04 12

4 3 4 22 04 16

Triangular NegativeTNUN & TNGN

Negative

Positive

52

CO

NV

ER

SIO

NS

Sp

an

ne

r &

So

ck

et

Siz

es

Thread SizeHead Size(Spanner Size,Across Flats)

Unified Standard ANSI B 18.2.1 - 1972

Normal HeavyNuts Bolts & Screws

Series Series

Inch mmDecimal Equivalent

Thread SizeHead Size (Spanner Size)(Across Flats)

mmBA

BSFEquivalent &BSW

0.152 3.86 8BA

0.172 4.37 7BA

0.193 4.90 6BA

0.220 5.59 5BA

0.248 6.30 4BA

0.256 6.50 1/16W

0.282 7.16 3BA

0.297 7.54 3/32W

0.324 8.23 2BA

0.340 8.64 1/8W (3/16)

0.365 9.27 1BA

0.413 10.49 0BA (7/32)

0.445 11.30 3/16W 1/4

0.525 13.34 1/4W 5/16

0.600 15.24 5/16W 3/8

5/32 0.1562 3.97

3/16 0.1875 4.76

7/32 0.2187 5.56

1/4 0.2500 6.35

9/32 0.2812 7.14 No. 10

5/16 0.3125 7.94

11/32 0.3438 8.73

3/8 0.3750 9.52

13/32 0.4062 10.32

7/16 0.4375 11.11 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4

1/2 0.5000 12.70 5/16 1/4 5/16 5/16 1/4

9/16 0.5625 14.29 3/8 5/16 3/8 3/8 5/16 5/16

19/32 0.5938 15.08

5/8 0.6250 15.88 7/16 7/16 3/8

11/16 0.6875 17.46 3/8 7/16 3/8

Hex Flat

Hex Flat Jam

Hex Jam

Hex Slotted

Hex Thick

Slotted HexCastle

HeavySquare

Heavy HexFlat

Heavy HexFlat Jam

Heavy Hex

Heavy HexJam

Heavy HexSlotted

Square

Nut

Head Size Thread Size(Spanner

Size,Across Flats)

M

4 2 2 & 2.2

4.5 2.3

5 2.5 2.5

5.5 3 3 3 & 3.5

6 3.5 3.5

7 4 4 4 & 4.5

8 5 5 5

9 5 Alt

10 6 6 6

11 7 7 7

12

13 8 8 8

14 8 Alt

15 10 KFZ

16

17 10 10 10

UN

Heavy HexBolt

Heavy HexScrew

HeavyStructural

Bolt

Square Bolt

Hex Bolt

Hex CapScrew

(FinishedHex Bolt)

Lag Screw

German(BRD)metric

accordingto DIN

and ISO

FranceN F E

27-311(69)

27-411(69)

SwedenS M S2164 -1967

2175 -1971

Metricfor DIN6914 -6915

BS

InchDecimalmm AF

53

Sp

an

ne

r &

So

ck

et

Siz

es

CO

NV

ER

SIO

NS




Series Series



mmBA

BSFEquivalent &BSW

BSW

0.710 18.03 3/8W 7/16

0.820 20.83 7/16W 1/2

0.920 23.37 1/2W 9/16

1.010 25.65 9/16W 5/8

1.100 27.94 5/8W ( 11/16)

1.200 30.48 11/16W 3/4

1.300 33.02 3/4W 7/8

1.390 35.31 13/16W ( 15/16)

1.480 37.59 7/8W 1.

3/4 0.7500 19.05 1/2 7/16 1/2 1/2 7/16 7/16

25/32 0.7812 19.8413/16 0.8125 20.64 9/16 9/16 1/2

7/8 0.8750 22.22 1/2 1/2 9/16 1/2

15/16 0.9375 23.81 5/8 5/8 5/8 9/16

1 1.0000 25.40 5/8

1.1/16 1.0625 26.99 5/8 5/8 5/8

1.1/8 1.1250 28.58 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4

1.3/16 1.1875 30.16

1.1/4 1.2500 31.75 3/4 3/4 3/4

1.5/16 1.3125 33.34 7/8 7/8 7/8

1.3/8 1.3750 34.92

1.7/16 1.4375 36.51 7/8 7/8 7/8

1.1/2 1.5000 38.10 1. 1. 1. 1.

1.5/8 1.6250 41.28 1. 1. 1.

Hex Flat

Hex Flat Jam

Hex Jam

Hex Slotted

Hex Thick

Slotted HexCastle

HeavySquare

Heavy HexFlat

Heavy HexFlat Jam

Heavy Hex

Heavy HexJam

Heavy HexSlotted

Square

Nut


Size,Across Flats)

M

18

19 12 12 12

20

21

22 14 14 14 12

23

24 16 16 16

25

26

27 18 18 18 16

28

18

30 20 20 20

32 22 22 22 20

36 24 24 24 22

38

41 27 27 27 24

UN

Heavy HexBolt

Heavy HexScrew

HeavyStructural

Bolt

Square Bolt

Hex Bolt

Hex CapScrew

(FinishedHex Bolt)

Lag Screw

German(BRD)metric

accordingto DIN

and ISO

FranceN F E

27-311(69)

27-411(69)


2175 -1971


BS

InchDecimalmm AF

54

CO

NV

ER

SIO

NS

Sp

an

ne

r &

So

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et

Siz

es




Series Series



mmBA

BSFEquivalent &BSW

BSW

111/16 1.6875 42.86 11/8 11/8 11/8 11/8

1.3/4 1.7500 44.45

4113/16 1.8125 46.04 11/8 11/8 11/8

17/8 1.8750 47.62 11/4 11/4 11/4 11/4

2 2.0000 50.80 11/4 11/4 11/4

21/16 2.0625 52.39 13/8 13/8 13/8 13/8

23/16 2.1875 55.56 13/8 13/8 13/8

21/4 2.2500 57.15 11/2 11/2 11/2 11/2

23/8 2.3750 60.32 11/2 11/2 11/2

27/16 2.4375 61.91 15/8

29/16 2.5625 65.09 15/8 15/8

25/8 2.6250 66.68 13/4 13/4

23/4 2.7500 69.85 13/4 13/4 13/4

213/16 2.8125 71.44 17/8

215/16 2.9375 74.61 17/8 17/8

3 3.0000 76.20 2 2

31/8 3.1250 79.38 2 2 2

33/8 3.3750 85.72 21/4 21/4

31/2 3.5000 88.90 21/4 21/4 21/4

Hex Flat

Hex Flat Jam

Hex Jam

Hex Slotted

Hex Thick

Slotted HexCastle

HeavySquare

Heavy HexFlat

Heavy HexFlat Jam

Heavy Hex

Heavy HexJam

Heavy HexSlotted

Square

Nut


Size,Across Flats)

M

46 30 30 30 27

50 33 33 33

55 36 36 36

60 39 39 39

65 42 42 42

70 45 45 45

75 48 48 48

80 52 52 52

85 56 56 56

90 60 60 60

UN

Heavy HexBolt

Heavy HexScrew

HeavyStructural

Bolt

Square Bolt

Hex Bolt

Hex CapScrew

(FinishedHex Bolt)

Lag Screw

German(BRD)metric

accordingto DIN

and ISO

FranceN F E

27-311(69)

27-411(69)


2175 -1971


BS

InchDecimalmm AF

1.670 42.42 1W 11/8

1.860 47.24 11/8W 11/4

2.050 52.07 11/4W 13/8

2.220 56.39 13/8W 11/2

2.410 61.21 11/2W 15/8

2.580 65.53 15/8W 13/4

2.760 70.10 13/4W 2

76.70 17/8W

3.150 80.01 2W 21/4

3.550 90.17 21/2

55

Sp

an

ne

r &

So

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Siz

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CO

NV

ER

SIO

NS




Series Series



mmBA

BSFEquivalent &BSW

3.890 98.81 23/4

4.180 106.17 3

4.530 115.06 31/4

4.850 123.19 31/2

5.180 131.57 33/4

5.550 140.97 4

6.380 162.05 41/2

33/4 3.7500 95.25 21/2 21/2

37/8 3.8750 98.42 21/2 21/2

41/8 4.1250 104.78 23/4 23/4

41/4 4.2500 107.95 23/4 2.3/4 23/4

41/2 4.5000 114.30 3. 3.

45/8 4.6250 117.48 3. 3. 3.

47/8 4.8750 123.82 31/4

5 5.0000 127.00 31/4

51/4 5.2500 133.35 31/2 31/2

53/8 5.3750 136.52 31/2

55/8 5.6250 142.88 33/4 33/4

53/4 5.7500 146.05 33/4

6 6.0000 152.40 4. 4.

61/8 6.1250 155.58 4.

Hex Flat

Hex Flat Jam

Hex Jam

Hex Slotted

Hex Thick

Slotted HexCastle

HeavySquare

Heavy HexFlat

Heavy HexFlat Jam

Heavy Hex

Heavy HexJam

Heavy HexSlotted

Square

Nut

UN

Heavy HexBolt

Heavy HexScrew

HeavyStructural

Bolt

Square Bolt

Hex Bolt

Hex CapScrew

(FinishedHex Bolt)

Lag Screw

BS

InchDecimalAF


Size,Across Flats)

M

95 64 64 64

100 68 68 68

105 72 72 72

110 76 76 76

115 80 80 80

120 85 85 85

125

130 90 90 90

135 95 95 95

140

145 100 100 100

150 105 105 105

155 110 110 110

160

165 115 115 115

170 120 120 120

German(BRD)metric

accordingto DIN

and ISO

FranceN F E

27-311(69)

27-411(69)


2175 -1971


mm

56

C O N V E R S I O N S Surface F in ish

There are various methods used to measure surface texture. The surfacefinish chart (below) shows the most common standards used, to enable acomparison to be made between one scale and another. The chart on thefacing page illustrates the range of surface finishes that may be expectedfrom the various manufacturing processes shown.

Metric Units Inch Units Number System Triangle System

µ m µ in

Peak to Centre Root Centre ISO RI302 GOST 2789 DIN 3141Valley & Line Mean Line10 Point Average Square Average Roughness Range NumberHeight Grade

Class

Rt Rz Ra Rs Ra NumberNumber 1 2 3 4

0.040 0.008 0.35 0.32 14 b0.050 0.010 0.44 0.40 14 a0.063 0.012 0.55 0.50 N0 13 c0.080 0.016 0.70 0.63 13 b0.100 0.020 0.89 0.80 13 a0.125 0.025 1.11 1.00 N1 12 c0.16 0.032 1.4 1.25 12 b0.20 0.040 1.8 1.6 12 a0.25 0.050 2.2 2.0 N2 11 c0.32 0.063 2.8 2.5 11 b0.40 0.080 3.5 3.2 11 a ▼▼▼▼

0.50 0.100 4.4 4.0 N3 10 c0.63 0.125 5.5 5.0 10 b0.80 0.16 7.0 6.3 10 a1.00 0.20 8.9 8.0 N4 9 c ▼▼▼▼ ▼▼▼▼

1.25 0.25 11.1 10.0 9 b1.6 0.32 14 12.5 9 a2.0 0.40 18 16 N5 8 c2.5 0.50 22 20 8 b ▼▼▼

3.2 0.63 28 25 8 a4.0 0.80 35 32 N6 7 c ▼▼▼

5.0 1.00 44 40 7 b6.3 1.25 55 50 7 a ▼▼▼

7.1 1.6 70 63 N7 6 c8.0 2.0 89 80 6 b

10.0 2.0 111 100 6 a ▼▼

12.5 3.2 140 125 N816 4.0 180 160 ▼▼▼ ▼▼

20 5.0 220 200 525 6.3 280 250 N9 ▼▼ ▼

32 8.0 350 32040 10.0 440 400 4 ▼▼

50 12.5 550 500 N1063 16 700 630 ▼

80 20 890 800 3100 25 1110 1000 N11 ▼

125 32 1400 1250160 40 1800 1600 2 ▼

200 50 2200 2000 N12250 63 2800 2500320 80 3500 3200 1400 100 4400 4000 N13

57

Surface Finish C O N V E R S I O N S

Process25 6.3 1.6 0.4 0.1 0.025

50 12.5 3.2 0.8 0.2 0.05 0.0125

Flame cutting

Snagging

Sawing

Planing, shaping

Drilling

Chemical milling

Electro-discharge machining

Milling

Broaching

Reaming

Boring, turning

Barrel finishing

Electrolytic grinding

Roller burnishing

Grinding

Honing

Polishing

Lapping

Superfinishing

Sandcasting

Hot rolling

Forging

Permanent mould casting

Investment casting

Extruding

Cold rolling, drawing

Die casting

Roughness Value Ra (µm)

Key:Common Application Uncommon Application

Metal Cutting

Metal Forming

58

C O N V E R S I O N S Tensile Strength

hbar N/mm2 tonf/in2 lbf/in2 kgf/mm2

41 410 26.55 59,450 41.81

42 420 27.19 60,900 42.83

43 430 27.84 62,350 43.85

44 440 28.49 63,800 44.87

45 450 29.14 65,250 45.89

46 460 29.78 66,700 46.91

47 470 30.43 68,150 47.93

48 480 31.08 69,600 48.95

49 490 31.73 71,050 49.97

50 500 32.37 72,500 50.99

51 510 33.02 73,950 52.00

52 520 33.67 75,400 53.02

53 530 34.32 76,850 54.04

54 540 34.96 78,300 55.06

55 550 35.61 79,750 56.08

56 560 36.26 81,200 57.10

57 570 36.91 82,650 58.12

58 580 37.55 84,100 59.14

59 590 38.20 85,550 60.16

60 600 38.85 87,000 61.18

61 610 39.50 88,450 62.20

62 620 40.14 89,900 63.22

63 630 40.79 91,350 64.24

64 640 41.44 92,800 65.26

65 650 42.09 94,250 66.28

66 660 42.74 95,700 67.30

67 670 43.38 97,150 68.32

68 680 44.02 98,600 69.34

69 690 44.68 100,050 70.36

70 700 45.32 101,500 71.38

71 710 45.97 103,000 72.40

72 720 46.62 104,400 73.42

73 730 47.27 105,900 74.44

74 740 47.91 107,300 75.46

75 750 48.56 108,800 76.48

76 760 49.21 110,200 77.50

77 770 49.86 111,700 78.52

78 780 50.50 113,100 79.54

79 790 51.15 114,600 80.56

80 800 51.80 116,000 81.58


1 10 0.647 1,450 1.02

2 20 1.295 2,900 2.04

3 30 1.942 4,350 3.06

4 40 2.590 5,800 4.08

5 50 3.237 7,250 5.10

6 60 3.885 8,700 6.12

7 70 4.532 10,150 7.14

8 80 5.180 11,600 8.16

9 90 5.827 13,050 9.18

10 100 6.475 14,500 10.20

11 110 7.122 15,950 11.22

12 120 7.770 17,400 12.24

13 130 8.417 18,850 13.26

14 140 9.065 20,300 14.28

15 150 9.712 21,750 15.30

16 160 10.360 23,200 16.32

17 170 11.010 24,650 17.33

18 180 11.650 26,100 18.35

19 190 12.300 27,550 19.37

20 200 12.950 29,000 20.39

21 210 13.600 30,450 21.41

22 220 14.240 31,900 22.43

23 230 14.890 33,350 23.45

24 240 15.540 34,800 24.47

25 250 16.190 36,250 25.49

26 260 16.830 37,700 26.51

27 270 17.480 39,150 27.53

28 280 18.130 40,600 28.55

29 290 18.780 42,050 29.57

30 300 19.420 43,500 30.59

31 310 20.070 44,950 31.61

32 320 20.720 46,400 32.63

33 330 21.370 47,850 33.65

34 340 22.010 49,300 34.67

35 350 22.660 50,750 35.69

36 360 23.310 52,200 36.71

37 370 23.960 53,650 37.73

38 380 24.600 55,100 38.75

39 390 25.250 56,550 39.77

40 400 25.900 58,000 40.79

59

Tensile Strength (continued) C O N V E R S I O N S


81 810 52.45 117,500 82.60

82 820 53.09 118,900 83.62

83 830 53.74 120,400 84.64

84 840 54.39 121,800 85.65

85 850 55.04 123,300 86.67

86 860 55.68 124,700 87.69

87 870 56.33 126,200 88.71

88 880 56.98 127,600 89.73

89 890 57.63 129,100 90.75

90 900 58.27 130,500 91.77

91 910 58.92 132,000 92.79

92 920 59.57 133,400 93.81

93 930 60.22 134,900 94.83

94 940 60.86 136,300 95.85

95 950 61.51 137,800 96.87

96 960 62.16 139,200 97.89

97 970 62.80 140,700 98.91

98 980 63.45 142,100 99.93

99 990 64.10 143,600 101.00

100 1000 64.75 145,000 102.00

101 1010 65.37 146,500 103.00

102 1020 66.04 147,900 104.00

103 1030 66.69 149,400 105.00

104 1040 67.34 150,800 106.00

105 1050 67.99 152,300 107.10

106 1060 68.63 153,700 108.10

107 1070 69.28 155,200 109.10

108 1080 69.93 156,600 110.10

109 1090 70.58 158,100 111.10

110 1100 71.22 159,500 112.20

111 1110 71.87 161,000 113.20

112 1120 72.52 162,400 114.20

113 1130 73.17 163,900 115.20

114 1140 73.81 165,300 116.20

115 1150 74.46 166,800 117.30

116 1160 75.11 168,200 118.30

117 1170 75.76 169,700 117.30

118 1180 76.40 171,100 120.30

119 1190 77.05 172,600 121.30

120 1200 77.70 174,000 122.40


121 1210 78.35 175,500 123.4

122 1220 78.99 176,900 124.4

123 1230 79.64 178,400 125.4

124 1240 80.29 179,800 126.4

125 1250 80.93 181,300 127.5

126 1260 81.58 182,800 128.5

127 1270 82.23 184,200 129.5

128 1280 82.88 185,700 130.5

129 1290 83.53 187,100 131.5

130 1300 84.17 186,600 132.6

131 1310 84.82 190,000 133.6

132 1320 85.47 191,500 134.6

133 1330 86.12 192,900 135.6

134 1340 86.76 194,400 136.6

135 1350 87.41 195,800 137.7

136 1360 88.06 197,300 138.7

137 1370 88.71 198,700 139.7

138 1380 89.35 200,200 140.7

139 1390 90.00 201,600 141.7

140 1400 90.65 203,100 142.8

141 1410 91.30 204,500 143.8

142 1420 91.94 206,000 144.8

143 1430 92.59 207,400 145.8

144 1440 93.24 208,900 146.8

145 1450 93.89 210,300 147.9

146 1460 94.53 211,800 148.9

147 1470 95.18 213,200 149.9

148 1480 95.83 214,700 150.9

149 1490 96.48 216,100 151.9

150 1500 97.12 217,600 153.0

151 1510 97.77 219,000 154.0

152 1520 98.42 220,500 155.0

153 1530 99.07 221,900 156.0

154 1540 99.71 223,400 157.0

155 1550 100.40 224,800 158.1

156 1560 101.00 226,300 159.1

157 1570 101.70 227,700 160.1

158 1580 102.30 229,200 161.1

159 1590 103.00 230,600 162.1

160 1600 103.60 232,100 163.2

60

C O N V E R S I O N S Tensile Strength (continued)


161 1610 104.2 233,500 164.2

162 1620 104.9 235,000 165.2

163 1630 105.5 236,400 166.2

164 1640 106.2 237,900 167.2

165 1650 106.8 239,300 168.3

166 1660 107.5 240,800 169.3

167 1670 108.1 242,200 170.3

168 1680 108.8 243,700 171.3

169 1690 109.4 245,100 172.3

170 1700 110.1 246,600 173.3

171 1710 110.7 248,000 174.4

172 1720 111.4 249,500 175.4

173 1730 112.0 250,900 176.4

174 1740 112.7 252,400 177.4

175 1750 113.3 253,800 178.4

176 1760 114.0 255,300 179.5

177 1770 114.6 256,700 180.5

178 1780 115.3 258,200 181.5

179 1790 115.9 259,600 182.5

180 1800 116.5 261,100 183.5

181 1810 117.2 262,500 184.6

182 1820 117.8 264,000 185.6

183 1830 118.5 265,400 186.6

184 1840 119.1 266,900 187.6

185 1850 119.8 268,300 188.6

186 1860 120.4 269,800 189.7

187 1870 121.1 271,200 190.7

188 1880 121.7 272,700 191.7

189 1890 122.4 274,100 192.7

190 1900 123.0 275,600 193.7

191 1910 123.7 277,000 194.8

192 1920 124.3 278,500 195.8

193 1930 125.0 279,900 196.8

194 1940 125.6 281,400 197.8

195 1950 126.3 282,800 198.8

196 1960 126.9 284,300 199.9

197 1970 127.6 285,700 200.9

198 1980 128.2 287,200 201.9

199 1990 128.9 288,600 202.9

200 2000 129.5 290,100 203.9


201 2010 130.1 291,500 205.0

202 2020 130.8 293,000 206.0

203 2030 131.4 294,400 207.0

204 2040 132.1 295,900 208.0

205 2050 132.7 297,300 209.0

206 2060 133.4 298,800 210.1

207 2070 134.0 300,200 211.1

208 2080 134.7 301,700 212.1

209 2090 135.3 303,100 213.1

210 2100 136.0 304,600 214.1

211 2110 136.6 306,000 215.2

212 2120 137.3 307,500 216.2

213 2130 137.9 308,900 217.2

214 2140 138.6 310,400 218.2

215 2150 139.2 311,800 219.2

216 2160 139.9 313,300 220.3

217 2170 140.5 314,700 221.3

218 2180 141.2 316,200 222.3

219 2190 141.8 317,600 223.3

220 2200 142.4 319,100 224.3

221 2210 143.1 320,500 225.4

222 2220 143.7 322,000 226.4

223 2230 144.4 323,400 227.4

224 2240 145.0 324,900 228.4

225 2250 145.7 326, 300 229.4

226 2260 146.3 327,800 230.5

227 2270 147.0 329,200 231.5

228 2280 147.6 330,700 232.5

229 2290 148.3 332,100 233.5

230 2300 148.9 333,600 234.5

231 2310 149.6 335,000 235.6

232 2320 150.2 336,500 236.6

233 2330 150.9 337,900 237.6

234 2340 151.5 339,400 238.6

235 2350 152.2 340,800 239.6

236 2360 152.8 342,300 240.6

237 2370 153.5 343,700 241.7

238 2380 154.1 345,200 242.7

239 2390 154.8 346,600 243.7

240 2400 155.4 348,100 244.7

61

Tensile Strength & Hardness C O N V E R S I O N S

Tensile Strength Conversions

N/mm2 To Kg/mm2 x 10.197Kg/mm2 To N/mm2 x .098068

N/mm2 To hbar x .1hbar To N/mm2 x 10.

N/mm2 To lbf/in2 x .000145lbf/in2 To N/mm2 x 6896.55

N/mm2 To Ton f/in x .064749Ton f/in To N/mm2 x 15.444

Tensile HardnessStrength

Newtonsper Tons per Brinell Rockwell

Vickers ShoreSq.mm Square HB (“B”)

(N/mm2) Inch “C”

415 27 124 (71.2) 130450 29 133 (75.0) 140480 31 143 (78.7) 150

510 33 152 (81.7) 160545 35 162 (85.0) 170575 37 171 (87.1) 180 30

610 39 181 (89.5) 190 31.5640 41 190 (91.5) 200 33675 43 199 (93.5) 210 33.5

705 45 209 (95.0) 220 35.5740 47 219 (96.7) 230 37770 49 228 (98.1) 240 39

800 51 238 (99.5) 250 40835 53 247 24.0 260 42865 55 257 25.6 270 43

900 57 266 27.1 280 44.5930 60 276 28.5 290 45.5965 62 285 29.8 300 46.5

995 64 295 31.0 310 481030 66 304 32.2 320 491060 68 314 33.3 330 49.5

1095 71 323 34.4 340 501125 73 333 35.5 350 521155 75 342 36.6 360 53

1190 77 352 37.7 370 53.51220 80 361 38.8 380 54.51255 82 371 39.8 390 55

1290 84 380 40.8 400 56.51320 86 390 41.8 410 57.51350 88 399 42.7 420 58

1385 90 409 43.6 430 591420 92 418 44.5 440 60.51455 94 428 45.3 450 61

1485 96 437 46.1 460 62.51520 98 447 46.9 470 63

Tensile HardnessStrength

Newtonsper Tons per Brinell Rockwell

Vickers ShoreSq.mm Square HB (“B”)

(N/mm2) Inch “C”

1555 100 47.7 480 641595 102 48.4 490 651630 104 49.1 500 66

1665 107 49.8 510 66.51700 109 50.5 520 671740 112 51.1 530 68

1775 115 51.7 540 691810 117 52.3 550 701845 119 53.0 560 71

1880 121 53.6 570 721920 121 54.1 580 741955 126 54.7 590 75

1995 129 55.2 600 75.52030 131 55.7 610 76.52070 134 56.3 620 77

2105 136 56.8 630 78.52145 138 57.3 640 792180 141 57.8 650 80

58.3 660 8158.8 670 81.559.2 680 82.5

59.7 690 8360.1 700 8461.0 720 85.5

61.8 740 8762.5 760 8863.3 780 89.25

64.0 800 90.564.7 820 91.565.3 840 93

65.9 860 93.566.4 880 94.567.0 900 95.5

67.5 920 9668.0 940 97

62

C O N V E R S I O N S Weights & Measures

To Convert Multiply

From Imperial To Metric By°F °C °C=(°F -32) x 5/9°F °K °K=°C + 271.3ft mtr 0.3048ft2 mtr2 0.092903ft3 mtr3 0.028317ft-lbs kg-m 0.13826ft-tons tonne-mtr 0.3097gal ltr 4.54609gal/ft2 ltr/m2 48.905grains/gal gm/ltr 0.01425hp kw 0.7457in mm 25.40in2 cm2 6.4516in2 mm2 645.16in3 cm3 (cc) 16.3871in-tons kg-m 25.8lb kg 0.45360lb/ft kg/m 1.488lb/ft2 kg/m2 4.883lb/ft3 kg/m3 15.020lb/gall kg/ltr 0.09983lb/in2 (PSI) kg/cm2 0.07037lb/in2 (PSI) kg/mm2 0.0007037lb/in2 (PSI) kg/mtr2 703.7lb/mile kg/km 0.2818lb/yd kg/m 0.496lb/yd3 kg/m3 0.5933nautical mile km 1.8532miles km 1.60934miles2 km2 2.58999oz g 28.3495pt ltr 0.568261tons tonnes (1000kg) 1.01605tons/ft kg/m 3333.33tons/ft2 tonnes/m2 10.936tons/in2 kg/mm2 1.575tons/in2 n/mm2 15.444tons/yd kg/m 1111.11tons/yd2 tonnes/m2 1.215tons/yd3 tonnes/m3 1.329yd mtr 0.9144yd2 mtr2 0.836127yd3 mtr3 0.764555

C = Centigrade

F = Fahrenheit

ft = Feet

g = Gram

gal = UK Gallonhp = Horse Power

in = Inch

K = Kelvin

kg = Kilogram

km = Kilometre

Kw = Kilowattl = Litre

lb = Pound

mm = Millimetre

mtr = Metre

oz = Ounce

pt = UK Pintyd = Yard

63

Weights & Measures C O N V E R S I O N S

To Convert Multiply

From Metric To Imperial By

°C °F °F=(°Cx9/5)+32

°K °F °F=(°K-271.3)x1.8+32cm2 in2 0.155cm3 (cc) in3 0.06102g oz 0.035274gm/ltr grains/gal 70.156kg lb 2.2046kg/cm2 lb/in2 (PSI) 14.223kg/km lb/mile 3.548kg/ltr lb/gal 10.022kg/m lb/ft 0.672kg/m lb/yd 2.016kg/m tons/ft 0.0003kg/m tons/yd 0.0009kg/m2 lb/ft2 0.2048kg/m3 lb/ft3 0.0624kg/m3 lb/yd3 1.686kg/mm2 lb/in2 (PSI) 1421.06kg/mm2 tons/in2 0.635kg/mtr2 lb/in2 (PSI) 0.00142kg-m in-tons 0.03875kg-m ft-lbs 7.233km nautical miles 0.5396 km miles 0.62137km2 miles2 0.38610kw hp 1.341ltr gal 0.21997ltr pt 1.75975ltr/m2 gall/ft2 0.0204mm in 0.03937mm2 in2 0.00155mtr yd 1.09361mtr ft 3.28084mtr2 yd2 1.19599mtr2 ft2 10.76391mtr3 yd3 1.30795mtr3 ft3 35.31467N/mm2 tons/in2 0.06475tonne-m ft-tons 3.229tonnes (1000kg) tons 0.9842tonnes/m2 tons/ft2 0.0914tonnes/m2 tons/yd2 0.823tonnes/m3 tons/yd3 0.752

C = CentigradeF = Fahrenheitft = Feetg = Gramgal = UK Gallonhp = Horse Power

in = InchK = Kelvinkg = Kilogramkm = Kilometre Kw = Kilowattl = Litre

lb = Poundmm = Millimetremtr = Metreoz = Ouncept = UK Pintyd = Yard

64

C O N V E R S I O N S Weights & Measures

Metric Weight10 Milligrams ................1 Centigram

10 Centigrams..............1 Decigram

10 Decigrams................1 Gram

10 Grams ........................1 Decagram

10 Decagram.................1 Hectogram

10 Hectograms.............1 Kilogram

10 Kilograms.................1 Myriagram

Metric Surface Area1 sqmtr .............................1 Centiare

10 Centiares..................1 Deciare

10 Deciares....................1 Are

10 Ares .............................1 Dekare

10 Dekares.....................1 Hectare

100 Hectares ................1 Sq. km

Metric Length10 Millimetres.................1 Centimetre

10 Centimetres ..............1 Decimetre

10 Decimetres................1 Metre

10 Meters..........................1 Decametre

10 Decametres ..............1 Hectometre

10 Hectometres ..............1 Kilometre

10 Kilometres .................1 Myriametre

1 Metre ............................1.094 Yds, 39.371in

Metric Capacity

10 Millilitres .....................1 Centilitre

10 Centilitres...................1 Decilitre

10 Decilitres ....................1 Litre

10 Litres.............................1 Decalitre

10 Decalitres...................1 Hectolitre

10 Hectolitres .................1 Kilolitre

Imperial Weight (Avoirdupois)16 Drams..........................1 Ounce

(4371/2 Grains Troy)16 Ounces........................1 Pound (lb)

1(7000 Grains Troy)14 Pounds........................1 Stone28 Pounds........................1 Quarter 100 Pounds.....................1 Cental4 Quarters ........................1 Hundredweight (cwt)

(112 LBS)2000 Pounds ..................1 Short Ton 20 cwt.................................1 Ton (2240lbs)

Avoirdupois pounds are greater than Troy in theproportion of 17 to 14 approx; Troy ounces are greaterthan Avoirdupois in the proportion of 79 to 72 approx.Troy Weight

24 Grains..........................1 Pennyweight20 Pennyweight..............1 Ounce (480 Grains)12 Ounces........................1 lb (5760 Grains)

Diamonds and Pearls are weighed by Carats, of 4grains each (equal to 3.2 Troy grains). The Troy ounceis equal to 150 Diamond Carats. Gold, when pure, is24 Carats fine; if it contains one part alloy it is said tobe 23 Carats, and so on.Apothecaries’ WeightUsed for Dispensing Drugs, etc.

20 Grains..............................1 Scruple 3 Scruples............................1 Dram8 Drams ................................1 Ounce 12 Ounces ...........................1 Pound

Apothecaries’ Fluid Measure60 Minims............................1 Dram8 Drams ................................1 Ounce20 Ounces ...........................1 Pint8 Pints....................................1 Gallon

Imperial CapacityUsed for Liquids and Dry Goods

4 Gills.....................................1 Pint2 Pints....................................1 Quart4 Quarts ................................1 Gallon2 Gallons ..............................1 Peck4 Pecks..................................1 Bushel8 Bushels .............................1 Quarter5 Quarters ............................1 Load36 Bushels ..........................1 Chaldron

A bushel of wheat on an average weighs 60lbs; ofbarley, 47 lbs; of oats, 40 lbs. The gallon contains10lbs avoirdupois of distilled water.Imperial Length

3 Barleycorns ..................1 Inch3 Inches.............................1 Palm

4 Inches...............................1 Hand

7.92 Inches........................1 Link

9 Inches...............................1 Span

12 Inches............................1 Foot

18 Inches............................1 Cubit

30 Inches............................1 Pace

3 Feet ...................................1 Yard

37.2 Inches........................1 Scottish Ell

45 Inches............................1 English Ell

5 Feet ...................................1 Geometrical Pace

6 Feet ...................................1 Fathom

51/2 Yards............................1 Pole

4 Poles.................................1 Chain

100 Links............................1 Chain

10 Chains ...........................1 Furlong

220 Yards...........................1 Furlong

608 Feet..............................1 Cable

8 Furlongs...........................1 Mile (land)

10 Cables ...........................1 Nautical Mile

1 Nautical Mile..................1.1515 land Miles

1 Knot...................................1 Nautical Mile

3 Miles (land) ....................1 League

Decimal Capacity Pints ..............Gallon Cub.Ft. ................Litres

1......................0.125 0.0200 ...............0.568

8......................1.000 0.1604 ...............4.544

16...................2.000 0.3208 ...............9.082

Imperial Surface Area144 Sq. inches.....................1 Sq. foot

9 Sq. feet ...............................1 Sq. yard

301/4 Sq. yards.....................1 Sq. pole

40 Sq. poles.........................1 Rood

4 Roods ..................................1 Acre

640 Acres ..............................1 Square mile

7.92 inches is equal to one hundredth of a “Gunter’s

Chain” (22 yards) which is (was) commonly used by

surveyors. An “Engineer’s link” is equal to 12 inches

and a chain is therefore 331/3 yards (100feet)

Imperial Cubic Capacity1728CubicInches...............1 Cubic Foot

27 Cubic Feet.......................1 Cubic Yard

5 Cubic Feet..........................1 Barrel Bulk

40 Cubic Feet.......................1 Ton Shipping

40 Cubic Feet.......................1 Load Hard Timber

50 Cubic Feet.......................1 Load Foreign Fir

D A T A

DA

TA

65

Average Adult Dimensions 66 - 67

Cutting Formulae & Abbreviations 68

Jig Boring Coordinates 69

Sines & Cosines 70 - 71

Tangents & Cotangents 72 - 73

Trigonometry Formulae 74

Section

4

66

D A T A Average Adult Dimensions

Dimensions are based on the average adult figure. Easier loading andunloading, wider clearances and ease of handling are assured when utilisingthese proportions in your design.

460

155

230

815

610

180

240

1750

455

180

180

180

865

100

460

765

765

300

235

280

1100

1370

2135

280

100

100

660

380280

180

285

740

920

890

635

765

455

180

100

1525

67

Average Adult Dimensions D A T A

610

330280

230

285

740

920 455

180 200

635

890

1525

560

1095

920

255

100

1070

1905

180

765

535

355

920

2135

1370

1145

1830

460

68

D A T A Cutting Formulae & Abbreviations

Cutting FormulaeRevs/Min (n) = Cutting Speed (v) x 1000mm

π x Diameter (φ)Cutting Speed (v) = Revs/Min (n) x π x Diameter (φ)M/Min 1000mm

Table Feed (u) = Revs/Min (n) x No. of Teeth (z) x Feed Tooth (Sz)mm/Min

Feed/Rev (sn) = No. of Teeth (z) x Feed/Tooth (sz)mm

or Table Feed (u) mm/MinRevs/Min (n)

Feed/Tooth (sz) = Feed/Rev (sn) mmNo of Teeth (z)

or Table Feed (u) mm/MinRevs/Min (n) x No. of Teeth (z)

Time Taken (Tt) Mins = Distance Travelled/Revs/Min (n)Feed/Rev (sn)

.

a Depth of Cut

aa Axial-Depth of Cut

ar Radial Depth of Cut

BWidth/Depth

b

D Diameter - Primary (Cutting)

dDiameter - Secondary

d, etc.

D h6 Diameter with Specified

d h6 Tolerance (Shank)

EB Width of Cut (Grooving)

ET Depth of Cut (Grooving)

f Offset Cutting Width

HHeight

h

K Offset Cutting Line

L Length - Primary (Overall)

lLength - Secondary

l1 etc.

M Groove Width

n No. of Revolutions/Minute

PM Boring Depth

Abbreviations Standard

or Symbol Meaning

R Radius

s1 Width of Cut

sn Feed per Rev

szFeed per Tooth

tSFPM Speed, Surface Feet per

Minute (see also v cutting speed)

T Thickness

Tt Time Taken

TPI Threads/Teeth per Inch

u Feed per Minute

vCutting Speed Meters/Minute

vf

W Width of Cut

X Head Length

Z Number of Teeth

α

Rake Angleβγλ Angle of Inclination

φ Diameter

π 3.14159 (approx. 22/7)

Abbreviations Standard

or Symbol Meaning

Annotational Abbreviations

69

Jig Boring Coordinates D A T A

3 HoleA = 0.25000B = 0.43301C = 0.86603

5 HoleA = 0.18164B = 0.55902C = 0.40451D = 0.29389

8 HoleA = 0.27059B = 0.27059C = 0.46194D = 0.19134

6 HoleA = 0.43301B = 0.25000C = 0.50000

8 HoleA = 0.35355B = 0.14645

7 HoleA = 0.27052B = 0.33922C = 0.45049D = 0.21694E = 0.31175F = 0.39092

10 HoleA = 0.29389B = 0.09549C = 0.18164D = 0.25000E = 0.15451

12 HoleA = 0.22415B = 0.12941C = 0.48296D = 0.12941E = 0.25882

9 HoleA = 0.46985B = 0.17101C = 0.26201D = 0.21985E = 0.38302F = 0.32139G = 0.17101H = 0.29620

11 HoleA = 0.47975B = 0.14087C = 0.23700D = 0.15231E = 0.11704F = 0.25627G = 0.42063H = 0.27032K = 0.18449L = 0.21291

B

B

B

B

B

F

G

B

A

A

A

A

A A

A

A

A

GL

F

EC

D

D

E

C

B

B

H

K

B

A

B

C

D

E

F

C

C

D

C

C

C

C

D

D

D

E

E

H

The constants in the table are multiplied by the diameter of the bolthole pitchcircle to obtain the longitudinal and lateral adjustments of the right-angle slidesof the jig borer, when boring equally spaced holes. Holes can be located byright-angular measurements, or an auxiliary rotary table which is more direct. Arotary table enables holes to be spaced by precise angular movements afteradjustments to the required radius.

A

B

70

D A T A Sines & Cosines

SINE Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree)

Degrees 0’ 10’ 20’ 30’ 40’ 50’ 60’

0 0 .002909 .005818 .008727 .011635 .014544 .017452 89

1 .017452 .020361 .023269 .026177 .029085 .031992 .034899 88

2 .034899 .037806 .040713 .043619 .046525 .049431 .052336 87

3 .052336 .055241 .058145 .061049 .063952 .066854 .069756 86

4 .069756 .072658 .075559 .078459 .081359 .084258 .087156 85

5 .087156 .090053 .092950 .095846 .098741 .101635 .104528 84

6 .104528 .107421 .110313 .113203 .116093 .118982 .121869 83

7 .121869 .124756 .127642 .130526 .133410 .136292 .139173 82

8 .139173 .142053 .144932 .147809 .150686 .153561 .156434 81

9 .156434 .159307 .162178 .165048 .167916 .170783 .173648 80

10 .173648 .176512 .179375 .182236 .185095 .187953 .190809 79

11 .190809 .193664 .196517 .199368 .202218 .205065 .207912 78

12 .207912 .210756 .213599 .216440 .219279 .222116 .224951 77

13 .224951 .227784 .230616 .233445 .236273 .239098 .241922 76

14 .241922 .244743 .247563 .250380 .253195 .256008 .258819 75

15 .258819 .261628 .264434 .267238 .270040 .272840 .275637 74

16 .275637 .278432 .281225 .284015 .286803 .289589 .292372 73

17 .292372 .295152 .297930 .300706 .303479 .306249 .309017 72

18 .309017 .311782 .314545 .317305 .320062 .322816 .325568 71

19 .325568 .328317 .331063 .333807 .336547 .339285 .342020 70

20 .342020 .344752 .347481 .350207 .352931 .355651 .358368 69

21 .358368 .361082 .363793 .366501 .369206 .371908 .374607 68

22 .374607 .377302 .379994 .382683 .385369 .388052 .390731 67

23 .390731 .393407 .396080 .398749 .401415 .404078 .406737 66

24 .406737 .409392 .412045 .414693 .417338 .419980 .422618 65

25 .422618 .425253 .427884 .430511 .433135 .435755 .438371 64

26 .438371 .440984 .443593 .446198 .448799 .451397 .453990 63

27 .453990 .456580 .459166 .461749 .464327 .466901 .469472 62

28 .469472 .472038 .474600 .477159 .479713 .482263 .484810 61

29 .484810 .487352 .489890 .492424 .494953 .497479 .500000 60

30 .500000 .502517 .505030 .507538 .510043 .512543 .515038 59

31 .515038 .517529 .520016 .522499 .524977 .527450 .529919 58

32 .529919 .532384 .534844 .537300 .539751 .542197 .544639 57

33 .544639 .547076 .549509 .551937 .554360 .556779 .559193 56

34 .559193 .561602 .564007 .566406 .568801 .571191 .573576 55

35 .573576 .575957 .578332 .580703 .583069 .585429 .587785 54

36 .587785 .590136 .592482 .594823 .597159 .599489 .601815 53

37 .601815 .604136 .606451 .608761 .611067 .613367 .615661 52

38 .615661 .617951 .620235 .622515 .624789 .627057 .629320 51

39 .629320 .631578 .633831 .636078 .638320 .640557 .642788 50

40 .642788 .645013 .647233 .649448 .651657 .653861 .656059 49

41 .656059 .658252 .660439 .662620 .664796 .666966 .669131 48

42 .669131 .671289 .673443 .675590 .677732 .679868 .681998 47

43 .681998 .684123 .686242 .688355 .690462 .692563 .694658 46

44 .694658 .696748 .698832 .700909 .702981 .705047 .707107 45

60’ 50’ 40’ 30’ 20’ 10’ 0’ Degrees

Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) COSINE

71

Sines & Cosines D A T A

SINE Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree)Degrees 0’ 10’ 20’ 30’ 40’ 50’ 60’

45 .707107 .709161 .711209 .713250 .715286 .717316 .719340 44

46 .719340 .721357 .723369 .725374 .727374 .729367 .731354 43

47 .731354 .733334 .735309 .737277 .739239 .741195 .743145 42

48 .743145 .745088 .747025 .748956 .750880 .752798 .754710 41

49 .754710 .756615 .758514 .760406 .762292 .764171 .766044 40

50 .766044 .767911 .769771 .771625 .773472 .775312 .777146 39

51 .777146 .778973 .780794 .782608 .784416 .786217 .788011 38

52 .788011 .789798 .791579 .793353 .795121 .796882 .798636 37

53 .798636 .800383 .802123 .803857 .805584 .807304 .809017 36

54 .809017 .810723 .812423 .814116 .815801 .817480 .819152 35

55 .819152 .820817 .822475 .824126 .825770 .827407 .829038 34

56 .829038 .830661 .832277 .833886 .835488 .837083 .838671 33

57 .838671 .840251 .841825 .843391 .844951 .846503 .848048 32

58 .848048 .849586 .851117 .852640 .854156 .855665 .857167 31

59 .857167 .858662 .860149 .861629 .863102 .864567 .866025 30

60 .866025 .867476 .868920 .870356 .871784 .873206 .874620 29

61 .874620 .876026 .877425 .878817 .880201 .881578 .882948 28

62 .882948 .884309 .885664 .887011 .888350 .889682 .891007 27

63 .891007 .892323 .893633 .894934 .896229 .897515 .898794 26

64 .898794 .900065 .901329 .902585 .903834 .905075 .906308 25

65 .906308 .907533 .908751 .909961 .911164 .912358 .913545 24

66 .913545 .914725 .915896 .917060 .918216 .919364 .920505 23

67 .920505 .921638 .922762 .923880 .924989 .926090 .927184 22

68 .927184 .928270 .929348 .930418 .931480 .932534 .933580 21

69 .933580 .934619 .935650 .936672 .937687 .938694 .939693 20

70 .939693 .940684 .941666 .942641 .943609 .944568 .945519 19

71 .945519 .946462 .947397 .948324 .949243 .950154 .951057 18

72 .951057 .951951 .952838 .953717 .954588 .955450 .956305 17

73 .956305 .957151 .957990 .958820 .959642 .960456 .961262 16

74 .961262 .962059 .962849 .963630 .964404 .965169 .965926 15

75 .965926 .966675 .967415 .968148 .968872 .969588 .970296 14

76 .970296 .970995 .971687 .972370 .973045 .973712 .974370 13

77 .974370 .975020 .975662 .976296 .976921 .977539 .978148 12

78 .978148 .978748 .979341 .979925 .980500 .981068 .981627 11

79 .981627 .982178 .982721 .983255 .983781 .984298 .984808 10

80 .984808 .985309 .985801 .986286 .986762 .987229 .987688 9

81 .987688 .988139 .988582 .989016 .989442 .989859 .990268 8

82 .990268 .990669 .991061 .991445 .991820 .992187 .992546 7

83 .992546 .992896 .993238 .993572 .993897 .994214 .994522 6

84 .994522 .994822 .995113 .995396 .995671 .995937 .996195 5

85 .996195 .996444 .996685 .996917 .997141 .997357 .997564 4

86 .997564 .997763 .997953 .998135 .998308 .998473 .998630 3

87 .998630 .998778 .998917 .999048 .999171 .999285 .999391 2

88 .999391 .999488 .999577 .999657 .999729 .999793 .999848 1

89 .999848 .999894 .999932 .999962 .999983 .999996 1 060’ 50’ 40’ 30’ 20’ 10’ 0’ Degrees

Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) COSINE

72

D A T A Tangents & Cotangents

TAN Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree)Degrees 0’ 10’ 20’ 30’ 40’ 50’ 60’

0 0 .002909 .005818 .008727 .011636 .014545 .017455 891 .017455 .020365 .023275 .026186 .029097 .032009 .034921 88

2 .034921 .037834 .040747 .043661 .046576 .049491 .052408 87

3 .052408 .055325 .058243 .061163 .064083 .067004 .069927 86

4 .069927 .072851 .075775 .078702 .081629 .084558 .087489 85

5 .087489 .090421 .093354 .096289 .099226 .102164 .105104 84

6 .105104 .108046 .110990 .113936 .116883 .119833 .122785 83

7 .122785 .125738 .128694 .131652 .134613 .137576 .140541 82

8 .140541 .143508 .146478 .149451 .152426 .155404 .158384 81

9 .158384 .161368 .164354 .167343 .170334 .173329 .176327 80

10 .176327 .179328 .182332 .185339 .188349 .191363 .194380 79

11 .194380 .197401 .200425 .203452 .206483 .209518 .212557 78

12 .212557 .215599 .218645 .221695 .224748 .227806 .230868 77

13 .230868 .233934 .237004 .240079 .243157 .246241 .249328 76

14 .249328 .252420 .255516 .258618 .261723 .264834 .267949 75

15 .267949 .271069 .274194 .277325 .280460 .283600 .286745 74

16 .286745 .289896 .293052 .296213 .299380 .302553 .305731 73

17 .305731 .308914 .312104 .315299 .318500 .321707 .324920 72

18 .324920 .328139 .331364 .334595 .337833 .341077 .344328 71

19 .344328 .347585 .350848 .354119 .357396 .360679 .363970 70

20 .363970 .367268 .370573 .373885 .377204 .380530 .383864 69

21 .383864 .387205 .390554 .393910 .397275 .400646 .404026 68

22 .404026 .407414 .410810 .414214 .417626 .421046 .424475 67

23 .424475 .427912 .431358 .434812 .438276 .441748 .445229 66

24 .445229 .448719 .452218 .455726 .459244 .462771 .466308 65

25 .466308 .469854 .473410 .476976 .480551 .484137 .487733 64

26 .487733 .491339 .494955 .498582 .502219 .505867 .509525 63

27 .509525 .513195 .516875 .520567 .524270 .527984 .531709 62

28 .531709 .535446 .539195 .542956 .546728 .550513 .554309 61

29 .554309 .558118 .561939 .565773 .569619 .573478 .577350 60

30 .577350 .581235 .585134 .589045 .592970 .596908 .600861 59

31 .600861 .604827 .608807 .612801 .616809 .620832 .624869 58

32 .624869 .628921 .632988 .637070 .641167 .645280 .649408 57

33 .649408 .653551 .657710 .661886 .666077 .670284 .674509 56

34 .674509 .678749 .683007 .687281 .691572 .695881 .700208 55

35 .700208 .704551 .708913 .713293 .717691 .722108 .726543 54

36 .726543 .730996 .735469 .739961 .744472 .749003 .753554 53

37 .753554 .758125 .762716 .767327 .771959 .776612 .781286 52

38 .781286 .785981 .790697 .795436 .800196 .804979 .809784 51

39 .809784 .814612 .819463 .824336 .829234 .834155 .839100 50

40 .839100 .844069 .849062 .854081 .859124 .864193 .869287 49

41 .869287 .874407 .879553 .884725 .889924 .895151 .900404 48

42 .900404 .905685 .910994 .916331 .921697 .927091 .932515 47

43 .932515 .937968 .943451 .948965 .954508 .960083 .965689 46

44 .965689 .971326 .976996 .982697 .988432 .994199 1 45

60’ 50’ 40’ 30’ 20’ 10’ 0’ Degrees

Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) COTAN

73

Tangents & Cotangents D A T A

TAN Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree)Degrees 0’ 10’ 20’ 30’ 40’ 50’ 60’

45 1 1.00583 1.01170 1.01761 1.02355 1.02952 1.03553 44

46 1.03553 1.04158 1.04766 1.05378 1.05994 1.06613 1.07237 43

47 1.07237 1.07864 1.08496 1.09131 1.09770 1.10414 1.11061 42

48 1.11061 1.11713 1.12369 1.13029 1.13694 1.14363 1.15037 41

49 1.15037 1.15715 1.16398 1.17085 1.17777 1.18474 1.19175 40

50 1.19175 1.19882 1.20593 1.21310 1.22031 1.22758 1.23490 39

51 1.23490 1.24227 1.24969 1.25717 1.26471 1.27230 1.27994 38

52 1.27994 1.28764 1.29541 1.30323 1.31110 1.31904 1.32704 37

53 1.32704 1.33511 1.34323 1.35142 1.35968 1.36800 1.37638 36

54 1.37638 1.38484 1.39336 1.40195 1.41061 1.41934 1.42815 35

55 1.42815 1.43703 1.44598 1.45501 1.46411 1.47330 1.48256 34

56 1.48256 1.49190 1.50133 1.51084 1.52043 1.53010 1.53986 33

57 1.53986 1.54972 1.55966 1.56969 1.57981 1.59002 1.60033 32

58 1.60033 1.61074 1.62125 1.63185 1.64256 1.65337 1.66428 31

59 1.66428 1.67530 1.68643 1.69766 1.70901 1.72047 1.73205 30

60 1.73205 1.74375 1.75556 1.76749 1.77955 1.79174 1.80405 29

61 1.80405 1.81649 1.82906 1.84177 1.85462 1.86760 1.88073 28

62 1.88073 1.89400 1.90741 1.92098 1.93470 1.94858 1.96261 27

63 1.96261 1.97681 1.99116 2.00569 2.02039 2.03526 2.05030 26

64 2.05030 2.06553 2.08094 2.09654 2.11233 2.12832 2.14451 25

65 2.14451 2.16090 2.17749 2.19430 2.21132 2.22857 2.24604 24

66 2.24604 2.26374 2.28167 2.29984 2.31826 2.33693 2.35585 23

67 2.35585 2.37504 2.39449 2.41421 2.43422 2.45451 2.47509 22

68 2.47509 2.49597 2.51715 2.53865 2.56046 2.58261 2.60509 21

69 2.60509 2.62791 2.65109 2.67462 2.69853 2.72281 2.74748 20

70 2.74748 2.77254 2.79802 2.82391 2.85023 2.87700 2.90421 19

71 2.90421 2.93189 2.96004 2.98868 3.01783 3.04749 3.07768 18

72 3.07768 3.10842 3.13972 3.17159 3.20406 3.23714 3.27085 17

73 3.27085 3.30521 3.34023 3.37594 3.41236 3.44951 3.48741 16

74 3.48741 3.52609 3.56557 3.60588 3.64705 3.68909 3.73205 15

75 3.73205 3.77595 3.82083 3.86671 3.91364 3.96165 4.01078 14

76 4.01078 4.06107 4.11256 4.16530 4.21933 4.27471 4.33148 13

77 4.33148 4.38969 4.44942 4.51071 4.57363 4.63825 4.70463 12

78 4.70463 4.77286 4.84300 4.91516 4.98940 5.06584 5.14455 11

79 5.14455 5.22566 5.30928 5.39552 5.48451 5.57638 5.67128 10

80 5.67128 5.76937 5.87080 5.97576 6.08444 6.19703 6.31375 9

81 6.31375 6.43484 6.56055 6.69116 6.82694 6.96823 7.11537 8

82 7.11537 7.26873 7.42871 7.59575 7.77035 7.95302 8.14435 7

83 8.14435 8.34496 8.55555 8.77689 9.00983 9.25530 9.51436 6

84 9.51436 9.78817 10.0780 10.3854 10.7119 11.0594 11.4301 5

85 11.4301 11.8262 12.2505 12.7062 13.1969 13.7267 14.3007 4

86 14.3007 14.9244 15.6048 16.3499 17.1693 18.0750 19.0811 3

87 19.0811 20.2056 21.4704 22.9038 24.5418 26.4316 28.6363 2

88 28.6363 31.2416 34.3678 38.1885 42.9641 49.1039 57.2900 1

89 57.2900 68.7501 85.9398 114.589 171.885 343.774 ∞ 0

60’ 50’ 40’ 30’ 20’ 10’ 0’ Degrees

Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) COTAN

74

D A T A Tr igonometry Formulae

Solution of Oblique Triangles

TAN B = bc

SINE B = ba

COS B = ca

a = Hypotenuseb = Perpendicularc = Base

COTAN B = cb

COSEC B = ab

SEC B = ac

Data Known

Solution of Right Angled Triangles

One Side& TwoAngles

All ThreeSides

Data Known Solution

Sides a & b c = a2 - b2 SIN B = b C = 90° - Ba

Sides a & c b = a2 - c2 SIN C = c B = 90° - Ca

Sides b & c a = b2 + c2 TAN B = b C = 90° - Bc

Side a & b = a x SIN B c = a x COS B C = 90° - BAngle B

Side a & b = a x COS C c = a x SIN C B = 90° - CAngle C

Side b & a = b c = b x COT B C = 90° - BAngle B SIN B

Side b & a = b c = b x TAN C B = 90° - CAngle C COS C

Side c & a = c b = c x TAN B C = 90° - BAngle B COS B

Side c & a = c b = c x COT C B = 90° - CAngle C SIN C

b

a

c

c

a

C

C

A

A

B

B

b

c

a

C

A

B

b

c

a

C

A

B

b

Two Sides &the IncludedAngle

Two Sides &the OppositeAngle

Solution

Call the known side a, the angle opposite it A, andthe other known angle B.

C = 180°° - (A + B) Area = a x b x SIN C2

b = a x SIN B c = a x SIN CSIN A SIN A

Call the known side a and b, and the known anglebetween them C.

B = 180°° - (A + C) Tan A = a x SIN Cb - (a x COS C)

c = a x SIN C Area = a x b x SIN CSIN A 2

Side c can also be found by:

c = a2 + b2 - (2ab x COS C)

Call the known angle A, the side opposite it a, andthe other known side b.

C = 180°° - (A + B) SIN B = b x SIN Aa

c = a x SIN C Area = a x b x SIN CSIN A 2

Call the sides a, b and c, and the angles oppositethem, A, B and C.

C = 180°° - (A + B) COS A = b2 + c2 - a2

2bc

SIN B = b x SIN A Area = a x b x SIN Ca 2

90°

c

a

C

A

B

b

M A C H I N I N G

MA

CH

IN

IN

G

75

Drilling 76 - 77

Milling 78 - 83

Reaming 84 - 85

Sawing 86 - 89

Tapping 90

Thread Milling 91

Turning 92 - 96

Types of Wear on a Carbide Insert 97

Lubricant Selection 98

Section

5

76

M A C H I N I N G Dri l l ingTit

aniu

mC

ast

Iron

Sta

inle

ss S

teel

Alloy S

teel

Carb

on S

teel

Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting Speed m/minFeed

Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength HSS HSS-CO HSS + TiNRange

machineability HB HRC N/mm2 Min Max Min Max Min Max

Mild, soft and free 1.1 machining non-alloy <130 - <400 28 32 - - 34 38 Med. to Heavy

low carbon steels

Non-alloy, case hardening, Structural

<200 - <700 25 28 - - 30 34 Medium1.2 and low to mediumcarbon steels

Non alloy, plain 1.3 and medium

<260 <26 <850 20 25 23 28 25 30 Mediumcarbon steels and castings

Generally low to 1.4 medium alloy <260 <26 <850 22 28 25 30 30 34 Medium

steels and castings

Medium to high 1.5 alloy steels, tool

>260 >26 >85016 20 18 22 20 24 Medium

steels and castings<340 <36 <1200

Heat treated 1.6 high alloy steels

>340 >36 >120012 16 14 18 15 19 Medium

and castings<450 <48 <1500

Soft and general easy to machine

2.1 Ferritic and <230 <20 <800 - - 14 18 20 24 Med. to Heavy

Martensitic stainless steels

and castings

Medium strength and reasonable

2.2 to machine <290 <30 <1000 - - 10 12 13 16 MediumAustenitic stainlesssteels and castings

Hard and difficult to machine. Ferritic

2.3 and Austenitic <340 <36 <1200 - - 4 8 6 10 Medium(duplex) stainless

steels and castings

Grey cast iron 3.1 Hardness - soft <180 - - 28 32 30 35 34 38 Medium

to medium

Grey cast iron 3.2 Hardness -

>180 - -20 25 24 28 28 34 Med. to Light

medium to hard<300

Malleable and 3.3 Nodular irons <220 - - 24 28 28 32 30 36 Medium

soft to medium

Malleable and 3.4 Nodular irons

>220- - 16 20 18 22 20 24 Med. to Light

medium to hard<300

4.1Pure Titanium

- - <700 35 40 - - - - Med. to Heavy(also pure Nickel)

Titanium alloys of4.2 a medium and - - <900

hard nature

Titanium of a - - >9004.3 hard and very- - <1250hard nature

HSS Drilling Feeds & Speeds

SPECIALISTDRILLS REQUIRED

i.e. Heavy Duty Cobalt Drills

77

Dri l l ing M A C H I N I N G

Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting Speed m/minFeed

Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength HSS HSS-CO HSS + TiNRange

machineability HB HRC N/mm2 Min Max Min Max Min Max

Heat resistant super alloys

5.1 including iron - - <500based high

temperature alloys


5.2 Cobalt or Nickel - - <900based of a

medium to hardnature to machine


Cobalt or Nickel - - 900-5.3 based, of a 1200

medium hard or very hard to

machine

6.1 Copper - - <500 30 45 - - 40 55 Medium

Brass - - <800 30 45 - - - - Medium6.2 (Alpha - long chip) - -

Brass6.3 (Beta - short chip)

- -<800 20 40 - - - - Medium

and soft Bronze- -

6.4 High strength- - <1200 - - 15 30 - - Med. to Heavy

Bronze

Unalloyed: 7.1 Aluminium, - - <150 35 40 - - 40 50 Med. to Heavy

Magnesium & Zinc

Aluminium alloys

7.2 less than 5% Si - - 150-300 35 40 - - 40 50 Med. to HeavyMagnesium & Zincalloys (long chip)

7.3Aluminium alloys - - 200-500 - - 25 30 30 40 Med. to Heavy

5% to 10% Si

Aluminium alloys

7.4 above 10% Si - - 200-- - 20 25 25 30 Med. to Heavy

(short chip) - - 500

Alu

min

ium

& M

agnesiu

mC

opper

Hig

h T

em

p. A

lloys

Power Requirements for Drilling

The formulae stated give an estimate

of power and thrust values in drilling.

Power in KW:

1.25 x D2 x K x N x (0.056 + 1.5F) *

100,000

To convert KW to HP multiply by 1.341

Thrust in Newtons11.4 x K x D x (100F)*

D = Dia of drill (mm)K = Material factor*where:N = Speed (RPM)F = Feed (mm/rev)

Gro

up

Materials HardnessMaterial

Factor K

1 Steel

1.1 130HB 1.31.2 200HB 1.41.3 260HB 1.91.4 260HB 1.91.5 260HB 2.7- 260HB-340 -

1.6 340HB 3.4

2Stainless 2.1 230HB 1.9

Steel 2.2 290HB 2.32.3 340HB 2.7

3 Cast Iron

3.1 180HB 1.03.2 180HB 1.5- 300 -

3.3 220HB 2.03.4 220HB 1.5- 300 -

4 Titanium

4.1 700N/mm2 1.44.2 900N/mm2 2.04.3 900-1250N/mm2 2.7

HSS Drilling Feeds & Speeds (continued)

SPECIALISTDRILLS REQUIRED

i.e. Heavy Duty Cobalt Drills

78

M A C H I N I N G Mi l l ing

HSS Milling Cutter Feed Rates

Useful FormulaeSpindle Speed ((ππ = 3.142):

Revs/min = Cutting Speed (M/min) x 1000 (mm)

( π x Cutting Diameter [mm])

Cutting Speed = Revs/min x π x Cutter Diameter (mm)

1000 (mm)

Table Feed:

Feed (mm/min) = Feed/Tooth (mm) x No. of Teeth x Revs/min

Feed/Tooth (mm) = Table Feed (mm/min)

(No. of Teeth x Revs/min)

CuttingSlotting Heavy Profiling Light Profiling

Diameter Feed/Tooth (mm) Feed/Tooth (mm) Feed/Tooth (mm)(mm)

Min Max Min Max Min Max

1 - 3 0.004 0.004 0.001 0.003 0.003 0.006

4 - 5 0.011 0.018 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.008

6 - 8 0.024 0.030 0.010 0.016 0.020 0.032

10 - 12 0.040 0.060 0.016 0.024 0.032 0.048

16 - 20 0.070 0.100 0.032 0.050 0.064 0.100

22 - 25 0.100 0.130 0.050 0.055 0.100 0.110

28 - 30 0.130 0.160 0.055 0.070 0.112 0.140

32 - 40 0.160 0.180 0.066 0.074 0.136 0.148

Above 40 - - 0.066 0.074 0.136 0.148

Based on Short Series Based on Regular Series End MillsSlot Drill

For longer series, reduce feed rate by 50%

Slotting, Ball Nose Slotting

& Die Sinking

Heavy Profiling Light Profiling

79

Mi l l ing M A C H I N I N G

HSS Milling Cutter Feed Rates (continued)

Coarse Pitch Coarse PitchFor aluminium & light alloys.Use factor of up to 3.5 xrecommended Feed/Tooth.

Normal PitchFor most materials. Generaluse.

Fine PitchFor increased tool life, use onhigh tensile or harder materials- tool steels, Titanium & Nickelalloys. Use Mid to low Feedrecommendation.

Normal Pitch

Fine Pitch

Teeth Chipping

Corrective Action - Order of Priority

Common Problems and Suggested Corrective Action

DecreaseFeed

IncreaseSpeed

EdgeCratering

DecreaseFeed

DecreaseSpeed

Change Coolant

Change CutterMaterial

Built up Edge

IncreaseFeed

IncreaseSpeed

Change Coolant

Poor Finish

DecreaseFeed

IncreaseSpeed

CutterConcentricity

Improve Stability

Chatter/Vibration

Improve Stability

CutterConcentricity

Change CutterGeometry

1 2 3 4

Cutter Wear

IncreaseFeed

DecreaseSpeed

Change CutterGeometry

Change CutterMaterial

CuttingSlotting Heavy Profiling Light Profiling

Diameter Feed/Tooth (mm) Feed/Tooth (mm) Feed/Tooth (mm)(mm)

Min Max Min Max Min Max

6 - 8 0.008 0.015 0.011 0.025 0.016 0.030

10 - 12 0.020 0.030 0.035 0.050 0.040 0.060

16 - 20 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.080 0.080 0.100

25 - 30 0.050 0.060 0.080 0.0100 0.0100 0.120

Above 30 0.065 0.070 0.120 0.130 0.130 0.140

Based on regular series ripper cut for longer series, reduce feed rate by 50%

Slotting, Ball Nose Slotting & Die

Sinking

Heavy Profiling Light Profiling

Roughing Cutters - HSS-E, HSS-E + TiCN, & ESM - END MILLS (4 & 6 FLUTE)

M A C H I N I N G Mi l l ing

Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting Speed (M/min)

Group Colour defines similarBrinell Rockwell

Strengthmachineability

HB HRCN/mm2 HSS-E HSS-E 10% HSS-E+TiCN

1.1 Mild, soft and free machining<130 - <400 32 - 36 40 - 60 74 - 78

low carbon steels

1.2 Non-alloy, case hardening, structural <200 - <700 32 - 36 40 - 60 74 - 78

and low to medium carbon steels

1.3 Non-alloy, plain and medium carbon <260 <26 <850 25 - 30 32 - 40 58 - 65

steels and castings

1.4 Generally low to medium alloy <260 <26 <850 20 - 24 28 - 35 48 - 52

steels and castings

1.5 Medium to high alloy steels, tool >260 >26 >85020 - 24 28 - 35 48 - 52

steels and steels castings <340 <48 <1200

1.6 Heat treated high alloy steels and >340 >36 >120012 - 14 16 - 25 30 - 36

castings <450 <48 <1500

Soft and generally easy to 2.1 machine Ferritic and Martensitic <230 <20 <800 16 - 25 25 - 32 32 - 40

stainless steels and castings

Medium strength and 2.2 reasonable to machine Austenitic <290 <30 <1000 12 - 18 20 - 28 28 - 36


Hard and generally difficult to 2.3 machine Ferritic and Austenitic (duplex) <340 <36 <1200 7 - 13 15 - 20 18 - 22


Carb

on

Alloy

Sta

inle

ss S

teels

80

HSS Milling Cutter SpeedsHSS-E 8% Cobalt For high productivityHSS-E 10% Cobalt PM For high productivity and consistentperformance, even after re-grindHSSE-E + TiCN Combining HSS-E and Titanium Carbon Nitridecoating for higher cutting speeds and prolonged tool life

81

Mi l l ing M A C H I N I N G

HSS Milling Cutter Speeds (continued) HSS-E 8% Cobalt For high productivity

HSS-E 10% Cobalt PM For high productivity and consistent performance, even after re-grind

HSSE-E + TiCN Combining HSS-E and Titanium Carbon Nitride coating

for higher cutting speeds and prolonged tool life

Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting Speed (M/min)


Strengthmachineability

HB HRCN/mm2 HSS-E HSS-E 10% HSS-E+TiCN

3.1 Grey cast iron <180 - - 30 - 35 40 - 50 54 - 62

Hardness - soft to medium

3.2 Grey cast iron >180 - -22 - 26 35 - 38 40 - 48

Hardness - medium to hard <300 - -

3.3 Malleable and Nodular irons<220 - - 20 - 25 30 - 35 36 - 45

soft to medium

3.4 Malleable and Nodular irons >220- - 18 - 22 25 - 34 32 - 40

- medium to hard <300

4.1 Pure Titanium- - <700 25 - 30 32 - 38 -

(also pure Nickel)

4.2 Titanium alloys of a - - <900 7 - 10 10 - 15 -

medium and hard nature

4.3 Titanium alloys of a hard and - -

>9003 - 5 6 - 12 -

very hard nature <1250

5.1 Heat resistant super alloys including - - <500 8 - 12 10 - 16 14 - 18

Iron based high temperature alloys.

5.2 Heat resistant super alloys, Cobalt or - - <900 5 - 10 6 - 12 9 - 15

Nickel based, medium to hard nature.

Heat resistant super alloys, - - >9005.3 Cobalt or Nickel based, hard or - - <1200

3 - 5 4 - 6 5 - 9very hard nature to machine

6.1 Copper - - <500 80 - 120 - -

6.2 Brass - - <800 80 - 120 - -

(Alpha - long chip)

6.3 Brass (Beta - short chip) - - <800 60 - 100 - -

& soft Bronze

6.4 High strength bronze - - <1200 30 - 35 - 54 - 62

Tit

aniu

mC

ast

Iron

Hig

h T

em

p. A

lloys

Copper

M A C H I N I N G

Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting End Mill Diameter


Strength Speed Feed Per Tooth (mm)machineability

HB HRCN/mm2 (M/min) <6mm <12mm <25mm

1.1 Mild, soft and free machining<130 - <400 110 - 160

0.005 - 0.038 - 0.076 -low carbon steels 0.038 0.076 0.180

1.2 Non-alloy, case hardening, structural <200 - <700 60 - 120

0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -and low to medium carbon steels 0.025 0.050 0.155

1.3 Non-alloy, plain and medium carbon <260 <26 <850 65 - 100

0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -steels and castings 0.025 0.050 0.155

1.4 Generally low to medium alloy <260 <26 <850 50 - 80

0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -steels and castings 0.025 0.050 0.145

1.5 Medium to high alloy steels, tool >260 >26 >85050 - 80

0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -steels and steels castings <340 <48 <1200 0.025 0.050 0.125

1.6 Heat treated high alloy steels and >340 >36 >1200 30 - 70 0.005 - 0.013 - 0.025 -castings <450 <48 <1500 7 - 35 0.013 0.025 0.076

(<50HRC)

Soft and generally easy to 2.1 machine Ferritic and Martensitic <230 <20 <800 45 - 70

0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -

stainless steels and castings0.025 0.050 0.150

Medium strength and 2.2 reasonable to machine Austenitic <290 <30 <1000 35 - 50

0.005 - 0.013 - 0.025 -


Hard and generally difficult to 2.3 machine Ferritic and Austenitic (duplex) <340 <36 <1200 25 - 35

0.005 - 0.010 - 0.018 -


Carb

on

Alloy

Sta

inle

ss S

teels

82

Mill ing

Solid Carbide Milling Cutter Feeds & Speeds

83

M A C H I N I N G

Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting End Mill Diameter


Strength Speed Feed Per Tooth (mm)machineability

HB HRCN/mm2 (M/min) <6mm <12mm <25mm

3.1 Grey cast iron <180 - - 60 - 150

0.013 - 0.050 - 0.076 -

Hardness - soft to medium 0.050 0.076 0.200

3.2 Grey cast iron >180 - -45 - 90

0.008 - 0.020 - 0.050 -

Hardness - medium to hard <300 - - 0.020 0.050 0.010

3.3 Malleable and Nodular irons<220 - - 40 - 85

0.005 - 0.025 - 0.075 -

soft to medium 0.025 0.075 0.180

3.4 Malleable and Nodular irons >220- - 24 - 120

0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -

- medium to hard <300 0.025 0.050 0.155

4.1 Pure Titanium- - <700 60 - 80 - - -

(also pure Nickel)

4.2 Titanium alloys of a - - <900 35 - 50

0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -

medium and hard nature 0.025 0.050 0.150

4.3 Titanium alloys of a hard and - - <1250 25 - 35 0.005 - 0.013 - 0.025 -

very hard nature 0.013 0.025 0.100

5.1 Heat resistant super alloys including - - <500 60 - 90

0.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 -

Iron based high temperature alloys. 0.025 0.025 0.50

5.2 Heat resistant super alloys, Cobalt or - - <900 30 - 60

0.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 -

Nickel based, medium to hard nature. 0.025 0.025 0.50

Heat resistant super alloys, - - 0.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 -

5.3 Cobalt or Nickel based, hard or - -

<1200 24 - 40

very hard nature to machine0.025 0.025 0.50

6.1 Copper - - <500 90 - 1500.050 - 0.050 - 0.155

-0.013 0.020 0.050

6.2 Brass - - <800 70 - 110

0.013 - 0.020 - 0.050 -

(Alpha - long chip) 0.050 0.050 0.155

6.3 Brass (Beta - short chip) - - <800 60 - 100

0.013 - 0.050 - 0.075 -

& soft Bronze 0.050 0.075 0.125

6.4 High strength bronze - - <1200 45 - 700.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 -

0.025 0.025 0.050

Tit

aniu

mC

ast

Iron

Hig

h T

em

p. A

lloys

Copper

Milling

Solid Carbide Milling Cutter Feeds & Speeds (continued)

M A C H I N I N G

84

Reaming

Materials Hardness Tensile Feed mm/rev

CuttingGroup Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Reamer DiameterSpeed

machineability HB HRC N/mm2 3 to 6 6 to 12 12 to 25 Over 25 M/min

Mild, soft and 1.1 free machining <130 - <400 - - - - -

low carbon steels

Non-alloy, case

1.2 hardening, structural <200 - <700 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .66 .64 - 1.0 40 - 70and low to medium

carbon steels

Non-alloy, plain 1.3 and medium carbon <260 <26 <850 - - - - -

steels and castings

Generally low to 1.4 medium alloy <260 <26 <850 - - - - -

steels and castings

Medium to high alloy >260 >26 >850

1.5 steels, tool steels <340 <48 <1200

.1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 20 - 50and steels castings

Heat treated high >340 >36 >1200

1.6 alloy steels and<450 <48 <1500

- - - - -castings

Soft and generally

2.1 easy to machine Ferritic<230 <20 <800 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 30 - 50

and Martensitic stainlesssteels and castings

Medium strength and

2.2 reasonable to machine <290 <30 <1000 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 20 - 40

Austenitic stainless steels and castings

Hard and generally difficult to machine

2.3 Ferritic and Austenitic <340 <36 <1200 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 5 - 20(duplex) stainless

steels and castings

Grey cast iron 3.1 Hardness - <180 - - .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 60 - 100

soft to medium

Grey cast iron >180

3.2 Hardness - <300

- - .05 - .1 .1 - .2 .2 - .4 .4 - .64 30 - 60medium to hard

Malleable and 3.3 Nodular irons - <220 - - .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 60 - 90

soft to medium

Malleable and >220

3.4 Nodular irons - <300

- - .05 - .1 .1 - .2 .2 - .4 .4 - .64 30 - 60medium to hard

Cast

Iron

Sta

inle

ss S

teels

Alloy

Carb

on

HSS Reamer Feeds & Speeds

85

M A C H I N I N GReaming

Materials Hardness Tensile Feed mm/rev

CuttingGroup Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Reamer DiameterSpeed

machineability HB HRC N/mm2 3 to 6 6 to 12 12 to 25 Over 25 M/min

4.1 Pure Titanium - - <700 .15 - .25 .25 - .4 .4 - .8 .64 - 1.0 150 - 200

(also pure Nickel)

Titanium alloys 4.2 of a medium - - <900 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 35 - 50

and hard nature

Titanium alloys>9004.3 of a hard and - -<1250

- - - - -very hard nature

Heat resistant super

5.1 alloys including iron- - <500 - - - - -

based high temperature alloys


5.2 alloys, Cobalt or Nickel- - <900 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 5 - 15

based, medium to hard nature


5.3 alloys, Cobalt or Nickel - - >900 - - - - -

based, hard/very hard nature

6.1 Copper - - <500 .15 - .25 .25 - .4 .4 - .8 .8 - 1.25 50 - 75

6.2 Brass- - <800 .15 - .25 .25 - .4 .4 - .8 .8 - 1.25 125 - 200

(Alpha - long chip)

Brass 6.3 (Beta - short chip) - - <800 - - - - -

& soft Bronze

6.4 High strength bronze - - <1200 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 50 - 75

Unalloyed: 7.1 Aluminium, Magnesium - - <150 - - - - -

& Zinc

Aluminium alloys less >1507.2 than 5% Si Magnesium - -<300

.15 - .25 .25 - .4 .4 - .8 .64 - 1.0 150 - 300& Zinc Alloys (long chip)

7.3 Aluminium alloys - -

>200- - - - -

5% to 10% Si <500

7.4 Aluminium alloys above - -

>200- - - - -

10% Si (short chip) <500

Alu

min

ium

& M

agnesiu

mC

opper

Hig

h T

em

p.

Alloys

Tit

aniu

m

HSS Reamer Feeds & Speeds (continued)

86

M A C H I N I N G Sawing

Bandsaw Feed & SpeedFor best performance, cutting pressure should be adjusted for each different job.Generally, soft materials suit high cutting speed and light feed, hardmaterials suit low speed and heavy feed.If cutting speed is too high the teeth cannot “bite” the work material and rubthe surface causing friction and dulling of the band. If cutting speed is too lowthe process will become uneconomical. The speeds advised in the Speed & Tooth Form Tables will generally givethe best results. The following is a general guide.1. Pressure should be evenly applied. The blade should not be forced,

especially at the start of a cut, this will shorten band life and causedefective work.

2. On long straight cuts moderate pressure should be used in order toachieve the highest accuracy.

3. Feed pressures which are too heavy will also cause the machine to chatterand vibrate.

Swarf usually shows whether the feed needs to be adjusted.1. A free cut curl indicates ideal feed pressure, optimum cutting time and

longest band life, 2. Discoloured swarf indicates too much feed. This will cause teeth breakage

and the band to wear out rapidly, due to overheating. 3. Fine powdery swarf indicates too little feed pressure, causing the teeth to

rub the surface of the work instead of cutting it.

CoolantIt is always advisable to use coolant when cutting metal using a bandsaw, theexception being cast iron which should be cut dry There are many soluble oilsand light cutting oils available for this purpose. When cutting aluminium theuse of paraffin or beeswax is recommended.

Running-InA ‘running-in' period should be observed for each blade. The teeth on a newblade are exceptionally keen at the cutting edge and can be damaged if careand attention is not taken at the start of their life. Feed and speed should bereduced (especially feed) to allow the tooth point to be gradually honed in.The 'running in' period should extend to 200 sq cm. (30 sq ins) of materialsawn. During this period the feed and speed should be increased graduallyup to the optimum cutting rate

TensioningToo much band tensioning results in premature fatigue and breakage, it willalso damage machine wheels and bearings. Too little tensioning will result inbad cutting, chipped teeth, band jamming in cut. Correct tensioning is,therefore, vital to ensure best usage.Various types of machine have individual requirements. Reference should bemade to the manufacturer's manual for detailed advice. In general, the bandshould be tensioned that it does not slip when working, adjustment may benecessary from time to time to compensate for band stretch in use.Remember, however, that the tension should only ever be relieved when themachine is not in operation

Re-sharpening Life of bi-metal blades can be greatly increased by resharpening the teeth.The high speed steel tooth tips have uniform hardness and structurethroughout their full working depth. The teeth are effectively restored to theiroriginal state by re-sharpening. In order to maintain the blade’s condition itshould be frequently monitored - Deterioration in cutting time or accuracy ofcut indicates that it is time to consider re-sharpening.A well maintained blade that does not suffer deterioration of tooth set can beresharpened upto 3 times.

87

M A C H I N I N GSawing

Materials Hardness Tensile Work Material CuttingTooth

Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Thickness Speed Formmachineability HB HRC N/mm2 (mm) M/min

up to 25 85 - 130 10R1.1General purpose steels, 25 - 75 75 - 110 8R - 6Rto

mild and structural<200 - <700

75 - 150 60 - 100 6R - 4R1.2Over 150 60 - 90 4R - 3R

up to 25 50 - 100 10RNon-alloy, plain and25 - 75 45 - 75 8R - 6R1.3 medium carbon steels <260 <26 <85075 - 150 40 - 70 6R - 4Rand castingsOver 150 35 - 60 3H

up to 25 65 - 95 10RAlloy steels,25 - 75 45 - 75 8R - 6R1.4 generally low to medium <260 <26 <85075 - 150 40 - 70 6R - 4Rsteels and castingsOver 150 35 - 50 4R - 3H

up to 25 60 - 90 10RMedium to high alloy>260 >26 >850 25 - 75 55 - 75 8R - 6R1.5 steels, tool steels<340 <36 <1200 75 - 150 45 - 70 6R - 4Rand steel castings

Over 150 35 - 45 4R - 3H

up to 25 50 - 80 10R

1.6Heat treated high alloy >340 >36 >1200 25 - 75 50 - 75 8R - 6R

steels and castings <450 <48 <1500 75 - 150 40 - 65 6R - 4ROver 150 35 - 60 4R - 3H

up to 25 30 - 80 10R2.1 Stainless steels,25 - 75 25 - 45 8R - 6Rto free machine <290 <30 <100075 - 150 20 - 40 6R - 4R2.3 and austeniticOver 150 15 - 35 4R - 3H

up to 25 45 - 80 10R3.125 - 75 40 - 65 8R - 6Rto Grey Cast Iron <300 - -75 - 150 35 - 55 6R - 4R3.2Over 150 30 - 45 4R - 3H

up to 25 35 - 70 10R3.3 S.G. Iron25 - 75 30 - 60 8R - 6Rto nodular and malleable <300 - -75 - 150 25 - 45 6R - 4R3.4Over 150 20 - 35 4R - 3H

up to 25 75 - 150 10R6.1 Non ferrous metals25 - 75 65 - 135 8R - 6Rto brass, copper - - <80075 - 150 55 - 110 6R - 4R6.3 and bronzeOver 150 40 - 110 3H

up to 25 60 - 125 10R7.1Aluminium alloys 25 - 75 50 - 110 8R - 6Rto

zinc and magnesium - - <50

75 - 150 45 - 90 6R - 4R7.4Over 150 30 - 75 3H

Carb

on

Alloy

Sta

inle

ss

Cast

Iron

Copper

Alu

min

ium

Bi-Metal Bandsaw Speeds & Tooth Forms

88

M A C H I N I N G Sawing

Materials Hardness Tensile Work Material CuttingTooth

Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Thickness Speed Formmachineability HB HRC N/mm2 (mm) M/min

up to 6 55 32R - 24R1.1General purpose steels, 6 - 13 55 18R - 24Rto

mild and structural<200 - <700

13 - 50 50 10R - 8R1.250 - 100 45 6R

up to 6 45 6RNon-alloy, plain and6 - 13 45 14R - 10R1.3 medium carbon steels <260 <26 <85013 - 50 30 8Rand castings50 - 100 25 6R

up to 6 40 32R - 18RAlloy steels,6 - 13 40 14R1.4 generally low to medium <260 <26 <85013 - 50 30 10Rsteels and castings50 - 100 20 8R

up to 6 35 32R - 18RMedium to high alloy>260 >26 >850 6 - 13 35 14R1.5 steels, tool steels<340 <36 <1200 13 - 50 30 10Rand steel castings

50 - 100 20 8R

up to 6 30 32R - 18R

1.6Heat treated high alloy >340 >36 >1200 6 - 13 30 14R

steels and castings <450 <48 <1500 13 - 50 20 10R50 - 100 15 8R

up to 6 30 32R - 18R2.1 Stainless steels,6 - 13 30 18Rto free machine <290 <30 <100013 - 50 20 10R2.3 and austenitic50 - 100 15 8R

up to 6 30 8R3.16 - 13 30 18Rto Grey Cast Iron <300 - -13 - 50 35 14R3.250 - 100 20 10R

up to 6 25 18R3.3 S.G. Iron6 - 13 25 14Rto nodular and malleable <300 - -13 - 50 20 10R3.450 - 100 15 8R

up to 6 75 24R - 18R6.1 Non ferrous metals6 - 13 75 14H - 16Hto brass, copper - - <80013 - 50 50 6H6.3 and bronze50 - 100 30 3H

up to 6 150 24R - 18R7.1Aluminium alloys, 6 - 13 150 14H - 16Hto

zinc and magnesium - - <50

13 - 50 100 6H7.450 - 100 50 3H

Sta

inle

ss

Cast

Iron

Copper

Alu

min

ium

Carb

on

Alloy

Carbon Bandsaw Speeds & Tooth Forms

89

M A C H I N I N GSawing

Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting CutsBar Diameter Or Similar Shapes

Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Speed Per <10 10-40 40-80 >80

machineability HB HRC N/mm2 M/min Minmm mm mm mm

Recommended TPI

1.1General purpose steels, to

mild and structural<200 - <700 25 - 35 70 - 90 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3

1.2

Non-alloy, plain and1.3 medium carbon steels <260 <26 <850 20 - 30 50 - 70 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3

and castings

Alloy steels,1.4 generally low to medium <260 <26 <850 20 - 30 50 - 70 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3

steels and castings

Medium to high alloy>260 >26 >8501.5 steels, tool steels<340 <36 <1200

18 - 28 40 - 60 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3and steel castings

1.6Heat treated high alloy >340 >36 >1200

steels and castings <450 <48 <150015 - 25 30 - 45 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3

2.1 Stainless steels,to free machine <290 <30 <1000 10 - 25 40 - 60 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 32.3 and austenitic

3.1to Grey Cast Iron <300 - - 30 - 40 70 - 90 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3

3.2

3.3 S.G. Ironto nodular and malleable <300 - - 30 - 40 70 - 90 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 33.4

6.1 Non ferrous metalsto brass, copper - - <800 40 - 60 80 - 115 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 36.3 and bronze

7.1Aluminium alloys,to

zinc and magnesium - - <50 40 - 60 80 - 115 14 - 10 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3

7.4

Sta

inle

ss

Cast

Iron

Copper

Alu

min

ium

Carb

on

Alloy

Powersaw & Hacksaw Speeds & TPI

M A C H I N I N G Tapping

Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting

Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Speed Hole Type Tap Type

machineability HB HRC N/mm2 M/min

1.1 Mild Steel <130 - <400 15 - 20

Various Straight Flute

1.2Case Hardening

<200 - <700 15 - 20 Through Hole Spiral Point& Structural Steel

1.3 Medium Carbon Steel <260 <26 <850 15 - 20

Blind Hole Spiral Flute

1.4 Low Alloy Steel <260 <26 <850 10 - 15

1.5Medium to High 260 - 26 - 850 -

6 - 10 Through Hole Spiral PointAlloy Steel 340 36 1200

1.6 Heat Treated Steel340 - 36 - 1200 -

4 - 6

Blind Hole Spiral Flute

450 48 1500

2.1Free Machining

<230 <20 <800 8 - 10

Through Hole Spiral Point

Stainless

2.2Medium Strength

<290 <30 <1000 6 - 8 Blind Hole Spiral FluteAustenitic Stainless

2.3Difficult to Machine,

<340 <36 <1200 4 - 6Duplex Stainless

3.1 Grey Cast Iron - Soft <180 - - 18 - 25Blind &

Straight Flute

3.2 Grey Cast Iron - Hard180 -

- - 15 - 18Through Hole

300

3.3Malleable &

<220 - - 8 - 12

Through Hole Spiral Point

Nodular Iron

3.4Malleable & 200 -

- - 4 - 6Nodular Iron - Hard 300

7.1Unalloyed Aluminium -

- - <150 20 - 25Zinc - Magnesium

7.2Aluminium Alloy

- -150 -

17 - 22Blind &

Flutelessless than 5% Si 300

7.3Aluminium Alloy

- -200 -

15 - 20

Through Hole

5% to 10% Si 500

7.4Aluminium Alloy

- -200 -

12 - 15 Blind & Straight Fluteabove 10% Si 500 Through Hole (for Cast Irons)

Production Tapping Speeds

Power Requirements For TapsMany factors are involved whenconsidering power requirements for aparticular application. Factors such asthe choice of tap design, tapping drillsize, depth of threaded hole, lubricantand tapping speed all play a part indetermining these requirements.To estimate the power requirementsfor varying percentage thread depths,the following general formula andconstants may be used:

Tapping Power (KW) = C x D x p2 x N x K10000

HP = KW x 1.341Where D = Thread Diameter (mm)

p = Pitch (mm)N = Spindle speed RPMK = Material Factor ConstantC = A constant based on %

thread depth, as follows:C % Thread Depth

0.231 600.326 750.433 80

90

Carb

on

Alloy

Sta

inle

ss S

teels

Cast

Iron

Alu

min

ium

91

Thread Mill ing M A C H I N I N G

1. Initial position of the thread mill. 4. Helical interpolation of pitch value.

2. Quick approach to bottom position. 5. Helical clearance interpolation.

3. Helical move to start position 6. Clearance above the workpiece.

on the workpiece

Thread Milling MethodTo obtain the best performance fromthread mills, it is recommended that thesmallest thread mill possible be used,taking into account the required pitch and thread depth into consideration.

ROUGH THE DIAMETERS TO CORRECT SIZE PRIOR TO THREADING.

An additional allowance of 0,1 to 0,2mm on diameter is necessary in order to machine a perfect thread form.

Example:Internal threading Drill tapping size 8,50M10 Drill thread mill size

8,30/8,40

External threading Turn die size 10,00 M10 turn thread mill size

10,10/10,20

92

M A C H I N I N G Turning

Materials Hardness Tensile Roughing Finishing

Group Colour defines Brinell Rockwell Strengthsimilar machineability HB HRC N/mm2

1.1 Generalpurposesteels,

to mild steel & <200 - <700 90-180 0.25-2.0 150-180 0.1-0.3

1.2 structural steel

Non-alloy, plain

1.3 and medium carbon <260 <26 <850 75-130 0.25-2.0 30-170 0.1-0.3

steels and castings

Alloy Steels,

1.4 generally low tomedium <260 <26 <850 80-180 0.2-2.0 180-400 0.05-0.3

steels and castings

Medium to high alloy

1.5 steels, tool steels>260 >26 >850

50-95 0.25-2.0 100-140 0.1-0.3

& steel castings<340 <36 <1200

Heat treated

1.6 high alloy >340 >36 >1200

50-90 0.2-1.5 90-130 0.05-0.2

steels and castings

2.1 Stainless steels,

to free machining <290 <30 <1000 50-100 0.2-1.0 80-120 0.05-0.3

2.3 & austenitic

3.1

to Grey Cast Iron <300 - - 55-105 0.2-1.0 90.130 0.05-0.3

3.2

3.3 S.G. Iron

to Nodular iron & <300 - - 80-120 0.2-1.0 120-150 0.05-0.3

3.4 Malleable Iron

6.1 Non ferrous metals

to brass, copper, - - <800 120-180 0.2-1.3 150-300 0.05-0.3

6.3 bronze

7.1 Aluminium alloys

to zinc & - - <50 <300 0.2-1.3 <300 0.05-0.3

7.4 magnesium

CuttingSpeedM/min

Feedmm/rev

CuttingSpeedMin

Feedmm/rev

P30/P40 Grade P30 Grade






K20 Grade K20 Grade

K20 Grade K20 Grade

K20 Grade K20 Grade

K20 Grade K20 Grade

Alu

min

ium

Copper

Cast

Iron

St/

Ste

el

Alloy

Carb

on

Brazed Tool Feeds & Speeds

93

Turn ing M A C H I N I N G

Carb

on S

teels

Alloy S

teels

Group 1: Carbon & Alloy SteelsQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?

Question 2 - What type of machining operation?

Material Description BS 970 En & Other Brinell Rockwell TensileGroup of Material 1988 Standards Hardness Hardness Strength

Group HB HRC N/mm2

Mild, soft and free 230Mo7 & En1 & En2 up to 130 - up to 4001.1 machining non-alloy, 050A12 En3B Leadloy

low carbon steels.

Non-alloy, case

1.2 hardening, structural 060A35, 6, 14, 32, 43 up to 200 - up to 700and low to medium

carbon steels.

Non-alloy, plain and 1.3 medium carbon steels 080M46 & En8 9, 10, 43 up to 260 up to 26 up to 850

and castings.

Generally low to 708M40/42, En16, 17, 19

medium alloy steels 817M40, (RS) En31,1.4

and cast steels. 534 A99, BM2, 3440B, 351, up to 260 up to 26 up to 850

BT42 36, S2-10-1-8(soft)

Medium to high alloy BO1, BM2, En24, 25,

steels, tool steels and BT42, 826M40 26(T.U.V.) from 260 from 26 from 8501.5

steel castings. & 830M31 S95, S97, S98 upto 340 up to 36 up to 1200(annealed)

Heat treated high BO1, 826M40 En25, 26, from 340 from 36 from 12001.6 alloy steels and & 830M31 27(W.X.Z.) up to 450 up to 48 up to 1500

castings. S97, S98(H&T)

Turning Operation P01 - P10 P05 - P15 P10 - P25 P20 - P40 P35 - P50

Groups 1.1 to 1.6 Fine General Light Medium HeavyFinishing Finishing Roughing Roughing Roughing

Depth of Cut (mm) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2.0 1.0 to 4.0 3.0 to 6.0 4.0 to 12.0

Groups 1.1 - 1.2 - 1.3 Cutting Speed (m/min) 350-500 250-400 150-250 100-180 100-150

Group 1.4 - 1.5 Cutting Speed (m/min) 250-400 150-250 120-220 80-150 80-140

Group 1.6 Cutting Speed (m/min) 100-250 100-200 100-180 80-140 70-120

Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0 1.0 & over

Group 2: Stainless Steels.Question 1 - What type of material is to be machined?


Sta

inle

ss S

teels

Material Description BS 970 En & Other Brinell Rockwell TensileGroup of Material 1988 Standards Hardness Hardness Strength

Group HB HRC N/mm2

Soft and generally easy 303 S21 En562.1 to machine Ferritic and 416 S37 En57 up to 230 up to 20 up to 800Martensitic stainless 431 829 En60steels and castings.

Medium strength and 304 S15 En80 reasonable to machine 321 S17 En58AM2.2 Austentic (duplex)

316 L En58Jup to 290 up to 30 up to 1000

stainless steels 320 S12 316and castings.

Hard and generally difficult to machine

317 S16 Duplex2.3 Ferritic and Austenitic 310 Alloys

up to 340 up to 36 up to 1200(duplex) stainless

steel castings.

M10 M10 - M15 M10 - M20 M20 - M30 M30 - M40 Turning Operation





Group 2.3 Cutting Speed (m/min) 120-150 100-130 80-100 60-80


ISO PMK Calculator

94


Gre

y C

ast

Iron

Malleable

Cast

Iron

Group 3: Cast IronQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?


Material Description B.S. Other BrinellGroup of Material Standards Standards Hardness

Group HB

Grey cast iron3.1 Hardness - soft to Grade 150 Grey Cast Iron Soft up to 180

medium Grade 400

Grey cast iron.3.2 Hardness - medium Grade 200 Grey Cast Iron Hard from 180 to 300

to hard Grade 400

Malleable & 420/12, P440/7, S.G. Iron, Mehanite3.3 Nodular Irons 700/2, 30g/72 Black & White Heart up to 220

Malleable & 420/12, P440/7, S.G. Iron, Mehanite from 220 to 3003.4 Nodular Irons 700/2, 30g/72 Black & White Heart max

K01 - K10 K05 - K15 K10 - K25 K20 - K35 K20 - K40 Turning Operation



Groups 3.1 - 3.2 Cutting Speed m/min 200-300 175-280 150-250 130-220 80-180



Group 4: Titanium & AlloysQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?


Tit

aniu

m

Material Description B.S. Other TensileGroup of Material Standards Standards Strength

Group N/mm2

Pure Titanium4.1 (also pure Nickel). TA1 to 9 Ti 99.0 up to 700

Titanium alloys of a4.2 medium and hard TA10 to 14, TA17, Ti - 2AL fup to 900

nature TA28

Titanium alloys of a TA10 to 13, TA28 Ti AL from 900 up to 4.3 hard and very hard 1250

K01 - K10 K05 - K15 K10 - K20 K20 - K40Turning Operation

Groups 4.1 to 4.3 Fine General Light MediumFinishing Finishing Roughing Roughing

Depth of Cut (mm) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2.0 1.0 to 4.0 3.0 to 6.0

Group 4.1 Cutting Speed m/min 130-190 95-130 60-100 50-90


Group 4.3 Cutting Speed m/min

Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0

Discuss individual applications with your local Cromwell Tools Company

ISO PMK Calculator (continued)

95

Turning M A C H I N I N G

Material Description B.S. Other TensileGroup of Material Standards Standards Strength

Group N/mm2

Heat resistant-super alloys NA 11 Nickel 200

5.1 including Iron NA 12 BS 3468 - Nickel 270 up to 500based high AUS 104 Ni Resist 2B

temperature alloys.

Heat resistant- Nimonic 75,super alloys, Hastelloy C

5.2 Cobalt or Nickel HR203 Monel 400, Inconel up to 900based of a medium 3027 - 76 600,to hard nature, to Haynes Alloys 263

machine.

Heat resistantsuper alloys, HR8 Inconel 718,

5.3 Cobalt or Nickel HR401, 601 Waspalloy, from 900 up to 1200based of a hard Nimonic 80,

nature, to machine. Rene 41

Group 5: High Temperature AlloysQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?








Group 6: Copper & Copper AlloysQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?


Tit

aniu

m

Material Description B.S. Other BrinellGroup of Material Standards Standards Hardness

Group HB

6.1 Copper C101 Commercially pure up to 500

Brass Admiralty Brass6.2 (Alpha - long chip) CZ108, CZ106 Muntz up to 800

to hard Red Brass

Brass (Beta - short CZ120, CZ109, Manganese Bronze6.3 chip) Nodular Irons PB104 Naval Brass up to 800

High Strength AB1 type Ampco 18, Ampco 26 up to 12006.4 Bronze

K01 - K10 K05 - K15 K10 - K20 K20 - K40Turning Operation

Groups 5.1 to 5.3 Fine General Light MediumFinishing Finishing Roughing Roughing

Depth of Cut (mm) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2.0 1.0 to 4.0 3.0 to 6.0




Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0

Tit

aniu

m


96


Pla

sti

cs &

Non M

eta

llic

Material Description B.S. En & OtherGroup of Material Standards Standards

Group

8.1 Thermoplastic Polystyrene, nylon, PVC cellulose Nylon, Holstalen, Makrolonacetate & nitrate

8.2 Thermo-setting plastics Ebonite, Bakelite Bakelite, Pertinax

Reinforced plastics & Kevlar Printed Circuit Board CFK, GFK, AFK8.3 composite materials Tufnol






Group 7.4 Cutting Speed m/min 500-700 400-600 300-600 300-600 300-600


Group 8: Plastics & Non-Metallic MaterialsQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?


Turning Operation K10 K15







Material Description B.S. EN & Other TensileGroup of Material Standards Standards Strength

Group N/mm2

Unalloyed: Aluminium, Magnesium extruded7.1 Magnesium & ZInc LMO, 1B (1050A) aluminium up to 150

Aluminium alloys less Admiralty Brass7.2 than 5% Si Magnesium CZ108, CZ106 Muntz up to 800

& ZInc alloys (long chip) Red Brass

Aluminium alloy LM2, 4, 16, 18, 21, 22, Silicon from 2007.3 5% to 10% Si 2, 25, 26, 27 L109 aluminium up to 500

Aluminium alloys above

7.4 10% Si (short-chip) LM6, 12, 13, 20, 28, High silicon from 200Reinforced 29, 30 aluminium up to 500

aluminium alloys

Alu

min

ium

& M

agnesiu

m

Group 7: Aluminium, Magnesium, Zinc & their AlloysQuestion 1 - What type of material is be machined?


97

Types of Wear on a Carbide Insert M A C H I N I N G

Type of WearFlank Crater Plastic Notching Thermal Chipping Edge Built Up PossibleWear Wear Deformation Cracking (Frittering) Fracture Edge Solution

Increase • • • Speed

Decrease • • • • • Speed

Increase • • Feed

Decrease • • • • • Feed

Make Tool • More Rigid

Select Harder • • • • More Wear

Resistant Grade

Select Harder• • • • More Wear

ResistantGrade

• • • SelectTougher Grade

• • • Select Grade with Harder

Coating

• • • • Select Chip Breaker with Higher Angle

orSharper Edge

Machin

eIn

serts

98

M A C H I N I N G Lubricant Selection

Material

Steel 1.1 � � � �

1.2 � �

1.3 � �

1.4 � � �

1.5 � � � �

1.6 � � � �

Stainless 2.1 � � � � � �

Steel 2.2 � � � � �

2.3 � � � � �

Cast Iron 3.1 � � �

3.2 � � �

3.3 � � � �

3.4 � � � �

Titanium 4.1 � � � � �

4.2 � � � � � �

4.3 � � � � � �

Nickel 5.1 � � � � � �

5.2 � � � � � �

5.3 � � � � � �

Copper 6.1 � � �

6.2 � � �

6.3 � � �

6.4 � � � � �

Aluminium 7.1 � � �

Magnesium 7.2 � � �

7.3 � � �

7.4 � �

Synthetic 8.1 � �

Materials 8.2 � � �

8.3 � �

Gro

up

Solu

ble

Oil

Solu

ble

Oil

with

Extr

em

e P

ress

ure

Additiv

e

Hig

h O

il Solu

ble

Sem

i-syn

thetic

Syn

thetic

Sem

i-syn

thetic

with E

xtr

em

e

Pre

ssure

Additiv

e

Chlo

rinate

d

Sulp

hurise

d &

oth

er

specia

lised o

ils

Air B

last

LubricantsThe selection of the most appropriate cutting lubricant willincrease the efficiency of cutting tools, the following is a guide:

� = EXCELLENT � = ACCEPTABLE

Note: When Fluteless Tapping, a coolant with an ExtremePressure Additive is recommended.

See Pages 100 - 101

for FullMaterial

Descriptions

Dilution Guidelines

Specific dilution ratesshould all derive from amid-range start point, i.e. 20/40 - 1 = 30 - 1

Mineral Soluble CuttingFluid

General Purpose. For awide range of machinetools & materials: 20 - 1

Long Life. For costeffective machining:20/40 - 1

Extreme Pressure LongLife Soluble cutting fluid:20/40 - 1

Extreme Pressure HighPerformance for heavyduty operations ondifficult to machinesteels & alloys: 20/40 - 1

Semi - Synthetic Cutting

& Grinding Fluid

General Purpose.Versatile enablingr a t i o n a l i s a t i o nthroughout the workshop:40/50 - 1

Extreme PressureChlorine Free: 20/40- 1

Extreme Pressure LongLife . Offers good clarity,ideal where visibility isimportant: 20/45-1

Extreme Pressure LongLife High PerformanceChlorine Free: 20/40 - 1

Specialist Cutting Fluid

High Performance LongLife for use withAluminium and Alloys:15/25 - 1

Long life Semi-Syntheticwith good clarity for highproductionmachine tools:30/40 -1

M A T E R I A L S

MA

TE

RIA

LS

99

Machining Groups 100 - 101

Metal & Alloy Properties 102 - 107

Periodic Table 108 - 109

Steels - Comparative Specifications 110 - 116

Section

6

100

M A T E R I A L S Machin ing Groups

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

2.1

2.2

2.3

Carb

on

Alloy

070M20

080M15

230M07

En1

En2

En3

1.0402

1.1141

Non-alloy, plainand mediumcarbon steelsand castings

Medium tohigh alloy

steels, toolsteels andcastings

Soft and

generally easy

to machine

Ferritic and

Martensitic

stainless

steels and

castings

Mediumstrength andreasonable to

machineAusteniticstainless

steels andcastings

Hard andgenerallydifficult tomachine

Ferritic andAustenitic(duplex)stainless

steels andcastings

Non-alloy, casehardening

structural andlow to mediumcarbon steels

Generally lowto medium

alloy steels,tool steels and

castings

Heat treatedhigh alloysteels andcastings

ISO AISI/SAEHardness Tensile

StrengthN/mm2

Group

Sta

inle

ss S

teels

Leaded Steels.Mild, soft andfree machiningnon-alloy lowcarbon steels

Materials

C22

C15

C10

1016

1020

1015

<130 - <400

Brinell RockwellHB HRC

BS970:

1991

BS970:

1955 DIN

150M19

210M15

214M15

En6

En14

En32

En202

1.1141

1.1160

1.1170

1.1178

C15

22Mn 6

28Mn 6

Ck30

1016

1030

1330

1524

<200 - <700

070M55

080M40

212A42

226M44

En8

En9

1.0535

1.0727

1.1186

C55

45S20

Ck40

1040

1055

1139

<260 <26 <850

605M36

606M36

635M15

655M13

665M17

708M40

722M24

En16

En19

En34

En36

En40

En351

En31

1.5752

1.7220

1.7225

1.7361

1.8523

14NiCr14

34CrMo4

42CrMo4

32CrMo12

39CrMoV -

13 9

3415

4137

4140

4142

4615

52100

<260 <26 <850

817M40

826M31

826M40

En24T

En25T

En26T

BD2

1.6565

1.6743

40CrNiMo

-6

32NiCrMo

-10 4

H13

4340

P20

D2

260- 26-

340 36

850 -

1200

826M31

826M40

230M31

En24Y

En25Y

En26Y

1.6743

1.6745

32NiCrMo-10 4

40NiCrMo-10 5

-340- 36-

450 45

1200 -

1500

Hardened Tool Steels

826M31

826M40

230M31

En24

En25

En26

1.6743

1.6745

32NiCrMo-10 4

40NiCrMo-10 5

-- 45-

55

1420 -

1800

HardenedTool Steels

826M31

826M40

230M31

En24

En25

En26

1.6743

1.6745

32NiCrMo-10 4

40NiCrMo-10 5

-- 55-

70>1800

403S17

430S17

416S21

416S41

420S29

431S29

441S49

En56B

En56Am

En57

En60

En56A

1.4005

1.4006

1.4016

1.4021

X12CrS 13X10Cr 13X6Cr 17

X20Cr 13

410S

416

416Se

420

430

431Se

<230 <20 <800

303S31

303S42

316S11

En58AM

En58J

En80

1.4305

1.4404

X10CrNiS-18 9

XCrNiMo

303

303Se

316L

<290 <30 <1000

X12CrNi -17/7

301

Ferralium

17/7PH

17/4PH

Crucible

301

<340 <36 <1200Zenon

100*(Non-BS)

- 1.4568

Colour defines similar machineability

Pla

stics N

on-M

eta

llic

101

Machin ing Groups M A T E R I A L S

Cast

Iron

Hig

h T

em

pera

ture

Alloys

Copper,

Bra

ss, B

ronze

MaterialsBS DIN AISI/SAE

Brinell TensileHB N/mm2Group

Alu

min

ium

Magnesiu

m

Heat resistantsuper alloys,

Cobalt or Nickelbased, of mediumto hard nature to

machine

HR203, 3027-67Nimonic 75,Hastelloy C,Monel 400,Inconel 600

HaynesAlloys,263

Nimonic 75,Monel 400,Hastelloy C,

Inconel

Nimonic 75,Monel 400,Hastelloy C,Inconel 600

- <900

Heat resistantsuper alloys,

Cobalt or Nickelbased, or veryhard nature to

machine

HR8H401, 601

Inconel 718,Waspalloy

Nimonic 80,Rene 41

Inconel 718,Waspalloy

Nimonic 80A

Inconel 718, 625Nimonic 80

->900

<1200

CopperBS 2873, -C101,

-C102, -C103Commercially pure

E-Cu57, SE-Cu 101 SAE CAI22 - <500

Brass(Alpha - long chip)

CZ180, CZ106 Admiralty Brass

Muntz Red BrassCuZn37, CuZn28

SAE 74BSAE 74CSAE 79C

- <800

Brass(Beta - short chip)

& soft Bronze

CZ120, CZ109PB104, ManganeseBronze,Naval Brass

CuZn39Pb2,CuZn40, CuSn8,

CuSn6Zn

E 88SAE CA 327

SAE 43- <800

High strengthBronze

AB1, Ampco 18,Ampco 26

Ampco 18,Ampco 25

SAE 701 BSAE CA 624

- <1200

Heat Resistantsuper alloysincluding ironbased, hightemperature,

alloys

NA11, NA12 BS3468-AUS 104

Nickel 200,Nickel 270,Ni Resist 2B

Nickel 200, Nickel 270

Ni99.6

Nickel 200,Nickel 230

- <500

Unalloyed :Aluminium,

Magnesium &Zinc

LMO, 1B (1050A)Magnesium

extrudedaluminium

A199.5 EC, 1060, 1100 - <150

Aluminium alloysless than 5% SiMagnesium &

Zinc alloys (longchip)

LM5, 10, 12(N4(5251)Low silicon

wrought & cast

AlCuMg2,AlMgMn0.8

380, 520.0,520.2, 2024,

6061-

<150

>300

Aluminium alloys5% to 10% Si

LM2,4,16,18, 21,22,24,25,26,27

L109

GD-AlCi8CuG-AlSi5Mg

319.0, 333.0,319.1, 356.0

-<200

>500

Aluminium alloysabove 10% Si(short chip)

LM6,12,13,20,28,29,30, High silicon

G-AlSi18, G-AlSi12

4032, 222.1A332.0

-<200

>500

Reinforcedplastics &compositematerials

Printed CircuitBoard Tufnol,CFK,

GFK, AFK

Kevlar PrintedCircuit Board

Kevlar - -

Thermoplastic

Polystyrene, nylon,PVC cellulose

acetate & nitrate,Makrolon

PVC NylonHolstalen

Polystyrene NylonPVC

- -

Thermo settingplastics

Ebonite, Bakelite,Pertinax PTFE Bakelite Bakelite - -

Titanium alloys ofa hard and very

hard nature

TA10 to 13, TA28Ti-A

TiAl6V4,TiAl6V5Sn,

TiAl4Mo4Sn2

AMS4929,AMS4971

- >900

<1250

Titanium alloys ofa medium and

hard nature

Ta10 to 14,TA17, TA28

Ti-2Al

TiAl6V4, TiAl5Sn2

AMS4929>500

- <900

Pure Titanium, Pure Nickel

TA1 to 9 Ti99.0

Ti99.8ASTM B348/4,

ASTMB 367/C1,ASTM B265/2

- <700

Malleable andNodular irons -Medium to hard

420/12, P440/7700/2 30g/72 S.G.S.G. iron, mehanite,black & white heart

GGG40, GGG70GT45-06,GTW45-07

ASTM A220 grade 90001,ASTM A602

grade M8501

>220-

<300

Malleable andNodular irons -soft to medium

420/12,P440/7,700/2, 30g/72

S.G. iron, mehanite,black & white heart

GGG40, GGG70GTS45-06,GTW45-07

ASTM A220 grade 40010,ASTM A602

grade M45041

<220 -

Grey cast ironHardness -

medium to hard

Grade 200,Grade 400

GG25, GG40

ASTM A48 class 40, 60

>180-

<300

Grey cast ironHardness - soft to

medium

Grade 150,Grade 400

GG10, GG40

ASTM A48 class 20, 40

<180 -

Tit

aniu

m&

Nic

kel

Colour defines similar machineability

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

4.1

4.2

4.3

5.1

5.2

5.3

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

7.1

7.2

7.3

7.4

8.1

8.2

8.3

102

M A T E R I A L S Metal & A l loy Propert ies

Tool MaterialsHigh Speed Steel (HSS)Used for all types of tools standard and special in very intricate forms.Used when low cost tooling is required or where machine or workpiecestability is not good. Withstands intense friction generated heat whencutting metal.Cobalt High Speed Steel (HSS-E)When Cobalt is added to HSS alloy it allows the tool material to be run at ahigher spindle speed, giving extended tool life and improved performance.Sintered High Speed Steel (HSSE-PM)This tool material is much denser and harder than drawn HSS and will runsignificantly faster speeds than the above and will give better tool life. Itmay be used on more difficult to machine materials or those that are veryabrasive.Tungsten CarbideA Sintered amalgum of tungsten compounds which result in a very hardmaterial that will cut at far higher cutting speeds than High Speed Steel.Most often produced in the form of throw away inserts which avoid theneed to re-grind the tool or even take it out of the machine, can also bebrazed onto steel shanks to give a hard resilient cutting edge on a tougheconomical tool body.CermetA Japanese development using titanium compounds instead of tungsten,while generally more brittle than tungsten, cermet does not reactchemically with ferrous materials so severely. The advantages of these twofeatures mean that cermet can run faster that tungsten carbide andprovides a far superior surface finish and maintains it longer.CeramicsAre used mostly for cutting cast irons at cutting speeds in excess of 1000metres/minute. Turning hard materials and machining superalloys is alsoachieved with some ceramic grades.Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)For turning hard abrasive materials giving long tool life at high speeds.Poly Crystalline Diamond (PCD)Mostly used on high silicon aluminium when large quantities ofcomponents are involved.

Tool Surface TreatmentsBright FinishAssociated with high speed steel drills, milling cutters, taps, reamers, formtools, etc.Steam TemperSome standard HSS drills and taps are steam tempered to improve thesurface hardness and reduce the surface friction for easier chip removal.NitridingProvides a surface on HSS which resists abrasion. Taps for cast ironapplications should be nitrided for example.Surface coating by vapour deposition (PVD or CVD) including:Titanium Nitride (TiN)Titanium Carbonitride (TiCN)Titanium Aluminium Nitride (TiAlN)These coatings can be used on most of the aforementioned tool materialsand generally provide a hard low friction surface with a tough core and ahard outer case for maximum strength.

Resistant to shock loading and theability to run at a significantly fasterspeeds than the base material. Thelow fr ict ion surface helps chipevacuation and prevents chip weldingand build up on edges. TiCN is mostoften used on HSS-E milling cutters.TiN is associated more with drills andtaps. Turning inserts use multi layersof various coatings in differentthicknesses to create highperformances coated carbide grades.

Non-ferrous Metal and Alloy Properties

Aluminium: Greyish white inappearance. Extremely lightweight.Malleable, soft, highly resistant tocorrosion. Excellent conductor ofelectricity.

Aluminium Alloys: Contain small amounts of other elements such as Copper,Nickel, Chromium, Manganese, Magnesium, Silicon and Zinc. The addition ofthese elements directly effects the strength, hardness, and other properties ofthe soft pure Aluminium. Lightweight strong and resistant to corrosion.

Brass: An alloy of mainly copper and zinc though it may contain some Tin.Yellow in appearance. Good conductor of heat and electricity. Highly resistantto corrosion though it does tarnish easily.

Bronze: An alloy consisting of approx 90% copper and 10% tin. Reddish yellowin appearance. Harder and tougher then brass.

Bronzes: Are a series of alloys that are basically a mixture of copper and tinthough they may contain some zinc.

Copper: Soft reddish-brown in appearance. Malleable, tough, ductile andcorrosion resistant. Excellent conductor of electricity.

Gun metal: Very similar composition and characteristics to that of bronzeexcept that a small amount of copper is replaced with zinc. Which improvesthe casting and machinablitly.

Lead: dull grey in appearance. Very soft, malleable and casts very well.Resistant to corrosion.

Phosphor bronze: The constituents that are used to produce it are determinedby whether the metal is tobe cast or worked to shape. Resistant to wear andcorrosion.

Tin: Silvery white in appearance. Malleable, ductile and has good corrosionresistance.

Zinc: Bluish white in appearance. Very resistant to corrosion.

Comparison of Coating Properties

103

Meta l & A l loy Propert ies M A T E R I A L S

Tool Surface Treatments (continued)

TiN TiCN TiALN

CoatingTitanium Titanium TitaniumNitride Carbo- Alum.

Nitride Nitride

Hardness 2,900 4,500 4,500

(HV 0.05) ± 200 ± 400 ± 500

Adhesion 70 70/80 62

Coefficient 0.65 0.45 0.42

of Friction

Surface

Roughness 0.2 0.15 0.18

(Rq µm)

Oxidation 400°C to 350°C to 800°C to

Temp. 500°C 400°C 900°C

104


Basic Forms of Heat TreatmentAnnealing: Softens metal allowing further work. Also relievesinternal stresses and strains from previous working or use.The steel is heated to a temperature determined by itscarbon content, and then allowed to cool very slowly.

Case Hardening: Mild steel with less then 0.3% carboncannot be hardened in the normal way, but the surface ofmild steel can be changed to high carbon steel and this inturn can be hardened in the normal way. This produces atough ductile core and a hard outer case resistant to wear,Case hardened steel has many engineering uses. Theprocess has four main stages;

1. Carburising creates a high carbon steel outercasing bysurrounding the steel with a carbon rich source (solid, powderor gas) and heating it to a specific temperature for a setperiod of time. Carbon is absorbed by the surface of the steelto form a high carbon steel case. The depth of this case isdepends on how long the steel is heated for. The steel isthen cooled slowly. At this stage the core of the steel willhave a coarse grain structure due to the prolonged heatingtime. This makes the steel soft.

2. The steel is heated again and oil-quenched to refine thegrain structure and toughen the core.

3. To harden the outercasing the steel is re-heated andquenched in oil or water.

4. Tempering of the steel is carried out in the normal way totoughen the surface to the required degree.

Hardening: Changes the chemical and structural make up ofsteel. When heated above its upper critical point Austeniteforms, if the steel is then cooled naturally it will revert back toits natural pearlite composition. If however the temperature ofthe metal is lowered quickly by quenching in water or oil thischange does not take place - an extremely hard and brittleconstituent termed martensite is formed. Low carbon steels(less then 0.3%) can not be hardened in this way as too littlemartensite is produced. Water and oil produce differenteffects when used for quenching. Water produces very hardsteel - oil produces slightly softer steel, less likely to crack ordistort.

Normalising: Refines the grain structure of the steel after ithas been subjected to temperatures over the critical range(i.e. complicated forgings) and to remove internal stressescaused by cold working, (bending, rolling, hammering etc).While the process is similar to annealing the effect is to bringthe steel back to its normal condition without softening thesteel for further working. The steel is heated to just above itsupper critical point (normalising temperature) and allowed tocool in still air. It is only kept at the normalising temperaturelong enough to ensure it is evenly heated.

Tempering: Once hardened steel is too brittle for mostengineering applications. To restore some of its normaltoughness and ductility the steel is tempered by heating thesteel to a temperature below its critical point, usuallybetween 200ºC and 300ºC this converts some of themartensite back to pearlite. The exact temperature dependson how the steel will be used. Higher temperatures producesofter, less brittle steel. A balance between loss of hardnessand gain in toughness has to be found.

Colour Chart ForHardening &Forging Steel should beviewed in a dark orfaintly lit room -Chart should beviewed in normaldiffused daylight.Colours varyaccording to metalcomposition andare only for guide.

Colour Chart ForTemperingWhen steel isheated in air oxideforms on thesurface. The colourchanges as thetemperature risesand can be used togauge the amountof temper. Coloursvary according tometal compositionand are only forguide.

330OC Grey

320OC Grey

310OC Light Blue

300OC Blue

290OC Dark Blue

280OC Violet

270OC Purple Red

260OC Red Brown

250OC Yellow Brown

240OC Deep Straw

230OC Yellow

220OC Straw

210OC Yellow White

1200OC White

1100OC Light Yellow

1050OC Yellow

980OC Light Orange

930OC Orange

870OC Light Red

810OC Light Cherry

760OC Cherry

700OC Dark Cherry

650OC Blood Red

600OC Brown Red

105


Element Properties in Alloys

Al AluminiumStrongest de-oxidiser and combines with Nitrogen. In small additionsrestricts grain growth. Improves scale resistance so effectively used as analloying element in ferritic heat resisting steels.Melting Point: 660.37°C Boiling Point: 2467°C Density (20°C): 2.702g/cm3

B BoronImproves the deep hardening of constructional steels causing an increase incore hardness of case hardening steels. Has a high neutron absorptioncross-section. Melting Point: 2300°C Boiling Point: 2550°C Density (20°C): 2.34g/cm3

Be BerylliumBeryllium Copper alloy is anti-magnetic and can stand greater load changes.Nickel-Beryllium is a very hard and corrosion resistant steel. Melting Point: 1278°C Boiling Point: 2970°C Density (20°C): 1.8477g/cm3

C CarbonForemost alloy element of steel. Every unalloyed steel contains silicon,manganese, phosphorus and sulphur. When Carbon is introduced thisincreases the hardening properties of steel. However elasticity, forging,welding and cutting properties suffer. Carbon content has no effect oncorrosion resistance to water, acids and gases. Melting Point: 3500°C Boiling Point: 4827°C Density (20°C): 2.62g/cm3

Ca CalciumIncreases the scale resistance of heat conductor materials. Melting Point: 839°C Boiling Point: 1484°C Density (20°C): 1.55g/cm3

Ce CeriumA strong de-oxidant, promotes desulphurising. Improves the hot working ofhigh alloy steel and also the non-scaling properties of heat resisting steels. Melting Point: 795°C Boiling Point: 3257°C Density (20°C): 6.773g/cm3

Co CobaltObstructs grain growth at high temperatures. Often an element of highspeed steel, hot work steel and heat resisting raw materials. It actsfavourably on the graphitic formation and increases residual magnetism,coercive force and thermal conductivity. If subjected to neutron rays it formsa strong radio active Isotope Cobalt 60.Melting Point: 1495°C Boiling Point: 2870°C Density (20°C): 8.90g/cm3

Cr ChromiumIncreases hardness and strength but reduces elasticity slightly. Improvesresistance to heat and non scaling properties. The higher the Chromecontent the more corrosion resistant the steels become. Strong Carbideformer. The tensile strength of steel rises by 8-10kg/mm2 per 1% Cr. Melting Point: 1857°C Boiling Point: 2672°C Density (20°C): 7.19g/cm3

Cu CopperCopper increases the strength and the yield point of steel, but it impairs itsproperties of elasticity. A small amount of Copper renders steel resistant torusting though it does not impair the welding properties of steel. Melting Point: 1083°C Boiling Point: 2567°C Density (20°C): 8.96g/cm3

106


Element Properties in Alloys (continued)

H HydrogenHarmful to steel as it causes embrittlement by a reduction of elasticity andreduction of areas without increasing the yield point or tensile strength.Cause of the “flaking” problem and promotes hair line cracks. Melting Point: -259°C Boiling Point: -252°C Density (20°C): 0.08988g/cm3

Mn ManganeseImproves the strength of steel, but impairs elasticity, good forging andwelding properties. Higher presence of manganese with carbon, increasesthe wear resistance dramatically. With up to 3% of manganese the tensilestrength is increased by 10kg/mm2 for every percent of manganese.increases the depth of hardening.Melting Point: 1245°C Boiling Point: 1962°C Density (20°C): 7.43g/cm3

Mo MolybdenumImproves tensile strength, heat resistance and welding properties. Oftenused with chromium. Similar behaviour to tungsten. When used withchromium or nickel, it can produce high yield points and tensile values. Hasa tendency to form carbide and is the alloy element of choice in high speedand hot working steels. Melting Point: 2617°C Boiling Point: 4612°C Density (20°C): 10.22g/cm3

N NitrogenIn austenitic steels, stabilises the structure and increases hardness, yieldpoint and mechanical properties at high temperatures. Allows surfacehardness through nitride formation. Can be harmful as it decreases thetoughness during precipitation. Melting Point: -209.9°C Boiling Point: -195.8°C Density (20°C): 1.2506g/cm3

Nb/Cb Niobium/ColumbiumAlways found together and very difficult to separate, so they are alloyedtogether, usually as stabilisers. Melting Point: 2468°C Boiling Point: 4927°C Density (20°C): 8.57g/cm3

Ni NickelIncreases the strength of steel (less than silicon or manganese), elasticitydropping slightly. Ensures good hardening, especially when Chromium ispresent. Chrome Nickel steels are stainless and resistant to scaling andheat. Increases the notch impact value of structural steels, especially at lowtemperatures. Suitable for use in austenitic steels. Melting Point: 1453°C Boiling Point: 2732°C Density (20°C): 8.902g/cm3

O OxygenHarmful to steel but its influence depends on the type and composition ofthe compounds as well as the atomic properties. Melting Point: -218.4°C Boiling Point: -183°C.

P PhosphorusThere are various kinds of phosphorus, viz white (yellow), red (purple), blackand others. Phosphorus is considered to be detrimental to steel so that it isendeavoured to keep the phosphorous content in high-grade steel at amaximum of 0.03 - 0.05%. Melting Point: 44.1°C Boiling Point: 280°C Density (20°C): 1.82g/cm3.

Element Properties in Alloys (continued)

Pb LeadAlloyed to free-machining steels in amounts of 0.2 - 0.5%. Because of its

fine homogeneous distribution it allows the formation of short turnings and

better cutting surfaces, therefore better machining. Lead has no affect on

steel structure.

Melting Point: 327.5°C Boiling Point: 1740°C Density (20°C): 11.34g/cm3

S SulphurProduces “red shortness”, harmful as it makes steel brittle. Contents of

0.025% or 0.030% are permitted.

Melting Point: 112.8°C Boiling Point: 444.6°C Density (20°C): 2.07g/cm3

Se SeleniumUsed in free-machining steels like Sulphur. Enhances machineability. In

stainless steels it reduces the corrosion resistance (less than sulphur).

Melting Point: 217°C Boiling Point: 684.9°C Density (20°C): 4.79g/cm3

Si SiliconSilicon is present in all steels like manganese. The term “Silicon Steels”,

refers to the steels containing above 0.04%. Silicon is not a metal, instead

it is called a metalloid (like phosphorus). It increases mechanical strength,

resistance to scaling and density. Elasticity is affected slightly and tensile

strength is increased by 10kg/mm2 for each percent of silicon, (same

applies to the yield point). A high Silicon content (about 14%) enables steel

to resist chemical attack, but can no longer can be forged.

Melting Point: 1410°C Boiling Point: 2355°C Density (20°C): 2.329g/cm3

Ti TitaniumVery hard metal, strong carbide former. An alloying element mainly used in

stainless steels to stabilise against inter-granular corrosion. Also has grain

refining properties.

Melting Point: 1660°C Boiling point: 3287°C Density (20°C): 4.54g/cm3

V VanadiumA small addition improves the hot hardness and reduces the grain growth.

Works well in structural and tool steels, increases the cutting properties in

high speed steels. Strong carbide former, increases the tensile strength

and yield point. Good combination with Chromium in structural and heat

resisting steels and with Tungsten in high speed and hot work steels.


W TungstenImproves the strength properties, increases the hardness and life of cutting

edges, also maintains a good heat resistance level. Used as an alloy

element. Tensile and yield strengths are increased by 4kg/mm2 per percent


Zr ZirconiumCarbide former. Extra element for de-oxidation, desulphurisation and

eliminating Nitrogen, as it leaves minimal de-oxidation by product.

Melting Point: 1852°C Boiling Point: 4377°C Density (20°C): 6.9g/cm3.

107


10

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Colour Code:

Alkali Metals Other Metals Non-metals

Alkali Earth Metaloids HalogensMetals

Transitional Lanthanides NobleMetals & Actinides Gases

element nameatomic number

element symbol1995 atomic weight (mean relative mass)

Elements - Periodic Table

1 Key: Group Number 18

hydrogen helium

1 2

H He1.00794(7) 2 13 14 15 16 17 4.002602(2)

lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be B C N O F Ne6.941(2) 9.012182(3) 10.811(7) 12.0107(8) 14.00674(3) 15.9994(3) 18.9984032(5) 20.1797(6)

sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorous sulphur chlorine argon

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar22.989770(2) 24.3050(6) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.981538(2) 28.0855(3) 30.973761(2) 32.066(6) 35.4527(9) 39.948(1)

potassium calcium scandium titanium vandium chromium manganese iron colbalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr39.0983(1) 40.078(4) 44.955910(8) 47.867(1) 50.9415(1) 51.9961(6) 54.938049(9) 55.845(2) 58.933200(9) 58.6934(2) 63.546(3) 65.39(2) 69.723(1) 72.61(2) 74.92160(2) 78.96(3) 79.904(1) 83.80(1)

rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe85.4678(3) 87.62(1) 88.90585(2) 91.224(2) 92.90638(2) 95.94(1) [98.9063] 101.07(2) 102.90550(2) 106.42(1) 107.8682(2) 112.411(8) 114.818(3) 118.710(7) 121.760(1) 127.60(3) 126.90447(3) 131.29(2)

caesium barium Hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon

55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

Cs Ba * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn132.90545(2) 137.327(7) 178.49(2) 180.9479(1) 183.84(1) 186.207(1) 190.23(3) 192.217(3) 195.078(2) 196.96655(2) 200.59(2) 204.3833(2) 207.2(1) 208.98038(2) [208.9824] [209.9871] [222.0176]

francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium ununnilium unununium ununbium

87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

Fr Ra ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub[223.0197] [226.0254] [261.1089] [262.1144] [263.1183] [264.12] [265.1306] [268] [269] [272] [277]

* lanthanides

** actinides } see next page

10

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MA

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LS

Elements - Periodic Table (continued)

* lanthanides

** actinides

lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu138.9055(2) 140.116(1) 140.90765(2) 144.24(3) [144.9127] 150.36(3) 151.964(1) 157.25(3) 158.92534(2) 162.50(3) 164.93032(2) 167.26(3) 168.93421(2) 173.04(3) 174.967(1)

actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr[227.0277] 232.038(1) 231.03588(2) 238.0289(1) [237.0482] [244.0482] [243.0614] [247.0703] [247.0703] [251.0796] [252.0830] [257.0951] [258.0984] [259.1011] [262.110]

Symbols and namesThe symbols of the elements, their names, and their spellings arethose recommended by IUPAC. (International Union of Pure & AppliedChemistry)

Atomic numberThe atomic number corresponds to the number of protons in thenucleus of an atom of that element. It also corresponds to the numberof electrons in the neutral atom.

Standard atomic weightsIn the above table these are the IUPAC 1995 values.

"An atomic weight (relative atomic mass) of an element from aspecified source is the ratio of the average mass per atom of theelement to 1/12 of the mass of Carbon 12" in its nuclear and electronicground state.

A sample of any element consists of one or more isotopes of thatelement. Each isotope is a different weight. The relative amounts ofeach isotope for any element represent the isotope distribution for thatelement. The atomic weight is the average of the isotope weightsweighted for the isotope distribution and expressed on the Carbon 12scale as mentioned above.

Elements for which the atomic weight is contained within squarebrackets have no stable nuclides and are represented by one of theelement’s more important isotopes. The last significant figure of eachvalue is considered reliable to ±1 except where larger uncertainty is

given in parentheses.

UnitsAtomic mass units

Group numberThe group number is an identifier used to describe the column of thestandard periodic table in which the element appears.

Groups 1-2 (except hydrogen) and 13-18 are termed main groupelements.

Groups 3-11 are termed transition elements.

Main group elements in the first two rows of the table are called typicalelements.

The following names for specific groups in the periodic table are incommon use:

Group 1: alkali metalsGroup 2: alkaline earth metalsGroup 11: coinage metals (not an IUPAC approved name) Group 15: pnictogens (not an IUPAC approved name)Group 16: chalcogens Group 17: halogensGroup 18: noble gases

In addition, groups may be identified by the first element in each group- so the Group 16 is sometimes called the oxygen group.

110

M A T E R I A L S Steel - Comparative Specifications

Changing StandardsBS 970 is the UK standard covering steel for mechanical andallied engineering purposes and dates back to 1942(Emergency Number Series), since then there havebeen several revisions.

In 1970 the standard underwent majorchange, introducing a new six digit numberingsystem and the division of the standard into sixparts, each covering different categories of steel.

In 1983 and 1996 the standard was alsorestructured, main changes were asfollows:

1. Parts 1-4 of the 1970standard were revisedand combined to formPart 1 of the newstandard.

2. The provisions for the valuesof steel are still covered by BS 970: Part 4: 1970 and thosefor steels for hot formed springs by BS 970: Part 2: 1988. Bright Barsfor general engineering are covered by BS 970: Part 3: 1991.

3. The steel standard has been restructured sothat each section contains all the steelsintended for a particular purpose.

4. Steels containing micro alloy and boron were introduced, certain steelswere added and some deleted.

5. To reduce the number of steels generally in use, steels were split intotwo categories.

“Category 1”- a rationalised series for use in new designs and inestablished designs wherever possible.

“Category 2”- shown in italic type on the opposite pages, are non-preferred, from a steel manufacturing point of view.

Users are recommended to consult the complete standards for detailedinformation, particularly for details of testing and inspection procedures,freedom from defect requirements, steel-making and casting procedures aswell as for a range of graphs showing hardenability curves.

The standards can be obtained from: British Standards Institution.

Notes

The following pages give comparisons between the old EN series and new sixdigit reference. Comparison is also given between the new six digit referenceto standardised references used in Germany and the USA.

Comparisons are based on chemical composition and type analysis althoughsome variation in the main element can exist. Mechanical properties havenot been taken into account.

Users should treat tables only as a guide and the appropriate standardshould be consulted before specifying materials.

111

Steel - Comparative Specifications M A T E R I A L S

BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 AISI/ WERK- KURZ-1991 1983 1970/72 1955 SAE STOFF NAME

ENCarbon Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)

- - 015A03 - 1005 1.0314 D 6-2

- - 030A04 - 1006 1.0313 D 8-2

040A04 040A04 040A04 2A, 2A/1, 2B 1006 1.0313 D 8-2

040A10 040A10 040A10 2A, 2A/1, 2B 1010 1.0301 C 10

040A12 040A12 040A12 2A, 2A/1, 2B 1012 - -

- 040A15 040A15 - 1015 1.0401 C 15

- - 040A17 - 1017 1.0426 ASt 41

- 040A20 - 1020 1.0402 C 22

- - 040A22 2C, 2D 1023 1.0402 C 22

045A10 045A10 - - 1010 1.0301 C 10

045M10 045M10 045M10 32A 1010 1.0301 C 10

- - 050A04 - 1008 1.0333 St 13

- - 050A10 - 1010 1.0301 C 10

- - 050A12 - 1012 - -

- - 050A15 - 1015 1.0401 C 15

- - 050A17 - 1017 1.0426 ASt 41

- - 050A20 2C, 2D 1020 1.0402 C 22

- - 050A22 - 1023 1.0402 C 22

- - 050A86 - 1086 1.1830 C 85 W

055M15 055M15 - 2 1016 - -

- - 060A10 - 1010 1.0301 C 10

- - 060A12 - 1010 1.0301 C 10

- - 060A15 - 1015 1.0401 C 15

- - 060A17 - 1017 1.0426 ASt 41

- - 060A20 - 1020 1.0402 C 22

- - 060A22 - 1023 1.0402 C 22

- - 060A25 - 1025 - -

- - 060A27 - 1029 1.0415 D 25-2

- - 060A30 - 1030 - -

- 060A32 060A32 - 1035 1.1180 Cm 35

- - 060A35 - 1035 1.1180 Cm 35

- - 060A37 - 1038 1.1183 Cf 35

- 060A40 060A40 - 1040 1.1186 Ck 40

- - 060A42 - 1042 - -

- 060A45 - - 1045 1.1191 Ck 45

- 060A47 060A47 - 1045 1.1191 Ck 45

- - 060A52 - 1050 1.1210 Ck 53

- 060A57 060A57 - 1055 1.0535 C 55

060A62 060A62 060A62 43D 1060 1.0601 C 60

060A67 060A67 060A67 - 1064 - -

060A72 060A72 060A72 - - - -

060A78 060A78 060A78 - - - -

060A81 060A81 - - 1080 - -

- - 060A83 - - - -

- - 060A86 - 1084 - -

- - 060A96 44, 44B - -

- - 060A99 - - - -

- - 070A72 42 1070 - -

- - 070A78 42 - - -

070M20 070M20 070M20 3A, 3C 1023 1.0402 C22

- 070M26 070M26 3 1026 - -

070M55 070M55 070M55 9 1055 1.0535 C55

080A15 - 080A15 32 1016 1.0401 C15

112



EnCarbon Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)

- - 080A17 - 1018 - -080A20 - 080A20 - 1021 - -

- - 080A22 - - - -- - 080A25 - 1026 - -- - 080A27 5A 1029 - -

080A30 080A30 080A30 5B 1030 - -

- 080A32 080A32 5C 1035 1.1180 Cm 35

- 080A35 080A35 8A 1035 1.1180 Cm 35

- 080A37 080A37 8B 1038 -

- 080A40 080A40 8C 1040 1-1186 Ck40

080A42 080A42 080A42 8D 1042 -

080A47 080A47 080A47 43B 1046 1.1730 C45W

- 080A52 080A52 43C 1053 - -

- 080A57 080A57 - 1055 1.0535 C 55

- - 080A62 - 1060 1.0601 C 60080A67 080A67 080A67 43E 1065 - -

- - 080A72 - 1070 - -- - 080A78 - 1080 - -- - 080A83 - 1085 - -- - 080A86 - 1085 - -- 080H36 080H36 - 1035 - -

- 080H41 080H41 - 1039 - -

- 080H46 080H46 - 1046 - -080M15 080M15 080M15 32C 1016 1.0401 C 15080M30 080M30 080M30 5 1030 1.1178 Ck30

- 080M36 080M36 - 1035 -080M40 080M40 080M40 8 1040 1.1186 Ck40

- 080M46 080M46 - 1045 1.1191 Ck45080M50 080M50 080M50 43A 1049 - -

Carbon Manganese Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)

- 120M19 120M19 - - - -

- 120M28 120M28 - 1526 1.1161 26 Mn 5

- 120M36 120M36 15B - - -125A15 125A15 125A15 - - - -

130M15 130M15 130M15 201 - - -- 135M44 - - - - -

150M19 150M19 150M19 14A, 14B 1524 - -- 150M28 150M28 14A, 14B - - -

150M36 150M36 150M36 15 - 1.1167 36 Mn 5- 150M40 - - 1541 - -

Boron Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)

17OH15 17OH15 - - - - -170H20 170H20 - - 15B21H 1.5523 19 MnB 4170H36 170H36 - - 15B35H - -170H41 170H41 - - - 1.5527 40 MnB 4173H 16 173H 16 - - - - -174H20 174H20 - - - - -175H23 175H23 - - - - -185H40 185H40 - - - - -

Carbon and Carbon Manganese Free Cutting Steels (Category 2 Shown in Italics)

210A15 21OA15 21OA15 - 1117 - -

210M15 210M15 210M15 32M 1117 - -- 212A37 212A37 8BM - - -

212A42 212A42 212A42 8DM - - -

113



EnCarbon and Carbon Manganese Free Cutting Steels (Category 2 Shown in Italics)

- 212M36 212M36 8M 1140 1.0726 35 S 20

- - 212M44 8M - - -

214A15 214A15 214A15 - 1118 - -

214M15 214M15 214M15 202 1118 - -

- 216A42 - - - - -

- 216M28 216M28 - 1132 - -

216M36 216M36 216M36 15AM 1137 - -

- 216M44 - - - - -

- 220M07 220M07 1113 1.0711 9 S 20

- 225M36 225M36 - - - -

- - 225M44 - 1144 - -

226M44 226M44 - 8M 1144 1.0727 45 S 20

230M07 230M07 230M07 1A 1213 1.0715 9 SMn 28

230M07Pb 230M07 Pb - 1A Pb 12L14 1.0718 9 SMn Pb28

240M07 240M07 - 1BSilico Manganese Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)

- - 250A53 45 9255 1.0904 55 Si 7

- - 250A58 45A 9260 1.0909 60 Si 7

- - 250A61 45B 9260 1.0909 60 SI 7Micro - Alloy Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)

280M011 280M011 - - - - -Stainless Heat Resisting & Valve Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)

- - 302S25 58A 302 - -

302S31 302S31 - - 302 - -

- - 303S21 58M 303 1.4305 X12 CrNiS 18 8

303S31 303S31 - 58M 303 1.4305 X10 CrNiS 18 9

- - 303S41 58M 303Se - -

303S42 303S42 - 58AM 303Se 1.4305 X10 CrNiS 18 9

304S11 304S11 - - 304L 1.4306 X2 CrNi 19 11

- - 304S12 - 304L 1.4306 X2 CrNi 18 9

304S15 304S15 304S15 58E 304 1.4301 X5 CrNi 18 10

304S31 304S31 - - 304 1.4301 X5 CrNi 18 10

- - 310S24 - 310 1.4842 X6 CrNi 25 20

310S31 310S31 - - 310 1.4845 X12 CrNi 25 21

- - 315S16 58H - 1.4420 X5 CrNiMo 17 13 2

316S11 316S11 - - 316L 1.4404 X2 CrNiMo 18 10

- - 316S12 - 316L 1.4404 X2 CrNiMo 18 10

316S13 316S13 - - 316L 1.4435 X2 CrNiMo 18 14 3

- - 316S16 58J 316L 1.4435 X2 CrNiMo 18 12

316S31 316S31 - - 316 1.4401 X5 CrNiMo 17 12 2

316S33 316S33 - - 316 1.4436 X5 CrNiMo 17 13 3

- - 317S12 - 317L 1.4438 X2 CrNiMo 18 16

- - 317S16 - 317 1.4449 X5 CrNiMo 17 1 3

- - 320S17 58J 316Ti 1.4573 X10 CrNiMoTi 18 1

32OS31 32OS31 - - 316Ti 1.4571 X6 CrNiMoTi 17 12 2

- - 321S12 58B, 58C 321 1.4541 X10 CrNiTi 18 9

- - 321S20 58B, 58C - 1.4878 X12 CrNiTi 18 9

321S31 321S31 - - 321 1.4541 X6 CrNiTi 18 10

- - 325S2 1 58M - - -

325S31 325S31 - - - - -

- - 326S36 58JM 316Se - -

- - 331S40 54 EV9 - -

114



EnStainless Heat Resisting & Valve Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)

- † 331S42 54A EV9 - -- - 347S17 58F, 58G 347 1.4550 X6 CrNiNb 18 10

347S31 347S31 - - 347 1.4550 X10 CrNiNb 18 9- † 349S52 - EV8 1.4871 X53 CrMnNiN 21 9- † 349S54 - EV8 1.4871 X53 CrMnNiN 21 9- † 352S52 - - - -- † 352S54 - - - -- † 381S34 - EV4 - -- † 401S45 52 HNV3 1.4718 X45 CrSi 9 3

403S17 403S17 403S17 - 403 1.4000 X7 Cr 13410S21 410S21 41OS21 56A 410S 1.4006 X10 Cr 13416S21 416S21 416S21 56AM 416 1.4005 X12 Cr S 13416S29 416S29 416S29 56BM - - -416S37 416S37 416S37 56CM - - -416S41 416S41 416S41 56AM 416Se - -42OS29 42OS29 42OS29 56B 420 1.4021 X20 Cr 1342OS37 42OS37 42OS37 56C - - -

- - 42OS45 56D 420F 1.4028 X30 Cr 13- - 430S15 60 430 1.4016 X8 Cr 17

430S17 430S17 430S17 - 430 1.4016 X6 Cr 17431S29 431S29 431S29 57 431 1.4057 X20 CRNI 17 2

- - 441S29 57 - - -- - 441S49 - 431Se - -- † 443S66 59 HNV6 1.4747 X80 CrNiSi 20

Alloy Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)

- - 503A37 12B - - -- - 503A42 12C - - -- - 503H37 - - - -- - 503H42 - - - -- - 503M40 12 - - -- - 523A14 206 5015 1.7012 13 Cr 2

523H15 523H15 - - 5015 1.7012 13 Cr 2523M15 523M 15 523M15 - 5015 1.7015 15 Cr 3

- - 526M60 11 5160 - -527A17 527A17 - - 5115 - -

- - 527A19 207 5120 1.7121 20 Cr MnS 33- - 527A60 48 5160 1.7176 55 Cr 3- 527H17 - - 5115 -- - 527H60 - 5160 1.7176 55 Cr 3

527M17 527M17 - - 5115 - -- - 527M20 - 5120 1.7121 20 Cr MnS 33- 530A30 530A30 18A 5130 1.7030 28 Cr 4

- 530A32 530A32 18B 5130 1.7033 34 Cr 4

- 530A36 530A36 18C 5132 1.7034 37 Cr 4

- 530A40 530A40 18D 5140 1.7035 41 Cr 4

- - 530H30 - 5130 1.7030 28 Cr 4- 530H32 530H32 - 5130 1.7033 34 Cr 4- 530H36 530H36 - 5132 1,7034 37 Cr 4- 530H40 530H40 - 5140 1.7035 41 Cr 4

530M40 530M40 530M40 18 5140 1.7035 41 Cr 4- - 534A99 31 52100 1.3505 100 Cr 6- 535A99 535A99 31 52100 1.3505 100 Cr 6

590A15 590A 15 - - - 1.7131 16 Mn Cr 5

59OH17 59OH17 - - - 1.7131 16 Mn Cr 5

115



EnAlloy Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)

590M17 590M17 - - - 1.7131 16 Mn Cr 5- 605A32 605A32 16B - - -

- 605A37 605A37 16C - - -

- 605H32 605H32 - - - -

- 605H37 605H37 - - - -

- - 605M30 16D - - -605M36 605M36 605M36 16 - - -606M36 606M36 606M36 16M - - -

- - 608H37 - - - -- - 608M38 17 - - -

635A14 635A14 635A14 - - - -

635H15 635H15 635H15 - - - -

635M15 635M15 635M15 351 - - -

637A16 637A16 637A16 - - - -

637H17 637H l 7 637H l 7 - - - -

637M17 637M17 637M1 7 352 - - -

- - 640A35 111A 3135 1.5710 36 NiCr 6- - 640H35 - 3135 1.5710 36 NiCr 6- - 640M40 111 A3141 1.5711 40 NiCr 6- - 653M31 23 - 1.5755 31 NiCr 14k- - 655A12 - - 1.5752 14 NiCr 14

655H13 655H13 655H13 - - 1.5752 14 NiCr 14

655M13 655M13 655M13 36A - 1.5752 14 NiCr 14

- - 659A15 - - 1.5860 14 NiCr 18- - 659H15 - - 1.5860 14 NiCr 18- - 659M15 39A - 1.5860 14 NiCr 18- - 665A17 - 4615 - -- - 665A19 - 4620 - -- - 665A22 35A - - -- - 665A24 35B - - -

665H17 665H17 665H17 - 4615 - -

665H20 665H20 665H20 - 462OH - -

665H23 665H23 665H23 - - - -

665M17 665M17 665M 17 34 4615 - -

665M20 665M20 665M20 - 4620 - -

665M23 665M23 665M23 35 - - -

- 708A25 - - - - -

- 708A30 - - 4130 - -

- 708A37 708A37 19B 4137 1.7220 34 CrMo 4

- 708A40 - - 4140 1.7225 42 CrMo 4

- 708A42 708A42 19C 4142 1.7225 42 CrMo 4

- 708A47 - - 4147 1.7228 50 CrMo 4

708H20 708H20 - - - - -- 708H37 708H37 - 4137H 1.7220 34 CrMo 4- 708H42 708H42 - 4142H 1.7227 42 CrMoS 4- 708H45 - - 4145H - -

708M20 708M20 - - - - -708M40 708M40 708M40 19A 4140 1.7225 42 CrMo 4

- 709A37 - - - 1.7220 34 CrMo 4

- 709A40 - - - 1.7225 42 CrMo 4

- 709A42 - - - 1.7225 42 CrMo 4

709M40 709M40 709M40 19 - 1.7225 42 CrMo 4720M32 720M32 - - - 1.7361 32 CrMo 12722M24 722M24 722M24 40B - 1.7361 32 CrMo 12

116


Steel BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 AISI/ WERK- KURZ-

1983 1970/72 1955 SAE STOFF NAME

EnAlloy Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)

- - 735A50 47 6150 1.8159 50 CrV 4

- - 785M19 13 - - -

- - 805A15 - 8615 - -

805A17 805A17 805A17 - 8617 1.6523 21 NiCrMo 2

805A20 805A20 805A20 - 8620 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22

805A22 805A22 805A22 - 8622 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22

- - 805A24 - 8625 - -

- - 805A60 - 8660 - -

805H17 805H17 805H17 - 8617H 1.6523 21 NiCrMo 2

805H20 805H20 805H20 - 862OH 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22

805H22 805H22 805H22 - 8622H 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22

- - 805H25 - 8625H - -

- - 805H60 - 866OH - -

805M17 805M17 805M17 361 8617 1.6523 21 NiCrMo 2

805M20 805M20 805M20 362 8620 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22

805M22 805M22 805M22 - 8622 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22

- - 805M25 363 8625 - -

808H17 808H17 - - - - -

808M17 808M17 - - - - -

- - 815A16 - - - -

815H17 815H17 815H17 - - - -

815M17 815M17 815M17 353 - - -

- - 816M40 110 - 1.6511 36 CrNiMo 4

- 817A37 - - 4340 - -

- 817A42 - - 4340 - -

817M40 817M40 817M40 24 4340 1.6566 40 NiCrMo 6

- - 820A16 - - - -

820H17 820H17 820H17 - - - -

820M17 820M17 820M17 354 - - -

822A17 - 822A17 - - - -

822H17 822H17 822H17 - - - -

822M17 822M17 822M17 355 - - -

823M30 - 823M30 - - 1.6580 30 CrNiMo 8

826M31 826M31 826M31 25 - 1.6743 32 NiCrMo 10 4

826M40 826M40 826M40 26 - 1 6745 40 NiMoCr 10 5

- - 830M31 27 - 1.6746 32 NiCrMo 14 5

832H13 832H13 832H13 - - 1.6657 14 NiCrMo 13 4

832M13 832M13 832M13 36C 9310 1.6657 14 NiCrMo 13 4

- - 835A15 - - 1.6723 15 NiCrMo 16 5

835H15 835H15 835H15 - - 1.6723 1 5 NiCrMo 16 5

835M15 835M15 835M15 39B - 1.6723 15 NiCrMo 16 5

- 835M30 835M30 30B - 1.6747 30 NiCrMo 16 6

897M39 897M39 897M39 4OC - 1. 8523 39 CrMo V 13 9

- - 905M31 41A - 1.8507 34 CrAlMo 5

905M39 905M39 905M39 41B - 1.8509 41 CrAiMo 7

- - 925A60 - - - -

- - 945A40 100C - - -

945M38 945M38 945M38 100 - - -

M E A S U R I N G

ME

AS

UR

IN

G

117

Calipers & Dividers 118

Calipers - Vernier, Dial & Digital 119

Edge & Centre Finders 120 - 121

Engineers’ Squares 122

External Micrometers 123 - 124

Height & Depth Gauges 125

Protractors & Combination Sets 126 - 127

Refractometers 128 - 129

Sine Bars 130

Section

7

118

M E A S U R I N G Cal ipers & Div iders

CalipersFor taking transfer measurements orcomparisons of dimensions. Whentaking an internal measurement, thelegs are opened until they are justtouching the maximum dimension. It isusual to rock the calipers backwardand forward to make sure theadjustment is correct and gives a truemeasurement. This can then bechecked accurately using a micrometeror with a try square and rule.

Spring TypeThe legs pivot on a roller and aretensioned by a bow spring. Adjustmentis made by opening or closing the legsby means of an adjusting nut whichgives a much finer setting than can beobtained with firm joint type. Thenominal size is the distance from thecentre of the roller to the point of theleg, this measurement also beingeffective capacity.

Firm Joint TypeThe legs are hinged using a largeheaded nut and screw when tightenedprovides a rigid joint without play. Thecalipers have bowed tapered legs forexternal work or straight tapered legswith feet bent outward for internalwork.

Jenny Calipers Also known as hermaphrodite or oddleg calipers. Jenny calipers are usedfor scribing lines from the edge of aplate or shoulder, they are made in thefirm joint type with large nut and screwto provide rigidity. The scribing leg ispointed and hardened or alternativelyfitted with a replaceable point. Theother leg is shaped with a toe orprojection for locating from the datum.

DividersDividers are designed for marking outof circles on steel or the transferenceof measurements from a mastertemplate. They are used by holding thepeg and pressing it towards the work,the pivoting leg is kept in the centrelocation and the scribing leg marks atrue circle.

SpringType

JennyCalipers

Dividers

119

Cal ipers - Vern ier , D ia l & Dig ita l M E A S U R I N G

How to Read a Vernier Caliper.Reading in two-hundreths of a millimetre (0.02 mm)The main scale is graduated in millimetres and numbered every tendivisions. The Vernier scale is divided into 50 divisions over a distance of49mm, each division equalling 0.98mm. The difference between a divisionon the main scale to one on the Vernier scale is 0.02mm (1/50mm).

To take a reading, note the position of the zero line on the Vernier scale inrelation to the main scale i.e. 21mm. To this should be added the numberof divisions from zero on the Vernier scale to the line coincident with a lineon the main scale i.e 42 divisions or 42/50 of a millimetre (0.84 mm).

Reading: 21.00mm + 0.84 mm = 21.84 mm.

Reading in thousandths of an inch (0.001”)The main scale is graduated and numbered in inches, witheach inch graduated and numbered in tenths (0.1”). Each

numbered subdivision is graduated into four unnumbereddivisions (0.025”). The Vernier scale is divided into 25 divisions over adistance of 1.225”, each division equalling 0.049”. The differencebetween a division on the main scale to one on the Vernier scale is 0.001”(one thou’)

To take a reading, note the position of the zero line on the Vernier scale inrelation to the main scale i.e. 1.250”. To this should be added the numberof divisions from zero on the Vernier scale to the line coincident with a lineon the main scale i.e. 12 (0.012”).

Reading : 1.250” + 0.012” = 1.262”.

Dial Type Vernier CaliperThe whole numbers (centimetres andmillimetres) are read from the main scalefrom zero to the chamfered edge of thecursor. The decimal numbers are readfrom the dial, numbered divisions beingthe first decimal place and unnumbereddivisions the second decimal place.

To read the measurement, note the reading on the main scale i.e 13mm.To this must be added the reading on the dial i.e. 0.74mm.

Reading : 13mm + 0.74mm = 13.74mm

Electronic Digital CaliperMeasurements are clearly presented onan LCD display, easily switchable tometric or imperial readout. Resolution is0.01mm or 0.0005” with an accuracy to0.03mm or 0.001”.

The zero reset is available at any pointand converts the readout to show actualdeviations (plus or minus) between likecomponents or from a set standard. The zero reset also providesautomatic compensation for wear and eliminates the need for recalibration.

120

M E A S U R I N G Edge & Centre F inders

Edge & Centre Finders- Cylinder Type

For fast accurate worklocation. Used on f lat surfaces,straight edges, shoulders,grooves, studs, dowels,centre points and scribedlines.

To locate an edge, f irstsecure the finder in a colletor chuck, the work table isthen traversed to cause therotating edge finder to makecontact with the workpiece (fig 1).

Upon touching the workpiece,the edge finder’s contactpoint wil l be forced intorunning concentrically withthe body (fig 2). Any furthermovement to “off-centre” willcause a distinct wobble.

At this point, the distancefrom the work edge to thecentre of the finder is equalto half the diameter of thecontact point.

Datum l ines and centrepoints are located using thecombination edge and centrefinder (fig 3).

This has a cone shapedcontact point which islowered into position barelytouching the workpiece at thepoint you wish to measure.

The finder is made to runconcentrically using a steelrule or straight edge (fig 4).

Diameters

Shank 0.200”Body 0.375”Shank 10mmBody 10mmShank 0.200”Body 0.500”

Edge & Centre Finders

Combination

Double Edge

Plain Edge

Edge Finders

fig 2

fig 3

fig 4

fig 1

Diameters

Shank 0.200”Body 0.500”Shank 0.200”Body 0.375”

Diameters

Shank 0.200”Body 0.500”

Diameters

Shank 0.200”Body 0.500”

M E A S U R I N G Engineers’ Squares

Engineers’ Squares These tools have been developed in three grades for use in workshopinspection and gauge rooms. They are made to BS939.

Grade ‘AA’ (Reference) is designed primarily for references purposes in gaugerooms.

The working faces are hardened and finished to an accuracy of a0.006mm per 300 mm length of blade (0.00025” per foot). Theedges of the blades are bevelled to a narrow working face so thatany deviation between work and blade can be quickly detected.

Great care must be exercised when using these precision tools andfor reliable gauge tests it is recommended that all checks aremade at the internationally recognised measuring temperature of20°C (68°F)

The two larger sizes of this type of precision square (450mm and600mm) are fitted with a special design of blade to ensure that thetool is within the specified close limits when held horizontally.

Grade ‘A’ (Inspection) is made with all theworking faces hardened and finished to anaccuracy of 0.0416mm per 1000mm length ofblade (0.0005” per foot) and is suitable fortoolroom and inspection room work.

Grade ‘B’ (Workshop) is the most popular type and is made to an accuracy of0.083mm per 1000mm length of blade (0.001” per foot). The blade ishardened and tempered but the stock is not heat treated.

Toolmakers’ Adjustable Steel SquaresThis tool is a modification of the engineers’ square and is fitted withreplaceable adjustable blades instead of the fixed blade. To increase theapplications of this square, one of the replaceable blades is ground with 45°and 30° angle ends. These modifications make the tool very useful for anumber of applications in restricted places. With the rule blade fitted it can beused as a depth gauge. The stock and blades have working faces hardened

and precision ground. The rule blade is available withgraduations in 0.5mm or 1/64ths of an inch.

1. Angle Blade Hardened and tempered. Precisionground on edges. Accurately ground angles.

2. Narrow Rule Hardened and accuratelygraduated.

3. Plain Square Blade hardened and tempered.Precision ground on edges. When the clamp isreleased blade can be removed or set to any desired

position.

4. Stock hardened, all faces ground.

122

13

2

4

123

Externa l Micrometers M E A S U R I N G

How to Read a MicrometerReading in 0.01 mm (Hundredths of a Millimetre)

Metric micrometers can be read to 0.01 mm (one hundredth of amillimetre). As the screw on metric micrometers has a pitch of 0.5mm sotwo revolutions of the thimble will move the spindle through 1.0mm. Onthe sleeve the datum line is graduated with two sets of lines - the setbelow the line reading in millimetres and the set above the line reading inhalf millimetres.(N.B. On earlier models the millimetres are graduated above the datumline with half millimetres below.)

The thimble is divided into fifty equal divisions, figured in fives so thateach small division on the thimble represents 1/50 of 0.5mm which equals0.01 mm.

To read the metricmicrometer, first note thewhole number ofmillimetre divisions on thesleeve (main divisions)then observe whetherthere is a half millimetrevisible (minor divisions)and lastly read thethimble for hundredths(thimble divisions) i.e. theline on thimble coincidingwith the datum line.

Example for reading shown above:Main Divisions: 1 x 1.mm = 1.00Minor Divisions: 1 x 0.5mm = 0.50Thimble Divisions: 20 x 0.01mm = 0.20Reading: 1.70mm

Reading in thousandths of an inch (1/1000” or 0.001”)

The inch reading micrometer screw has 40 threads per inch, so that onecomplete revolution moves it 1/40” (0.025”) and in 1/25 of a turn it willmove 1/25 of 1/40” which is 0.001”. The sleeve has marked on it maindivisions representing tenths of an inch - that is 0.001” each. Every maindivision is sub-divided into four minor divisions representing 0.025”each. The thimble is divided into twenty-five equal thimble divisions andas one full turn is equal to one minor division on the sleeve (0.025”)then one division on the thimble will be 1/1000” or 0.001”. Thus to readthe setting shown, count the number of tenths (main divisions), add thenumber of minor divisions multiplied by 0.025”, then add the number of thousandth divisions on the thimble (thimbledivisions) i.e. the line on the thimble coinciding with the datum line.

124

M E A S U R I N G Externa l Micrometers

1. Anvil End - Cutaway frame facilitates usage in narrow slots.2. Spindle and Anvil Faces - Glass hard, optically flat tungsten carbide.3. Spindle - Ground thread, made from hardened alloy steel.4. Locking Lever - Effective at any position. Retains spindle alignment.5. Sleeve - Adjustment setting for zero setting. Marked clearly and

divided accurately. Satin chrome plated.6. Thimble - Each graduation clearly numbered and divided accurately.

Satin chrome plated.7. Screw Adjusting Nut - Allows accurate adjustment of the main nut.8. Main Nut - Long thread length to prolong the micrometers working life.9. Ratchet - Even pressure through an improved design.10. Thimble Adjusting Nut - Controls position of thimble.11. Steel Frame - Drop forged pearl chrome plated.

2

3 96 10854 7

11

1

External MicrometersThe most important features of micrometers are:Accuracy - Conforms with the relevant British standard specification.Spindle - One piece alloy steel hardened throughout and stabilised. Easy Reading - Thimbles and sleeves are accurately divided and clearlymarked, having a pearl chrome finish to prevent glare.Frames - All frames up to and including 150mm (6”) capacity, are madefrom steel drop forgings.

Interchangeable Anvil MicrometersBy using interchangeable anvils of different lengths, these micrometershave a larger capacity than the ordinary micrometer with a fixed anvil. Thisfeature enables several articles of various dimensions to be quickly andc o n v e n i e n t l ymeasured with theone micrometer. Adjustment - for wearon the screw and zerosetting, is exactly as forexternal micrometers,using the large key. Forwear on the anvils,adjustment is made by thetwo anvil adjusting nuts,using the two small keys. Always use the standards forchecking after interchanging anvil.

125

ProjectionInside bore or slot

Deep Hole

Stepped

Height & Depth Gauges M E A S U R I N G

Vernier Height GaugesHeight gauges are designed to provideaccurate and precise verticalmeasurements from a surface plate ortable of grade “A” limits. The scale isengraved on a vertical beam ofrectangular, triangular, or other section,and the base must be of ampleproportions to ensure rigidity to theinstrument. The sliding jaw is providedwith a vernier scale reading to 0.02mmand a suitable assembly or clamp isdesigned to read direct from zero.

1. Beam2. Fine adjustment clamp3. Vernier scale4. Main scale5. Base6. Scriber clamp7. Scriber8. Sliding jaw9. Fine adjustment roller

Depth GaugeMicrometersThe measuring faces of base androds are hardened

The rods are marked withrespective capacity and aresquare to base in any position.

1. Thimble2. Thimble Cap3. Interchangeable Rods

Typical Applications:

1

1

2

29

8

3

4

5

7 6

3

126

M E A S U R I N G Protractors

Universal Bevel ProtractorsUsed for the measurement and marking out of angles. Thebody of the gauge is graduated through 360o and a bevelledsegments fitted on the rotating centre, graduated on bothsides of the zero line with a vernier scale to read to 1/12 of a

degree or 5 minutes of arc.

The graduated scales and the vernier plates arepearl chrome plated for easy reading and theblades hardened and tempered.

A ful ly universal type has anadditional locating leg on which is

fitted an adjustable acuteangle attachment, makingthe instrument capable ofmeasuring the smallestangle from zero. On this

type a separate small knurledpinion engages with a gear in theback of the protractor which enablesfine adjustments to be made.

The ratio between the small pinion and the internal gear is 8 to 1 whichmakes it possible to rotate the centre slowly so that the vernier scale canbe set very precisely. The small pinion thumbscrew can be withdrawn aftermaking the adjustment and clamping the rotating centre to prevent anyfurther movement and allows the gauge to lie flat on a plate for markingout or gauging purposes.

How to Read a Universal Bevel Protractor.Whole numbers of degrees can be read by simply taking readings with thezero line on the vernier. Where this line coincides with a line on the Mainscale, an exact number of wholedegrees is indicated.The vernier on a bevel protractorenables readings to be taken to fiveminutes or 1/12 of a degree. Onedivision on the vernier is this amountshorter than the two divisions on themain scale.

If the zero line on the vernier does not coincide exactly with a line on themain scale, it is necessary to findthe vernier line which does coincidewith a main scale line; and thisindicates the number of five minutesor 1/12 of a degree to be added to thewhole of degrees.To take a reading, therefore, notethe number of whole degrees, andthen count in the same direction, the number of divisions on the vernierscale form the zero line to the first line on the vernier scale that coincideswith a line on the main scale. As each of these is five minutes, multiply byfive and the number of minutes to be added to the whole number ofdegrees will be indicated.

127

M E A S U R I N GProtractors & Combination Sets

Combination SetsThe combination set consists of:Rule - Hardened and accurately graduated in 300 mm, 450 mm and 600 mmlengths.Range of graduations available:

One side in half millimetres and 32nds of an inch.Reverse side in millimetres and 64ths of an inch.

Square head - Drop forged steel (containing spirit level and scriber).Centre head - Drop forged steel.Protractor head - graduated to read from 0-180o in both directions and alsofitted with a spirit level.

1. Spirit Levels2. Square Head3. Protractor Head

4. Steel Rule5. Centre Head6. Scriber

Typical applications:

Try square& height gauge

Centre lineof disc Depth

gauge

Rule set at 90º andused as depth gauge

Mitre 45º

45º Anglegauge

Measuringangle ofhexagon

Measuringangle of slide

1

1

2

3

4

5

6

128

M E A S U R I N G Refractometers

Refractometers

An optical instrument which uses the variation in refractive index of fluids at different concentrations to measure dilution ratios.

Instructions:Readings will vary according to Temperature. It is recommended that the refractometer should becalibrated before every use.

CalibrationUse a standard of known value, on the refractive index. Distilled water being zero, is recommended.

1. Open cover plate, and ensure both prism, and inner face of cover plate areclean. Use a soft clean and lint free cloth.2. Place a drop of distilled water onto the centre of the prism and close thecover.3. The sample will spread over the surface of the prism and become a thinfilm.4. With a light source (daylight is preferable) above the prism cover, lookthrough the eyepiece. Focus is adjusted by means of rotating the adjuster. Theline of measurement is the boundary line between the blue and white zones.5. Using the small screwdriver provided adjust the calibration screw until theboundary line is exactly at zero on the scale.

The refractor is now ready for use.6. To measure a sample from the coolant system, take a drop from the outletpipe of the machine. This avoids picking up any tramp oil from the surface ofthe coolant tank.7. After cleaning (drying) the prism and inner face of the cover plate, place adrop from the sample onto the centre of the prism.8. Close the lid and take a reading by looking through the eyepiece (focus asnecessary by rotating the adjuster) and record the figure where the boundaryline passes through the scale.9. Clean prism and cover after use. The reading taken should be related to therefraction index figure given for the particular product and dilution by themanufacturer.

If this figure is not available the following is an alternative means ofestablishing one. After following the calibration procedure (steps 1 to 4) mix a small sample ofthe emulsion in a measuring cylinder, using the manufacturers recommendedproportion of oil to water. This sample may then be measured following steps7 to 9 to establish the correct scale reading for that particular product anddilution. You can now compare using steps 6 to 9, a sample from the machineto determine the strength of the coolant in the system. The higher the reading,the more concentrated the mix is. The nearer to zero the reading is, theweaker the solution.

0123456789101112131415

No 1333

1340

1345

1350

1355

BX %20ºC

CalibratedRefractive

Scale

Calibration

Screw Cower

Refraction

Prism

Barrel

Cover Plate

Eyepiece &

Focus Adjuster

129

Refractometers M E A S U R I N G

Application

Maintaining the correct mixture in coolant systems is vital to ensure optimumperformance from cutting tools. To protect the machine and work piece fromcorrosion and to reduce the risk of health hazards arising from incorrectconcentrations of water soluble oils. To economise the use of water cuttingfluids and grinding fluids

NOTE: Dilution ratio does not necessarily give an indication of the condition ofthe emulsion. Bacteria and/or pH level can effect coolant

The pH Scale

pH is a measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous fluid. pHshould be measured using pH papers, which are available from your localdistributor. The end of the paper should be dipped into the test fluid. with amatter of seconds it will change colour. This colour can then be matched to astandard pH colour chart. Always test a sample from the outlet pipe of themachine. This avoids picking up tramp oil from the surface of the coolanttank.

Typical fresh cutting fluids are in the range pH 9 to 9.5

Each division on the scale is a factor of 10 from the next, eg. pH 9 is tentimes more alkaline than pH 8.

The pH level should never be above 10 as this will cause skin irritation.

Bacteria prefer slightly acidic condition, ie. just below pH 7 but start to beencouraged at anything below around pH 8. Bacteria can live at pH9 and asthey work they excrete acid waste which reduces the pH of the emulsion,further improving their enviroment.Alkaline pH’s reduce corrosion of ferrous materials and above pH 12 there isno corrosion on these materials.Cutting fluids are usually formulated to have a fresh emulsion pH in the range9.0 - 9.5, ie. as high as possible to resist bacteria and corrosion withoutcausing skin problems.

2 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 131

More Acidic Neutral More Alkaline

pHLevel

Very little bacteriaGrowth

Very little bacteria Good for Aggressive to the

Growth bacteria Growth Skin NoCorrosionOn ferrousMaterial

3 4

M E A S U R I N G Sine Bars

Sine Bars A Sine Bar is used to setup angles on a layout table or in a millingmachine vice. It consists of a bar with two pins mounted at an accuratepredetermined distance. One end is raised to a measured height by usinggauge blocks or an adjustable parallel. As the length between the pins isalways a constant value, trigonometry can be used to determine the anglerequired in order to achieve a specific height, or vice-versa.

See Page 74 for Solution of Right Angled Triangle.

1. Table/Vice Roll-Pin. Rests on the inspection table or machine bed.2. Gauge Block Roll-Pin. Rests on top of the gauge block(s)3. Steel Bar. Precision machined to ensure flatness . 4. Catch Plate or Shoe. Allows a workpiece to berested on the bar for inspection, markingor positioning prior to fixturing andmachining.

How to Use a Sine Bar

1. To set an angle on a sine bar,sine plate, compound sine plate,or other sine tool, you mustfirst determine the centredistance of the device “a”and the angle you wish toset “B”.

2. Find the sine of angle “B”from the tables on pages 70and 71 of this handbook.

3. This figure is multiplied by the centre distance “a” of the sine bar orplate. The result is the gauge height required “b”. Gauge blocks areproduced down to units of 0.001mm - for workshop purposes the gauge

height should be rounded to 2 or 3decimal places.

4 . Assemble a stack of gaugeblocks to the required height andplace them under the “gauge blockroll-pin” of the sine bar, and thedesired angle is set.

5 . I f the device has a lockingmechanism it should be tightened atthis point. The sine bar is now readyto use to check, hold or mark therequired angle.

130

Gauge(s)bB

To obtain the gauge height needed toset a 52O 20” angle on a 125mmbar, look up the sine of 52O 20”

a = 52O 20”Sine 52O 20” = .791579

b = .791579 x 125mm = 98.947mm

a

1

3

24

To obtain the gauge height needed toset a 30O angle on a 125mm bar,

look up the sine of 30O

a = 30O

Sine 30O = .50000b = .50000 x 125mm = 62.50mm

T O O L I N G

TO

OL

IN

G

131

Bandsaw Blades 132 - 133

Brazed Tip Lathe Tools 134 - 137

Butt-Welded Lathe Tools 138 - 139

Cutting Tools (Shank Type) 140 - 143

Files 144 - 149

Indexable Insert Designation 150 - 151

Indexable Threading 152 - 153

Indexable Toolholders 154 - 161

PMK Carbide Classification 162 - 163

Shank Dimensions 164 - 167

Taps 168 - 174

Section

8

132

T O O L I N G Bandsaw Blades

Regular

Hook

Staggered

Blade MaterialsHard Edge Flexible Back high carbon steel blade combineslong blade life and efficiency, under average conditions, withlower costs. For general sawing of low alloys, non-ferrousmetals and synthetics and is available with regular, hook andskip teeth.Premium high carbon steel blade is specially heat treated toproduce a spring tempered back, giving greater tensile strengthand straighter, more accurate cutting at higher feeds. It issuitable for interrupted cuts and is available with regular, hookand skip teeth.Powerband Matrix II Edge Bimetal. With a matrix II high speedcutting edge that resists heat, abrasion and shock on productionapplications and a flexible back, giving greater tensile strength,this blade is suitable for a wide range of materials andapplications including small radius cutting and production cuttingof alloy steels, stainless etc. Available with regular, hook andvariable pitch teeth.Powerband II - M42 Edge Bimetal. Powerband II has an M42high speed steel cutting edge giving greater hardness and heatresistance. It is recommended for increased blade life whencutting such materials as austenitic stainless steels, nickelbase alloys, titanium and similar tough or high-hardness metals.Available with regular, hook and variable pitch teeth.

Tooth TypesRegular Tooth. For cutting and contouring most ferrous metals.With straight face teeth which continuously rake chips out ofthe saw cut.Skip Tooth. With 0º rake angle. Widely spaced teeth provideextra chip clearance, shallow gullets increase band strength.For cutting large sections of soft non-ferrous metals. Hook Tooth. With a 10º positive rake angle for fast cuttingrates at reduced feed pressures. For non-ferrous metals, non-metallic and tough alloys. Rounded gullets allow fast chipclearance.

Pitch TypesIn general, thin work requires a greater number of teeth per inch(fine pitches), whereas larger sections are best suited to fewerteeth per inch (coarse pitches).Constant Pitch. With uniform teeth spacing, set, gullet depthand rake angle throughout the entire length of the blade.Variable Pitch. With varying size of teeth and gullet depth overa regular and predetermined length of the blade. This disruptsthe harmonics produced when sawing certain materials andstructures such as tubing, angle etc. The repeatability of patternis very closely controlled. A very smooth finish and substantialreductions in noise levels result from using variable pitch blades.

Tooth Set TypesRaker Set. Recommended for materials over 1/4” (6mm) thickand for curve cutting. Teeth are set left, right and straight insequence.Wavy Set. Recommended for materials under 1/4” (6mm)thick. Teeth are set in groups, left then right. Available withregular teeth only and used generally on finer pitch bladese.g. 24 and 32TPI.Staggered Set. Used only on variable pitch blade. Teeth areset alternately left and right with intermittent straight rakerteeth.

Skip

Raker

Wavy

Constant

Variable

133

Bandsaw Blades T O O L I N G

Bandsaw Trouble Shooting. Shown below is a selection of the mostcommon problems encountered with metal cutting bandsaw blades, alongwith the most likely causes and suggested courses of action.

Likely Causes Suggested Action� Incorrect blade tension � Check and/or adjust blade tension�Worn or mis-aligned blade guides � Renew and adjust guides�Damaged blade surface � Renew blade� Feed pressure too high � Reduce feed pressure�Guides too far apart � Adjust guides�Defective weld � Check weld alignment�Blade in contact with wheel flanges � Check and adjust blade alignment

Blade Breakage & Fatigue

Likely Causes Suggested Action� Incorrect blade speed and/or feed � Refer to cutting chart� Lack of blade support � Check and adjust blade guides�Worn or damaged blade � Replace with new blade� Incorrect blade tension � Check and/or adjust tension�Wrong tooth pitch � Refer to cutting chart� Position of material in vice � Check material is clamped correctly

Likely Causes Suggested Action� Incorrect blade speed and/or feed � Refer to cutting chart and adjust�Wrong blade selection � Check manufacturer’s recommendations�Guides worn or loose � Check and adjust guides�Blade tension too low � Adjust for correct tension�Worn blade teeth � Replace with new blade�Machine out of alignment � Check machine set-up�Uneven hardness in material � Check material

Inaccurate or Rough Cuts

Likely Causes Suggested Action� Improper break-in of new blade ��Check manufacturer’s recommendations� Teeth too fine or too coarse for �Select correct pitch blade according to

application makers recommendations� Feed pressure too high �Reduce feed pressure refer to cutting chart�Cutting speed too low �Adjust blade speed� Improper or insufficient cutting fluid �Check fluid and change or strengthen�Scale or uneven hardness in material �Check hardness of material�Movement of material in vice �Check machine vice and ensure

material is held firm�Defective chip brushes �Check/adjust brushes

Tooth Chipping & Stripping

Blade Vibration or Squeal

Likely Causes Suggested Action�Blade incorrectly fitted, i.e. teeth � Install blade correctly

running the wrong way � Check manufacturer’s� Incorrect break-in period of blade recommendations�Speed and feed of blade too high � Refer to cutting chart�Wrong blade selection � Check manufacturer’s recommendations

for type of material being cut�Hard sections of material � Check hardness of material� Improper or incorrect cutting fluid � Check and adjust fluid

Premature Dulling of Teeth

Likely Causes Suggested Action�Blade tension too low � Check and/or adjust blade tension�Blade guides too tight � Refer to machine operators manual�Speed too slow � Refer to cutting chart� Feed pressure too high � Refer to cutting chart�Drive wheel surface � Check and clean drive

contaminated wheel surface

Blade Stalling

SSTTOOPP

134

T O O L I N G Brazed Tip Lathe Tools

Brazed Tip Turning andBoring ToolsThe shapes shown are generallymanufactured in three standard grades.P40

Roughing to heavy roughing of steel andsteel castings using heavy feeds andlow to medium cutting speeds. Alsoused under unfavourable conditions,and for intermittent cutting. Alsosuitable for planing and for manganesesteel.P30

for heavy duty turning and boring on allclasses of steel. Suitable for interruptedcutting and machining at low speedsand heavy feeds.K20

General purpose. Ideal for machiningcast iron, non-ferrous metals, bakeliteetc. Combines wear resistance withtoughness when rough turning atmoderate speeds. Suitable for high feedrates. Manufactured to ISO/DIN and BHMA

Standards.

In addition to a range of shapes allstyles are available in various sizesbased on standard shank sizes. When specifying tool numbers it shouldbe noted that Metric (ISO) shank sizesare prefixed “M”. Imperial (BHMA)shank size tools generally have slightlymore carbide in the tips when comparedto the nearest metric equivalent : 1/2”being larger than 12mm for example.All illustrations are for right hand tools -left hand are also available as standard.

Straight Round Nosed Turning Tools No.s 010 to 030

Cranked Round Nosed Turning Tools No.s 12 to 31

Light Turning & Boring Tools No.s 40 to 60

135

Brazed Tip Lathe Tools T O O L I N G

Brazed Tip Turning and Boring Tools (continued)

Brazed Tip Cranked Turning & Facing Tools No.s 192 to 213

Straight Recessing Tools No.s 230 to 246

Parting Off Tools No.s 260 to 276

Bar Turning Tools No.s 100 to 118

Bar & Knee Turning Tools No.s 132 to 141

Cranked Turning Tools No.s 160 to 180

136

T O O L I N G Brazed Tip Lathe Tools


Square Shank Boring Tools Used 90º in Bar No.s 280 to 293

Square Shank 80º Boring Tools No.s 300 to 326

Round Shank Boring Tools Used 45º in Bar No.s 331 to 381

Round Shank Boring Tools Used 90º in Bar No.s 396 to 403

External Threading ToolsNo. 2055 (55o) No. 2060 (60o)

Internal Threading ToolsNo. 2155 (55o) No. 2160 (60o)

Plowrake Toolsfor Planing Steel

Plowcast Toolsfor Planing Cast Iron

137

Brazed Tip Lathe Tools T O O L I N G


Square Shank Boring BarsISO 8 DIN 4973

Round Shank Boring BarsISO 8 DIN 4973

Square Shank Boring BarsISO 9 DIN 4974

Round Shank Boring BarsISO 9 DIN 4974

Cranked Facing Tools ISO 5 DIN 4977

Cranked Knife Turning Tools No.s 2130 to 2147 ISO 6 DIN 4980

Parting ToolsISO 7 DIN 4981

138

T O O L I N G Butt-Welded Lathe Tools

Butt-Welded Turning and Boring ToolsManufactured from top quality sintered steels. For use on a wide range ofapplications from roughing to finishing.Manufactured to BS 1296: Part 3: 1978.In addition to a range of shapes all styles are available in various sizesbased on standard shank sizes.

Also Available for CuttingLeft Hand Thread - No. 13LH

RightHand

LeftHand

RightHand

LeftHand

Cuts In Either Direction

Light Turning & Facing Tools

Straight Nose Roughing Tools

Knife or Side Cutting Tools

External Screw Cutting Tools(Right Hand)

Parting Off Tools

Round Nose Planer Tools

Facing Tools

Right Angle Recessing Tools

Right Angle Parting Off Tools

RightHand

LeftHand

RightHand

LeftHand

RightHand

LeftHand

RightHand

LeftHand

RightHand

LeftHand

1

3

2 13 19 20

4

7 8

16

17

16LH

25 26

27 28

No Rake

139

Butt-Welded Lathe Tools T O O L I N G

Butt-Welded Turning and Boring Tools (continued)

Square Nosed Turning &Facing Tools

Swan Necked Finishing Tools

Boring Tools Zero Rake(Right Hand)

Cranked Internal Recessing Tools

Stepped Parting Blanks

Hardened Tool Blanks

Boring Tools 10° Rake -(Right Hand)

Boring Tools

Boring Tools 10° Rake -(Right Hand)Boring Tools (Right Hand)

Internal ScrewCutting Tools (Right Hand)

RightHand

LeftHand

RightHand

LeftHand

Cuts in Either Direction

NB: Cutting Edge is On or Below the level

of the Base of the Tool

Also Suitable for Tools for Work on brass and

Gun-Metal

29

4039

30

50A

57A

57B

57C

52

60

61

Hump Back Parting Tools

Form Tool Blanks

NoRake

47

50

Through Boring Tools (Right Hand)

50B

62

140

T O O L I N G Cutt ing Too ls (Shank Type)

Drill Axis

Shank

OverallLengthHelix

Angle

Back Tapered

over this

length

PointAngle

Tang

FluteLength

Point Length

LipLength

Lead of

Helix

BodyClearance

Land orMargin

Cutting Lip

Face

Body

Diameter

Annotation - Twist DrillsFor Shank Dimensions (DIN-228B) See Page 166

ChiselEdge

Outer Corner

Heel

Flute

Flank

Chisel EdgeAngle

Chisel EdgeCorner

Web or CoreTaper

Initial or LipClearance

Angle

AxialRake

Angle atPeriphery

Depth ofBody

Clearance

Body ClearanceDiameter

141

Cutting Tools (Shank Type) T O O L I N G

PrimaryClearance

SquareSize

Shank

SquareLength

Taper LeadAngle

TaperLead

Length

Land

Flute

Circular Land

RadialFaceCutting

Edge

Clearance

ClearanceAngle

Heel

Positive Rake Angle

Negative Rake Angle

Diameter

Length ofBevelLead

BevelLeadAngle

Tang

Shank

OverallLength

RecessLength

CutLength

HelixAngle

Bevel

BevelLead

SecondaryClearance

OvercutFace

UndercutFace

For Shank Dimensions (DIN-228B) See Page 166

Annotation - Reamers

142

T O O L I N G Cutting Tools (Shank Type)

CentreAxis

Shank

Thread Length

CutLength

OverallLength

HelixAngle

Weldon Shank

EndTeeth

Clearance

End TeethGash End Teeth

Land

EndRecess

Centre Hole

Positive RadialRake Angle

Secondary Clearance Land

CuttingEdge

End TeethGash Undercut

Face

For Shank Dimensions (BS 122:4)

See Page 165

SecondaryClearance Angle

Primary Clearance Land

Primary Clearance Angle

Flute Heel

Diameter

Annotation -

Shank Cutters

143

Cutting Tools (Shank Type) T O O L I N G

Key:

1. Overall Length2. Thread Length (including chamfer)3. Shank Length (including square)4. Lead Length5. Shank Diameter6. Length of Driving Square7. Size across Flats of Square8. Female Centre9. Male Centre10. Back Taper

11. Point Diameter (chamfer)12. Chamfer Angle13. Rake Angle14. Width of Land15. Width of Flute16. Radial Thread Relief 17. Web Diameter18. Spiral Point Rake Angle19. Spiral Point Angle20. Spiral Point Length21. Angle of Helical (Spiral) Flute

1

2 3

4 6

10 13

16

17

15

14

12

18 20

21

8

7

8/95

9

19

11

Annotation - Taps For Shank

Dimensions (BS 122:4)

See Page167

144

T O O L I N G Files

How to Use a FileAs with all cutting tools, incorrect use of a file could lead toserious personal injury. NEVER USE A FILE UNLESS THETANG IS PROTECTED WITH A HANDLE. File handles havebeen designed to fit the palm of the hand comfortably so asto give improved control - an important consideration forefficiency and precision.

The following points should be remembered in order toimprove performance, reduce filing time and ensure a betterfinish.

Use a ViceFix your work tightly in a vice to prevent chatter. Ensure non-marking vice jaws are used to hold delicate work pieces.

Maintain a RhythmMaintain a steady rhythm with constant pressure - justenough for the file to bite comfortably into the workpiece.

Only File Away From YouTo avoid unnecessary tooth wear, lift the file clear of the workon the return stroke.

Treat New Files With CareFile carefully at first with a new file and avoid using on sharpedges. Old files should be used for descaling, dressingcastings, and onmild steel. Keepnew files for useon harder metals.

When holding a file inone hand, the forefinger is generallyplaced on top of the handle in linewith the file. Where possible, guidethe file with both hands. The baseof the thumb should be on top of thefile in line with the handle when heavystrokes arerequired.

When a lightstroke requiring lesspressure is to be used,the thumb should be atright angles to thelength of the file.

145

Files

How to Use a File (continued)There are three main methods of filing - Straight filing, Draw filling and

Lathe filing.

Straight FilingIn straight filing, the file is pushed lengthwise in an

almost straight line. The work is normally held in

a vice which should be at elbow height. Too

much pressure should be avoided as

this can result in a rocking

movement which gives a rounded

surface. It can also cause

excessive wear on the file.

Too little pressure, especially

on harder metals, will allow

the file to slide over the

metal and the teeth will

quickly become dull.

Draw FilingDraw filing is carried out by

holding the file firmly at both

ends and pushing and pulling

the width of the file along the

length of the work. When carried out

correctly, draw filing will produce a finer

finish than straight filing.

Lathe FilingWhen work to be filed is revolving in a lathe, the file should be used with a

stroking action allowing it to glide slightly along the work. This will help to

avoid making ridges and will keep the file clear of chips. Because of their

sharpness, new files are best avoided for lathe work where a very fine

finish is required. Lathe work should not be touched by hand as oil and

moisture can coat the surface and it is then difficult for the file to take

hold.

Care of FilesAs it is virtually impossible to re-sharpen file teeth, the following hints will

help to prolong the life of your files.

Hang your files on a rack. Wooden file handles can fit into spring clips or

rest on tool hooks, most plastic handled files have a hole provided,

especially for the purpose of hanging from a hook or rail. If files are thrown

into a drawer or tool box, or left lying on a bench with other tools, there is

a danger that damage to the teeth will occur.

Rust will damage file teeth. It is therefore advisable to oil files after use.

All grease must however be removed before the files are used again.

T O O L I N G

146

T O O L I N G Files

Engineers’ Hand FilesAvailable in a comprehensive range of shapes, sizes and cut styles.Manufactured to BS 498 : 1990.

Hand - Parallel edges, one edge uncut. For flat filing, corner filing anddeburring. Multi-purpose filing and other work where a safe or uncut edgeis needed. Double cut. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.

Flat - Edges taper towards front. Applications as for hand files. Preferredwhere taper allows access into tight spaces and angles. For general workon iron, steel, etc. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.

Round - Diameter tapers towards point. Suitable for filing internal andexternal concave surfaces. Available in Bastard, Second and Smooth Cut.

Half-Round - Edges and surfaces taper towards point Dual application;suitable for concave surfaces, flat filing and large diameters. Files forrapid removal of metal. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.

Square - Parallel edges, surfaces taper towards point. For groove,rectangular hole and internal corner filing. Preferable to a Flat File becauseof its heavier section. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.

Three Square - Equilateral section (60° angles). Tapered towards point. Forfiling acute angles, internal corners and flat filing, clearing out squarecorners and for filing HSS tools after machining. Available in bastard,second and smooth cut.

Knife - Two equal surfaces, tapered to knife point. For filing and deburringnarrow grooves, slits and gear-teeth. Used principally by tool and die makerson work having acute angles. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.

Double CutTwo sets of diagonal rows of teeth, with the second set of teeth cut in opposite direction and on top of the first. The first set of teeth is known as ‘overcut’ and the second as ‘upcut’, upcut being the finer. Double cut files are used with heavierpressure than single cut and remove material faster from the workpiece.

Bastard CutSecond Cut Smooth Cut

147

Files T O O L I N G

Engineers’ Hand Files (continued)Warding - Parallel surfaces, edges tapered to a point. For narrow grooves,keyways, slots etc. Warding Files are used by locksmiths in repairing or filingward notches in keys. Also suited for use in narrow space. All sides doublecut. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.

Pillar - Parallel edges, surfaces tapered towards end. Narrow version of handfile. For use where access is restricted. These files are designed for millwrights and mechanics for use in enlarging key-ways, slots, etc, close to theshoulder. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.

Double Ended Saw - Edges taper towards point. For filing and sharpeningsaws. Points are left uncut. Instead of having a tang, both ends of these filesare tapered. They are used for sharpening saws having a 60° angle. Theteeth are cut from each end towards the centre. Single cut only.

Taper Saw - Edges taper towards point. For filing and sharpening hand saws.Points are left uncut. Taper Saw Files are used for filing every type ofhandsaw which have 60° angle teeth. These files are single cut and haveedges that are set and cut for filing the gullet between the saw teeth.

Farmers Own (Handy) - For sharpening reaper knives, matchetes, hoes, etc,with hanging hole in the integral handle. Single cut. Also available in doublecut, bastard and second cut.

Pitsaw - These files are extremely suitable for sharpening pitsaws. They are also used as multi-purpose files. Available in second cut.

Feather edge Saw - These files are generally used for filing saws where angle ofteeth is less than 60°. They are manufactured in heavy and regular sections.

Straight Tooth Mill Saw - Available with one or two round edges. Paralleledges, both edges cut for filing and sharpening saws.

Single CutSingle set of parallel diagonal rows of teeth, Oftenused with light pressure to produce a smooth surfacefinish or put a keen edge on knives, shears and saws.

148

T O O L I N G Files

Precision Hand FilesAvailable in tanged pattern and round handled needle pattern and differfrom Engineers’ files in application and fineness of cut. Manufactured toBS 498 : 1990.

Hand - Parallel edges, one edge uncut. For flat filing, corner filing anddeburring. Multi-purpose and for other work where a safe or uncut edge isneeded. Double cut. Available in cuts 0, 2 and 4.

Round - Diameter tapers towards point. Suitable for internal and externalconcave surfaces. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.

Half-Round - Edges and surfaces taper towards point dual application;suitable for concave surfaces and flat filing. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.

Square - Parallel edges, surfaces taper towards point. For groove,rectangular hole and internal corner filing. Preferable to a flat file becauseof its heavier section. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.

Three Square - Equilateral section (60° angles). Tapered towards point. Forfiling acute angles, internal corners and flat filing, clearing out squarecorners and for filing HSS tools after machining. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.

Knife - Two equal surfaces, tapered to knife point. For filing and deburringnarrow grooves, slits and gear-teeth. Used principally by tool and diemakers on work having acute angles. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.

Warding - Parallel surfaces, edges tapered to a point. For narrow grooves,keyways, slots etc. Warding files are used by locksmiths in repairing orfiling ward notches in keys. Also suited for use in narrow space. All sidesdouble cut. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.

Pillar - Parallel edges, surfaces tapered towards end. Narrow version ofhand file. For use where access is restricted. These files are designed formill wrights and mechanics for use in enlarging key-ways, slots, etc., andfiling close to the shoulder. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.

149

Fi les T O O L I N G

Precision Hand Files (continued)Narrow Pillar (Tanged only) - Narrower alternative to standard pillar.Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.

Crossing (Fish-back) - For use on concave surfaces. Two curved surfaces(different radii) taper towards fine point. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.

Barrette - One flat cutting surface with safe non-cutting back and sides.For precision filing of angles and flats. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.

Milled Tooth Hand FilesManufactured from alloy steel and feature undercut teeth produce a moreaggressive cut than conventional files requiring less operator effort.Suitable for use on a wide variety of materials including aluminium, steels,alloys, brass, copper, wood, plastics etc. Available in four blade lengthsand two tooth forms. Hand style supplied as standard.

Wood Rasps Designed for general use and softer materials such as wood, plastic andfillers. Single cut in a variety of sizes.

Curved CutTeeth are arranged in curved contours across the file face. Normally used in automotive body shops for smoothing body panels.

Rasp CutSeries of individual teeth which are formed by a single pointed tool. Produces a rough cut that is used primarily on wood, hooves, aluminium and lead.

Hand

Flat

Half Round

Symbol ShapeNose

FigureAngle

H Hexagonal 120ºO Octagonal 135ºP Pentagonal 108ºS Square 90ºT Triangular 60ºC 80ºD 55ºE Rhombic 75ºF 50ºM 86ºV 35ºW Trigon 80ºL Rectangular 90ºA 85ºB Parallelogram 82ºK 55ºR Round -

T O O L I N G

Shape1 Corner/Edge Preparation or Radius7

Symbol ReliefAngle

A 3ºB 5ºC 7ºD 15ºE 20ºF 25ºG 30ºN 0ºP 11ºZ Others

Relief Angle2

Symbol Shape of Hole Chipbreaker Shape

N Without

R Without Hole Single-sided

F Double-sided

A Without

M Cylindrical Hole Single-sided

G Double-sided

W Partly cylindrical hole, Withoutsingle-side

T 40°-60° Countersink Single-sided

Q Partly cylindrical hole, Withoutdouble-side 40°-60°

U Countersink Double-sided

B Partly cylindrical hole, Withoutsingle-side 70°-90°

H Countersink Single-sided

C Partly cylindrical hole, Withoutdouble-side 70°-90°

J Countersink Double-sided

X Special Type

Hole & Chipbreaker Type4

Indexable Insert Designation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

TT NN MM GG 1166 0044 TT NN -- XXXX

R

150

CornerSymbol Radius

mm

00 0.03

02 0.2

04 0.4

08 0.8

12 1.2

16 1.6

20 2.0

24 2.4

28 2.8

32 3.2

AA 45ºD 60ºE 75ºF 85ºP 90º

Special

AAFF

0088

FA 3ºB 5ºC 7ºD 15ºE 20ºF 25ºG 30ºN 0ºP 11ºZ Special

χr

α0

Symbol Corner Height Thickness (s) I.C. Dia.(class) (m) (s) (d)

A ±0.005 ±0.025 ±0.025F ±0.005 ±0.025 ±0.013C ±0.013 ±0.025 ±0.025H ±0.013 ±0.025 ±0.013E ±0.025 ±0.025 ±0.025G ±0.025 ±0.13 ±0.025

J ±0.005 ±0.025±0.05

}*±0.13

K ±0.013 ±0.025±0.05±0.13

}*

L ±0.025 ±0.025±0.05±0.13

}*

M±0.08

}* ±0.13±0.05

±0.18 ±0.13 }*

N±0.08

±0.025±0.05

±0.18 }*

±0.13 }*

U±0.13

±0.13±0.08

±0.38 }*

±0.25 }*

Indexable Insert Designation T O O L I N G

Sym

bol

Sym

bol

Sym

bol

Sym

bol

Sym

bol

Sym

bol

Lengt

h

Lengt

h

Lengt

h

Lengt

h

Lengt

h

I.C.

dia.

(mm)

KVDTW

Sym

bol

Lengt

h

Sym

bol

SR C

Lengt

h

03 3.97 03 4.0 06 6.9 06 3.97 3.97

04 4.76 04 4.8 08 8.2 05 5.8 4.76

05 5.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.0

05 5.56 05 5.6 03 3.8 09 9.6 06 6.8 5.56

06 6.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.0

06 6.35 06 6.5 04 4.3 11 11.0 07 7.8 6.35

07 7.94 08 8.1 05 5.4 13 13.8 09 9.7 7.94

08 8.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.0

09 9.525 09 9.525 09 9.7 06 6.5 16 16.5 11 11.6 16 16.6 16 19.7 9.525

10 10.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.0

12 12.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12.0

12 12.7 12 12.7 12 12.9 08 8.7 22 22.0 15 15.5 22 22.1 12.70

15 15.875 15 15.875 16 16.1 10 10.9 27 27.5 19 19.4 15.875

16 16.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16.0

19 19.05 19 19.05 19 19.3 13 13.0 33 33.0 23 23.3 19.05

20 20.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20.0

22 22.225 22 22.6 38 38.5 27 27.1 22.225

25 25.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25.0

25 25.4 25 25.4 25 25.8 44 44.0 31 31.0 25.4

31 31.75 31 31.75 32 32.2 55 55.0 38 38.8 31.75

32 32.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 32.0

Lengt

h

* Detail of accuracy will vary according to shape and size of insert - further details are available on request.

Symbol Condition of ShapeCutting Edge

F Sharp Edge

E Honed Roundededge

W.T Honed Chamferededge

S Combination honed edge

Symbol Thick

01 1.5902 2.38T2 2.7803 3.18T3 3.9704 4.7605 5.5606 6.3507 7.9409 9.52

Thic

k

9

Symbol Hand

R RightL Left

N Neutral

Hand ofInsert

Chipbreakers are not part of ISODesignation. Each manufacturerdesignates a chipbreaker in hisown way.

N

R

L

Chipbreaker10

Thickness6

Symbols of major cutting edge8Accuracy3

Cutting Edge Length5

151

152

T O O L I N G

Fig. 1

Pitchmm 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 6.0

Tpi 48 24 16 12 10 8 64

Number of passes 3-6 4-9 5-11 6-13 7-15 8-17 10-20 11-22

Indexable Threading

Note: 1. For most standard applications, the middle of the road is a good starting point.

2. For most materials, the tougher the material, the higher the number ofcutting passes you select.

3. As a general rule of thumb, less passes are better than more speed.4. Infeed per pass should ensure an even machine load.

Number of Passes Recommended

Internal - Left Hand ThreadExternal - Left Hand Thread

External - Right Hand Thread Internal - Right Hand Thread

Insert Selection ProcedureA From diagrams (Fig. 1) decide on threading method to be used.

B Select insert style according to thread form. Pitch often determinesthe size of insert which may be used, i.e. the bigger the pitch, thelarger the insert needed.

C Based on the workpiece material, select a suitable grade. Use therecommended cutting speed and number of passes as a starting pointthen fine tune the cutting conditions until a balance of optimumproduction and tool life is established.

D Select a suitable toolholder with a height suitable for the machine where it is intended to be used.

ChangeAnvilto

NegativeAnvil

ChangeAnvilto

NegativeAnvil

Change Anvilto Negative

Anvil

Change Anvilto Negative Anvil

Left HandToolholder & Insert

Right HandToolholder & Insert Right Hand

Toolholder & Insert

Left Hand Toolholder & Insert

Left HandToolholder & Insert

Right Hand Toolholder & Insert

Left Hand Toolholder & Insert

Right Hand Toolholder & Insert

153

T O O L I N G

L ToolholdersAnvil’s Angle γ and Order Codes

(IC) 4.5 3.5 2.5 std +0.5 -0.5 -1.5

16mm EX-RHAE16+4.5 AE16+3.5 AE16+2.5 AE16 AE16+0.5 AE16-0.5 AE16-1.5or IN-LH

(3/8”) EX-LHAI16+4.5 AI16+3.5 AI16+2.5 AI16 AI16+0.5 AI16-0.5 AI16-1.5or IN-RH

22mm EX-RHAE22+4.5 AE22+3.5 AE22+2.5 AE22 AE22+0.5 AE22-0.5 AE22-1.5or IN-LH

(1/2”) EX-LHAI22+4.5 AI22+3.5 AI22+2.5 AI22 AI22+0.5 AI22-0.5 AI22-1.5or IN-RH

Important Note about Threading Inserts

External left hand and internal right hand or internal left

hand and external right hand inserts can not be inter-

changed, because:-

A The form for internal and external threads is different.

B The clearance on internal inserts is generally greater

than for that of external.

C The seat angle on internal and external toolholders is

different.

L = Insert Edge Length IC = Inscribed Circle

Indexable Threading

Threading Toolholders

Fig. 2

Threading toolholder pockets are manufactured with a 1.5º positive helixangle as standard. Other anvils are available to change the helix angle ofthe insert as required by the diameter and pitch of the thread.

Fig. 2 shows the determination of recommended helix angle by both chartand formula.

Note: Negative helix angles anvils are used:-A When threading a right hand thread with a left hand toolholder.B When threading a left hand thread with a right hand toolholder.

See diagram (Fig. 1) for illustration.

Simplified formula

Metric: ß = 20P/D Inch: ß = 20/(P x D)

e.g. D = 30mm (1.18”)

P = 1.5mm (16 TPI)

Metric: ß = 20 x 1.5/30 = 1

Inch: ß = 20/(16 x 1.18) = 1*

*Rounded to nearest 1/2°

Tan ß = P

πD

154

T O O L I N G Indexable Toolholders

CKJNR/LTop Clamp

CSBPR/LTop Clamp

CSSPR/LTop Clamp

CTCPNTop Clamp

CTFPR/LTop Clamp

CTGPR/LTop Clamp

MVJNR/LTop Clamp & Pinlock

CSDPNTop Clamp

MVVNNTop Clamp & Pinlock

PCBNR/LLever Lock

PCLNR/LLever Lock

PDJNR/LLever Lock

PDNNRLever Lock

PRSNR/LLever Lock

PCKNR/LLever Lock

Application Examples - External Toolholders

155

Indexable Toolholders T O O L I N G

Application Examples - External Toolholders (Continued)

PSBNR/LLever Lock

PSKNR/LLever Lock

PSSNR/LLever Lock

PTFNR/LLever Lock

PTGNR/LLever Lock

PWLNR/LLever Lock

SCLCR/LScrew-on

SCKCR/LScrew-on

SDJCR/LScrew-on

SDNCNScrew-on

SRDCNScrew-on

SRGCR/LScrew-on

SSDCNScrew-on

SSSCR/LScrew-on

STFCR/LScrew-on

STGCR/LScrew-on

SVLBR/LScrew-on

SVVBNScrew-on

156


CSKPR Top Clamp

CTFPR Top Clamp

MWLNRTop Clamp & Pinlock

PDUNR/L Lever Lock

PSKNR/L Lever Lock

PTFNR/L Lever Lock

SCLCR/L Screw-on

SDUCR/L Screw-on

STFCR/LScrew-on

SCLCR/LScrew-on

SCLPR/LScrew-on

STUPR/L & STUCR/L Screw-on

CrossFeed ‘X’

Saddle Feed ‘Z’

Saddle & CrossFeed ‘X’,‘Z’

Limited Axial Feedproportional toAxial Feed

PCLNR/L Lever Lock

Right hand boring

bars shown.

Feed Direction

MDUNR/L Top Clamp & Pinlock

Application Examples - Boring Bars

157

Indexable Toolholders T O O L I N G

Application Examples - Cartridge Units

Threading Toolholders

CSKPRTop Clamp

CrossFeed ‘X’

Saddle Feed ‘Z’

Saddle & CrossFeed ‘X’,‘Z’

Limited Axial Feedproportional to AxialFeed

Feed Direction

CTFPRTop Clamp

CTWPRTop Clamp

PCFNRLever Lock

PCLNRLever Lock

PSKNRLever Lock

PTFNRLever Lock

STFCRScrew-on

PTWNRLever Lock

CTSPRTop Clamp

CTTPRTop Clamp

PTSNRLever Lock

STGCRScrew-on

PTTNRLever Lock

STSCRScrew-on

DER/LDual Top Clamp or Screw-on

DIRTop Clamp or Screw-on

SIR/L

Screw-on

STTCRScrew-on

Right hand holders

shown.

158


ISO Designation - External Toolholders

B

Lead Angle3

G

N

V

C

J

S

W

D

K

T

F

L

U

Insert Shape2 Clearance4

B

C

N

P

Shank Height6

Expressed in mm

C D K

R S T

V W

Single Digit No. precededby ‘0’ e.g: h=8mm is indicated by 08

Shank Width7

Expressed in mm

Single Digit No. precededby ‘0’ e.g: h=8mm is indicated by 08

Tool Length8

Length in mm

D

E

F

H

K

M

P

Q

R

S

60

70

80

100

125

150

170

180

200

250

Clamping System1

C Clamp

M Multi Lock

P Lever

S Screw

Cutting Edge Length9 Expressed in mm

R WTSC, D

K, V

1

P

2

C

3

K

4

N

5

R

6

20

7

20

8

K

9

12

Hand5

R

L

N

159

T O O L I N GIndexable Toolholders

ISO Designation - Boring Bars

Bar Type1

S Solid Steel Bar

A Steel - through coolant

C Carbide Shank

Carbide Shank withE

Through Coolant

Note:Cutting EdgeLengths aredetailed to lowest wholenumber e.g.12.7mm =12mm

ISO Designation - Cartridge Units

Bar Length3

J 110

K 125

M 150

Q 180

R 200

Cutting Edge Height6

Single Digit No. preceded by ‘0’e.g: b=8mm is indicated by 08

Length in mm

Expressed in mm

Bar Length7

‘C’Indicates Cartridge

‘A’Indicates Holderis designed to

ISO 5611

Basic Diameter2

Single Digit No. preceded by ‘0’ e.g: b=8mm is indicated by 08

Expressed in mm

Note: Details as above see ExternalToolholders

Note: Details as above see External Toolholders

4

6

7

8

Clamping System

Insert Shape

Lead Angle

5

9

Clearance

Hand

Cutting EdgeLength

1 3 4

5

Clamping System Insert Shape Lead Angle2

8

Clearance

Hand Cutting Edge Length

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

S 50 W P S K N R 19

8 9

P T F N R 16 CA 16

S 250

T 300

U 350

V 400

W 450

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

160


Cutting Edge Length7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

D E R 16 16 H 16

ISO Designation - Threading Toolholders

Hand3

Length in mm

R

L

l ic

06 6mm 5/32”

08 8mm 3/16”

11 11mm 1/4”

16 16.5mm 3/8”

22 22mm 1/2”

27 27.5mm 15.875

5

Round Shank

(Boring Bars)

= Diameter in mm

For Rectangular

Shanks,

Height is expressed

in mm

Single Digit No.

preceded by ‘0’

E.g. h=8mm is

indicated by 08

Shank Width4

Round Shank

(Boring Bars) = 00

For Rectangular

Shanks,

Height is expressed

in mm

Single Digit No.

preceded by ‘0’

E.g. h=8mm is

indicated by 08

Shank Height

E External

I Internal

Type of Holder2

6 Tool Length

H 110

K 125

M 150

P 170

R 200

S 200

Clamping System1

DDual-Top Clamp

or Screw

S Screw on

C Clamp

161

T O O L I N G

Dimensional Notation

h = Shank Height or A/F

D min

h1 = Tip Height

b = Shank Width

d = Shank Diameter

f = Width Offset

a = Insert Approach Length

D = Min. Boring Diameter

l1 = Overall Length to Tip

l2 = Neck Length

l3 = Min. Adjustment

Length

d1 = Clamp Screw Bore

Diameter

d2 = Neck Diameter

x = Clamp Screw Angle

e = Clamp Screw Centre

Annotation - Cartridge Units

Annotation - Threading

Toolholders

Indexable Toolholders

Annotation - Boring BarsAnnotation - External Turning

Toolholders

162

T O O L I N G PMK Carbide Classification

HighFeed

HighSpeed

Carbide Description Application Description

ISOGeneral

SymbolCategory Designation Workpiece Material Use and Working Conditions

of Material tobe Machined

HighWear

Resist-ance

HighTough-ness

P01

P10

P20

P30

P40

P50

Steel, steel castings

Steel, steel castings

Steel, steel castingsMalleable cast iron

with long chips

Steel, steel castingsMalleable cast iron

with long chips.

Steel, steel castingswith sand inclusion

and cavities

Steel, steel castingsof medium or low

tensile strength, withsand inclusion and

cavities.

*Workpieces which are difficult to machine have casting or forging skins, hardspots,etc. Variable depth of cut, unstable workpiece or machine.

Ferrousmetals

with longchips

Finish turning and boring, highcutting speeds, small depthsof cut, close tolerance work,fine finish, stable conditions.

Turning, copy turning,threading and milling, highcutting speeds, small ormedium depths of cut.

Turning, copy turning, milling,medium cutting speeds and

depths of cut.

Turning, milling, medium or low cutting speeds. Medium or large depths of cut, andmachining in unfavourable

conditions.*

Turning, slotting, low cuttingspeeds, large depths of cut,with the possibility of large

cutting angles for machiningin unfavourable conditions* andwork on automatic machines.

For operations that are verytough carbide: turning,

slotting, low cutting speeds,large depths of cut. With the

possibility of large cuttingangles for machining in

unfavourable conditions* andwork on automatic machines.

P

ISO 513:1991 (BS7662:1993)Blue P - Representing machining of long chipping materials such as steel, cast steel, stainless steel and malleable iron.

Yellow M - Representing machining of more demanding materials such as austeniticstainless steel, heat resistant materials, manganese steel, alloyed cast iron, etc.

Red K - Representing machining of short chipping materials such as cast iron,hardened steel and non-ferrous materials such as aluminium, bronze, plastics, etc.

Within each main area there are numbers indicating the varying demands ofmachining, from roughing to finishing. Starting at group 01 which representsfinish-turning and finish-boring with no shocks and with high cutting speed, lowfeed and small cutting depth, through a semi-roughing, semi-finishing area tomedium-duty, general purpose at 25 and then down to group 50 for roughingat low cutting speeds and very heavy chiploads. Demands for wear resistanceand toughness vary with the type of operation and increase upwards anddownwards, respectively.

163

PMK Carbide Classification T O O L I N G

Carbide Description Application Description

Ferrousmetals

with longor short

chips andnon-ferrous

metals

M

M10

M20

M30

M40

Steel, steel castings,manganese steel,

Grey cast iron, alloycast iron

Steel, steel castingsaustenitic or

manganese steel,grey cast iron

Steel, steelcastings,austenitic

steel, grey cast iron,high temperatureresistant alloys.

Mild free-cuttingsteel, low-tensilesteel, Non-ferrousmetals and light

alloys

Turning, medium or highcutting speeds. Small ormedium depths of cut.

Turning, milling. Mediumcutting speeds and depths

of cut.

Turning, milling. Mediumcutting speeds, medium or

large depths of cut.

Turning, parting off,particularly on

automatic machines.

K01

K10

K20

K30

K40

Very hard grey castiron, chilled castingsof over 85 Shore,

high siliconaluminium

alloys, hardenedsteel, highly abrasive

plastics, hardcardboard, ceramics.

Grey cast iron over220 Brinell,

malleable cast ironwith short chips,hardened steel,

silicon aluminiumalloys, copper alloys,plastics, glass, hardcardboard, porcelain,

stone.

Grey cast iron up to220 Brinell, non-ferrous metals:

copper, brass andaluminium

Low hardness greycast iron, low tensilesteel, compressed

wood

Softwood or hardwood Non-ferrous

metals

*Workpieces which are awkward to machine; casting or forging skins, hardspots, etc.variable depth of cut, interrupted cut, unstable workpiece or machine.

Turning, finish turning, boring,milling, scraping

Turning, milling, drilling,boring, broaching, scraping

Turning, milling, boring,broaching demanding very

tough carbide

Turning, milling, slotting formachining in unfavourableconditions* and with thepossibility of large cutting

angles

Turning, milling, slotting formachining in unfavourableconditions* and with thepossibility of large cutting

angles

K

Ferrousmetals withshort chipsnon-ferrousmetals andnon-metallicmaterials

HighFeed

HighSpeed

HighWearResist-ance

HighTough-ness

HighFeed

HighSpeed

HighWearResist-ance

HighTough-ness

ISO

Symbol

General

Category

of material to

be machined

Designation Workpiece Material Use and Working Conditions

164

T O O L I N G Shank Dimens ions

InternationalStandards

DIN 69871/A -ISO7388/1 -

NFE 62540Commonly

interchangeablewith

ANSI/CaterpillarShanks

Taper D D1 f g I L

30 31.75 46 20 M12 22 48.4

35 38.10 53 22 M12 24 56.5

40 44.45 63 25 M16 27 65.4

45 57.15 85 30 M20 33 82.8

50 69.85 100 35 M24 38 101.8

JapaneseStandard

BT-MAS 403

ISO StandardIS0 R 297-2583 -

DIN 2080

Taper D D1 d max f g L I I1min

30 31.75 50 45 15.9 M12 47.8 19.1 35

40 44.45 63.55 50 15.9 M16 68.4 19.1 35

45 57.15 82.55 63 15.9 M20 82.7 19.1 35

50 69.85 97.5 80 15.9 M24 101.75 19.1 35

DIN

BT

ISO Including Quick Change.

Shown below are basic dimensions for the three most popular shankstandards for spindle nose tooling and the respective sizes of taper.

Taper D D1 L f l g

30 31.75 46.0 69 8.76 10.7 M12

40 44.45 63.5 93 7.98 9.9 M16

Quick Change

Taper D D1 f g I L L1

30 31.75 50 8 M12 9.61 68.39 -

40 44.45 63 10 M16 11.6 93.40 7

45 57.15 80 12 M20 15.2 106.8 -

50 69.85 97.5 12 M24 15.2 126.8 13

ISO

OTT Groove

L1

D1

Df

I

g

L

D1

Df

I

g

L

D1

Df

I

d g

L

D1

Df

I

g

L

165

Shank Dimensions T O O L I N G

Metric Imperial

d1 I2 I3 d1 l2 l3-0,025 (min) (min) -0,001 (min) (min)

mm mm mm in in in6 37.5 9.5 1/4 1 15/32 3/8

10 38 9.5 3/8 1 1/2 3/8

12 38 9.5 1/2 1 1/2 3/8

16 39 9.5 5/8 1 17/32 3/8

25 52.5 15 1 2 1/16 9/16

32 54 15 1 1/4 2 1/8 9/16

BS122. 1980 PT 4

d1 l1 b e l2 h1

h6 +1,0 +0,05 -1,0 +1,0 h13mm mm mm mm mm mm

3 284 285 286 36 4.2 18 4.88 36 5.5 18 6.610 40 7 20 8.412 45 8 22.5 10.416 48 10 24 14.220 50 11 25 18.225 56 12 32 17 2332 60 14 36 19 3040 70 14 40 19 3863 90 18 50 23 60.8

DIN 1835A/B

d1 25 to 32mm

d1 6 to 20mm

d1 6 to 63mm

166

T O O L I N G Shank Dimensions

Morse d1 d2 d6 d7 l3 l4 l5 a b θθ r1 r2

Taper -1 h 13

1 12.065 12.2 9.0 8.7 62.0 65.5 13.5 3.5 5.2 1°25’43” 5 1.22 17.780 18.0 14.0 13.5 75.0 80.0 16.0 5.0 6.3 1°25’50” 6 1.63 23.825 24.1 19.1 18.5 94.0 99.0 20.0 5.0 7.9 1°26’16” 7 2.04 31.267 31.6 25.5 24.5 117.5 124.0 24.0 6.5 11.9 1°29’15” 8 2.55 44.399 44.7 36.5 35.7 149.5 156.0 29.0 6.5 15.9 1°30’26” 10 3.06 63.348 63.8 52.4 51.0 210.0 218.0 40.0 8.0 19.0 1°29’36” 13 4.0

DIN 228 - 1 Form A Shanks

DIN 228 - 1 Form B - Morse Taper Shank

K a d1 d2 d4 l1 l2 l4(Morse) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

1 3.5 12.065 12.2 9.0 53.5 5 22.02 5.0 17.780 18.0 14.0 64.0 5 31.53 5.0 23.825 24.1 19.0 81.0 7 33.54 6.5 31.267 31.6 25.0 102.5 9 42.55 6.5 44.399 44.7 35.7 129.5 10 52.5

Bridgeport R8 - Shanks

UNF

5/32”

167

Shank Dimensions T O O L I N G

Tap Shank & SquareDimensions

To select thecorrect tapholder/collet for a specific tap diameter, the table belowprovides detailsof the shank and square sizes specifiedfor ISO and DIN standardtaps.

Tap Size ISO DIN 376

UNC Shank Square Shank SquareMetric UNF BA Diameter A/F Diameter A/F

BSW mm mm mm mm

M11 7/16” 8.00 6.30 8.00 6.20M12 1/2” 9.00 7.10 9.00 7.00M14 9/16” 11.20 9.00 11.00 9.00M16 5/8” 12.50 10.00 12.00 9.00M18 11/16” 14.00 11.20 14.00 11.00M20 3/4” 14.00 11.20 16.00 12.00M22 7/8” 16.00 12.50 18.00 14.50M24 1” 18.00 14.00 18.00 14.50M27 11/8” 20.00 16.00 20.00 16.00M30 20.00 16.00 22.00 18.00M33 11/4” 22.40 18.00 25.00 20.00M36 13/8” 25.00 20.00 28.00 22.00M39 11/2” 28.00 22.40 32.00 24.00M42 15/8” 28.00 22.40 32.00 24.00

Tap Size ISO DIN 371

UNC Shank Square Shank SquareMetric UNF BA Diameter A/F Diameter A/F

BSW mm mm mm mm

M3 Nos 4-5 No. 5 3.15 2.50 3.50 2.70M3.5 No 6 No. 4 3.55 2.80 4.00 3.00M4 4.00 3.15 4.50 3.40M4.5 No 8 No. 3 4.50 3.55 6.00 4.90M5 No 10 No. 2 5.00 4.00 6.00 4.90M5.5 No 12 No. 1 5.60 4.50 6.00 4.90M6 1/4” No. 0 6.30 5.00 6.00 4.90M7 9/32” 7.10 5.60 7.00 5.50M8 5/16” 8.00 6.30 8.00 6.20M9 9.00 7.10 9.00 7.00M10 3/8” 10.00 8.00 10.00 8.00

168

T O O L I N G Taps

The correct tapping drill size is important in ensuring that the strength ofthe thread is maintained whilst minimising the volume of swarf producedand torque required.

Tapping Drill Sizes for Fluteless Taps are Different.See Page 172.

For Standard Taps other than FlutelessThe following sizes are in line with BS 1157, however, specific drill sizescan be calculated as follows:

Tapping drill size = M - (0.01299 x % depth required)TPI

Where M = Major diameter, TPI = Threads per inch

A simple method which works on the ‘Vee’ threads is as follows:

Tap drill size = M (ins) - 1TPI

or: Drill size = M (mm) - Pitch (mm)

% Thread engagement = Basic major of thread - Drill Diameter x 1002 x External thread depth

Single Depth of ThreadUnified and ISO metric 0.6134 x pitchWhitworth 0.6403 x pitchBA 0.600 x pitch

Recommended drill sizes fall within the maximum and minimum minordiameters of the respective nut standards; Metric BS 3643; Unified BS1580; Whitworth BS 84; BA BS 93.

Nominal PitchTapping Clearance

Tap Size mmDrill Drill Sizemm mm

M1.0 0.25 0.75 1.05M1.1 0.25 0.85 1.15M1.2 0.25 0.95 1.25

M1.4 0.30 1.10 1.45M1.6 0.35 1.25 1.65M1.8 0.35 1.45 1.85

M2.0 0.40 1.60 2.05M2.2 0.45 1.75 2.25M2.5 0.45 2.05 2.60

M3.0 0.50 2.50 3.10M3.5 0.60 2.90 3.60M4.0 0.70 3.30 4.10

M4.5 0.75 3.70 4.60M5.0 0.80 4.20 5.10M6.0 1.00 5.00 6.10

M7.0 1.00 6.00 7.20M8.0 1.25 6.80 8.20M9.0 1.25 7.80 9.20

Tapping & clearance drills for ISO Metric Coarse Threads

Nominal PitchTapping Clearance

Tap Size mmDrill Drill Sizemm mm

M10.0 1.50 8.50 10.20M11.0 1.50 9.50 11.20M12.0 1.75 10.20 12.20

M14.0 2.00 12.00 14.25M16.0 2.00 14.00 16.25M18.0 2.50 15.50 18.25

M20.0 2.50 17.50 20.25M22.0 2.50 19.50 22.25M24.0 3.00 21.00 24.25

M27.0 3.00 24.00 27.25M30.0 3.50 26.50 30.50M33.0 3.50 29.50 33.50

M36.0 4.00 32.00 36.50M39.0 4.00 35.00 39.50M42.0 4.50 37.50 42.50

M45.0 4.50 40.50 45.50M48.0 5.00 43.00 48.50M56.0 5.50 50.50 57.00

Tapping & Clearance Drills for Fluted Taps

169

Taps T O O L I N G

*Conduit Thread Sizes

Nominal Pitch TappingClearance

Tap Size mm Drill SizeDrill Size

mm

M3.0 0.35 2.65 3.10M3.5 0.35 3.15 3.60M4.0 0.50 3.50 4.10

M4.5 0.50 4.00 4.60M5.0 0.50 4.50 5.10M6.0 0.75 5.20 6.10

M7.0 0.75 6.20 7.20M8.0 1.00 7.00 8.20

M10.0 1.25 8.80 10.20

M12.0 1.25 10.80 12.20M14.0 1.50 12.50 14.25M16.0* 1.50 14.50 16.25

M18.0 1.50 16.50 18.25M20.0* 1.50 18.50 20.25M22.0 1.50 20.50 22.25

M24.0 2.00 22.00 24.25M25.0* 1.50 23.50 25.25M27.0 2.00 25.00 27.25

M30.0 2.00 28.00 30.50M32.0* 1.50 30.50 32.25M40.0* 1.50 38.50 40.25

Tapping & Clearance Drills for “Number” Size ThreadsTapping Drill Size mm Clearance Drill Size mm

BA UNC UNF BA UNC/F

0 5.10 - 1.25 6.10 1.601 4.50 1.55 1.55 5.40 1.952 4.00 1.85 1.90 4.80 2.30

3 3.40 2.10 2.15 4.20 2.654 3.00 2.35 2.40 3.70 2.955 2.65 2.65 2.70 3.30 3.30

6 2.30 2.85 2.95 2.90 3.607 2.05 - - 2.60 -8 1.80 3.50 3.50 2.25 4.30

9 1.55 - - 1.95 -10 1.40 3.90 4.10 1.75 4.9011 1.20 - - 1.60 -

12 1.05 4.50 4.70 1.40 5.6013 0.98 - - 1.30 -14 0.80 - - 1.10 -

15 0.70 - - 0.98 -16 0.60 - - 0.88 -

NominalTap Size

Tapping & Clearance Drills for ISO Metric Fine Threads

170

T O O L I N G Taps

Tapping Drill Size mm

Tapping & Clearance Drills for “Fractional” Threads

Nominal Tapping Drill Sizes ClearanceTap DrillSize UNC UNF BSW BSF BS Brass BS Conduit Size1/16 1.15 - - -

3/32 1.90 - - -

1/8 2.55 - - - 3.30

5/32 3.10 - - - 4.00

3/16 3.70 4.00 - - 4.90

7/32 4.40 4.60 - - 5.70

1/4 5.10 5.50 5.10 5.30 5.30 - 6.50

5/16 6.60 6.90 6.50 6.80 6.90 - 8.10

3/8 8.00 8.50 7.90 8.30 8.40 - 9.70

7/16 9.40 9.90 9.30 9.70 10.00 - 11.30

1/2 10.80 11.50 10.50 11.10 11.70 11.10 13.00

9/16 12.20 12.90 12.10 12.70 13.30 - 14.50

5/8 13.50 14.50 13.50 14.00 15.00 14.25 16.25

11/16 - - 15.00 15.50 - - 17.75

3/4 16.50 17.50 16.25 16.75 18.00 17.50 19.25

7/8 19.50 20.40 19.25 19.75 21.25 - 22.50

1 22.25 23.25 22.00 22.75 24.50 23.50 25.75

1 1/8 25.00 26.50 24.75 25.50 - - 29.00

1 1/4 28.00 29.50 28.00 28.50 - 30.00 32.00

1 3/8 30.75 32.75 30.50 31.50 - - 35.50

1 1/2 34.00 36.00 33.50 34.50 - - 38.50

1 5/8 - - 36.00 38.00 - -

1 3/4 39.50 - 39.00 40.50 - - 45.00

1 7/8 - - 41.50 44.00 - -

2 45.00 - 44.50 47.00 - - 51.00

Tapping & clearance

drill sizes for

“number” UNC &

UNF are listed on

previous page

171

Taps T O O L I N G

*Conduit Thread Sizes

Tapping & Clearance Drills for Taper Pipe ThreadsTapping Drill Size mm

(BSP.Tr) Rc NPT NPTF

With Without With Without With WithoutReamer* Reamer Reamer* Reamer Reamer* Reamer

0 5.10 - 1.25 6.10 1.601/8 8.00 8.40 8.40 8.70 8.40 8.751/4 10.80 11.20 10.70 11.10 10.70 11.10

3/8 14.25 14.75 14.25 14.50 14.25 14.701/2 17.75 18.25 17.50 18.00 17.50 18.253/4 23.00 23.75 22.75 23.25 22.75 23.40

1 29.00 30.00 28.50 29.00 28.50 29.40

1 1/4 37.50 38.50 37.50 38.00 37.50 38.10

1 1/2 43.50 44.50 43.50 44.00 - -

2 55.00 56.00 55.00 56.00 - -

2 1/2 70.00 71.00 66.00 67.00 - -

3 - - - 82.50 - -

3 1/2 - - - 95.00 - -

4 - - - 108.00 - -

NominalTap Size

Tapping & Clearance Drills for Straight Pipe ThreadsTapping Drill Size mm

BSP.PL (Rp) BSP.F (G) NPS NPSF

1/16 6.60 6.80 6.80 6.801/8 8.60 8.80 9.00 9.101/4 11.50 11.80 11.50 11.90

3/8 15.00 15.25 15.00 15.251/2 18.75 19.00 18.50 19.005/8 - 21.00 - -

3/4 24.25 24.50 23.75 23.757/8 - 28.25 - -

1 30.40 30.75 30.00 30.50

1 1/4 39.00 39.50 39.00 39.50

1 1/2 45.00 45.00 45.00 -

1 3/4 - 51.00 - -

2 56.75 57.00 57.00 -

2 1/2 - - 68.00 -

NominalTap Size

*The use of a taper reamer (after the tapping drill) is strongly recommended.

172

T O O L I N G Taps

Calculating the theoretical drill size:

Metric: Tapping Drill Size= Tap Nominal - 0.0068 x Pitch x %

Imperial: Tapping Drill Size = Tap Nominal - 0.0068 x %TPI

% = percentage of thread depth required as a whole number i.e. the normal 65% = 65

Nominal Tapping Drill Size mm

Tap Diameter BA UNC/NC UNF/ NF

No. 0 5.60 1.35No. 2 4.40 1.95 2.00No. 3 3.80 2.25

No. 4 3.30 2.55 2.55No. 5 2.95 2.85No. 6 2.60 3.20 3.70

No. 8 2.00 3.80 3.80No. 10 1.55 4.30 4.50

Tapping Drill Sizes For Fractional Threads - FlutelessTapping Drill Size mm

UNC/NC UNF/NF BSW BSF BSPF

1/8 2.90 9.253/16 4.201/4 5.80 5.90 5.70 5.80 12.60

5/16 7.30 7.50 7.20 7.303/8 8.80 9.00 8.70 8.90 16.107/16 10.501/2 11.90 12.20

NominalTap Diameter

Tapping Drill Sizes For ISO Metric Coarse Threads - Fluteless

Nominal Pitch Tapping Drill Size Tap Diameter (mm) (mm)

M2 0.40 1.80M2.5 0.45 2.30M3 0.50 2.80

M3.5 0.60 3.20M4 0.70 3.70M5 0.80 4.60

M6 1.00 5.60M7 1.00 6.50M8 1.25 7.40

M10 1.50 9.30M12 1.75 11.20

Tapping Drill Sizes For Number Size Threads - Fluteless

Tapping Drill Sizes For Fluteless Taps

173

Taps T O O L I N G

Common Problems & Suggested Corrective Action.Shown below is a selection of the most common problems encountered withmachine taps, along with the most likely causes and suggested courses ofaction.

Breakage of the tap Incorrect tapping speed,Incorrect tap lead,Insufficient evacuation of swarf,Undersized hole,Tap dull or worn out,Misalignment of tap to workpiece,Insufficient Lubrication.

Tap wearing too quickly Hole has work hardened during drilling operation,Incorrect tap geometry for application,Unsuitable tap for component hardness,Incorrect lubricant,Insufficient lubrication.

Poor finish of thread Tap dull or worn out,Incorrect tap geometry for application,Insufficient lubrication.

Oversize hole & bell mouthing Incorrect drill used or drill cutting oversize,Incorrect clamping,Misalignment of tap toworkpiece,Excessive initial feed.

Cutting edge chipping Incorrect clamping,Bottoming of tap in hole,Incorrect tap geometry for application,Incorrect lubricant,Insufficient lubrication.

Problem Likely Cause

174

T O O L I N G Taps

In nearly all cases a screw thread form is based on a triangle. The threadangle is the angle enclosed by the flanks. This triangle is shortened at thecrest and root to either a radius or flat depending on the specification. Thisform is spaced along a cylinder, the nominal diameter of which is the majordiameter. The spacing or distance between two corresponding points onadjacent threads is the pitch. The reciprocal of this is the threads per inch.The effective diameter is the diameter of a theoretical co-axial cylinder whoseouter surface would pass through a plane where the width of groove or threadis half the pitch. The minor or core diameter is the diameter of a further co-axial cylinder, the outer surface of which would touch the smallest diameter.

BS 949 1976 Part 1 METRIC THREADSBS 948 1976 Part 1 - Taps for ISO Metric threads incorporate threadtolerances more aligned to the component tolerances than the supersededzonal tolerances, allowing more wear life of on taps of Classes 2 and 3.The following is extracted from BS 949 1976 Part 1.

Choice of Tap Tolerances ClassGenerally, taps of classes 1, 2 and 3 are used for the manufacture of threadsof the following classes:Class 1, for threads of classes 4H and 5HClass 2, for threads of classes 6H and also 4G and 5GClass 3, for threads of classes 7H and 8H and also 6G.

Root Rad.

Root Rad.

MajorDia.

Majo

r D

ia.

1/2 Pitch

Pitch

1/2 Pitch

MinorDia.

Min

or

Dia

.

CrestRad.

CrestRad.

BasicDepth ofThread

FlankAngle

Flank

Flank

ThreadAngle

TriangularAngles

EffectiveDia.

Eff

ective

Dia

.

Width of Flat Crest

Width of Flat Root

Nut (Female)Thread Notation

Bolt (Male)

W E L D I N G

WE

LD

IN

G

175

Drawing Symbols 176 - 182

Filter Shades 183

Glossary of Terms 184 - 186

Preparation & Techniques 187 - 190

Trouble Shooting 191 - 193

Section

9

176

W E L D I N G Drawing Symbols

Engineering Working DrawingsStandard ISO/BS working drawings represent views of workpieces in 3 ways:

Plan: The view as seen from above, looking vertically down.

Elevation: The side and/or end view.

Section: A plane cut through the object, horizontally or vertically.

Scale: Any object larger than the actual drawing is drawn to scale. Thescale line is shown on the drawing with full-size dimensions marked, thescale is also expressed as a ratio (1:25) a fraction (1/10 full-size), or arelationship (¼in. - lft.).

Dimensions: Drawings for engineering use include all dimensions andmaterials; usually non-critical dimensions are expressed in metres (orinches and fractions) and critical dimensions in millimetres (or decimalparts of an inch).

Welding Symbols: Welding drawings include specific symbols to indicatethe type of weld required (single or double butt, T joint, single or double Ujoints, etc.) and usually, the dimensions of gaps, grinding angles, etc. Alldrawing are designed to be meaningful to a welder working from suchdrawings.

Typical Joint Preparation Drawing Indication

Square butt weld.

Square butt weld with sealing run.

Single-V- butt weld with sealing run.

Plan

Plan

Plan

Plan

Single-U butt weld with sealing run.


177

Drawing Symbols W E L D I N G

Single-bevel butt weld with sealing run.

Plan

Plan

Elevation

Elevation

Single-J butt weld with sealing run.

Double-V butt weld.

Double-U butt weld.

Plan

Double-V asymmetrical butt weld.


178


Plan

Elevation

Double-J butt weld.

Plan

In all views the backing strip isindicated

Square butt weld with backing strip.

Plan

Note: that structural member mayalso be used as a backing strip.

The backing strip is indicated byfull or dotted lines as appropriateto the view.

Square butt weld with permanent backing strip held in place by fillet welds

ElevationDouble-bevel butt weld.

U-V asymmetrical butt weld.

The same method of indicatingbacking strips as for the square buttjoints.

The weld symbol is changed toindicate V-preparation.

Single-V butt weld with temporary or permanent backing.

Wider included angle used with thesmaller gap.

Backing strip or backing bar.

The vertical depth of thepenetration is added at the left-hand side of the symbol

Partial penetration single-bevel weld. arrow points at componentprepared.

The above applies also to partially penetrated single-V, single-U andsingle-J weld, except that the appropriate weld symbol is used.

The vertical depth of the penetrationis added to the left-hand side of thesymbol for each side.

Partial penetration double-V weld.

The above applies also to partially penetrated double-U, double-J anddouble bevel weld, except that the appropriate weld symbol is used.

Elevation

Plan

179


The backing is notindicated on thedrawing.

Square butt weldmade on a backing tool (bar)


Plan


180


The leg length of the fillet weldrequired is stated at the left-handside of the symbol.

Fillet welded T-joint.

Unless otherwiseindicated the leglength is the sameas the platethickness wherepalates are of equalthickness.

Outside corner joint.

Plan

Wider included angleused with the smallergap.

Fillet welded lap joint.

Plan

Elevation

T-joint with unequalleg length fillet weld.

Corner joint weldshould not berepresented withunequal leg lengthon drawing.

Weld represented on drawing.

Elevation

Fillet welded T-joint(intermittent fillet welds.)

Commencing each side with aweld 8mm fillet, 50 welds,10mm long, 100mm betweenweld elements.

Plan


181


Staggered intermittentfillet welds. 8mmfillet, 50 welds,100mm long, 100mmbetween weldelements.

Plan

Both weld symbols are used, thebutt-weld symbol being nearest to thereference line. Size of fillet weld notstated unless it differs from thatdictated by joint preperation.

T-joint with fillet weldsuperimposed on a single-bevelbutt weld.

For other types of compoundwelds the appropriate symbol isused together with the symbolfor the superimposed fillet weld.

Plan

Unequal leg length fillet weldsuperimposed on a partialpenetration single-J butt weld with fillet at root (other side).

Plan

Sealing run

Plan

Sealing run

Plan

182


Supplementary Instruction Drawing Indication

Symbol is to attract attention,added at end of reference linebearing appropriate weldsymbols.

Flush finish to butt weld

Convex finish(to butt weld)

Concave finish(to fillet weld)

Weld to beradiographed.

Placed at ‘elbow’ of arrow shaftwith the reference line.

Plan

Weld around a joint, eg. aflange to a pipe: astanchion to a base-plate.A peripheral weld.

To be welded on site.

Single straight line added tosymbol. This may be used withany type of butt weld withappropriate symbol and may beused to request flush finish onone or both sides of the weld.

183

Fi lter Shades W E L D I N G

Shade Numbers of Filters Recommended For Use DuringArc Welding

WeldingProcess or

RelatedTechnique

CoveredElectrodes

MIG OnHeavyMetals

MIG OnLight Alloys

Hg On AllMetals & Alloys

MAG

Air-ArcGouging

Plasma JetCutting

Micro Plasma Arc

Welding

Current, Amperes

0.5

1.0

2.5

5.0

10

15

20

30

40

60

80

10

0

12

5

15

0

17

5

20

0

22

5

25

0

27

5

30

0

35

0

40

0

45

0

50

0

9 10 11 12 13

10 11 12 13

10 11 12 13 14

14

14

14

15

14

14

9 10 11 12 13

10 11 12 13

10 11 12 13

11 12 13

987654

2.5

/3

10

15

15

1411 12 13 15

Notes

1. These shades are given as a general guide. Depending on the specificconditions of use, the next greater or the next lower shade number maybe more suitable.

2. The term “heavy metals” refers to steels, alloy steels, copper and Itsalloys etc.

3. Where no recommendation is given in the table, it is normally acceptedthat the process is not practiced at that level.

4. The welding processes referred to are in accordance with ISO 463:Covered Electrode refers to consumable electrode having a covering offlux or other material.MIG refers to metal arc weIding with an inert gas shield.TIG refers tungsten arc welding with an inert gas shield.MAG refers to metal arc weIding with an non-inert gas shield.Air-Arc cutting corresponds to the use of a carbon electrode and a jet ofcompressed air to remove the molten metal.

184

W E L D I N G Glossary of Terms

Glossary of Welding TermsActual Throat Thickness Distancebetween two lines parallel to a line joining the outertoes one being tangent at the weld face and theother being through the furthermost point of fusionpenetration.

Air-arc Cutting Thermal cutting using an arcfor melting the metal and a stream of air to removethe molten metal to enable a cut to be made.

All-Position A gas welding technique in whichthe flame is rightward welding.

All-weld Test Piece A block of metalconsisting of one or more beads or runs fusedtogether for test purposes. It may or may notinclude parent metal.

Arc Electrical discharge between electrode andworkpiece, formed and sustained by theestablishment of a gaseous conductive medium,called arc plasma.

Arc Welding (AW) Welding processes thatproduces coalescence of work pieces by heatingthem with an arc. Used with or without the use ofpressure and with or without filler metal.

Arc Blow A lengthening or deflection of a DCwelding arc caused by the interaction of magneticfields set up in the work and arc or cables.

Arc Fan The fan-shaped flame associated withthe atomic-hydrogen arc.

Arc Voltage The voltage between electrodes orbetween an electrode and the work.

Backfire Retrogression of the flame into theblowpipe neck or body with rapid self extinction.

Backing Bar A Temporary backing piece ofmaterial placed at a root when welding pipes ortubes.

Blowhole A cavity generally (>1.6 mm indiameter) formed by trapped gas duringsolidification of metal.

Blowpipe A device for mixing and burning gasesto produce a flame for welding, brazing, bronzewelding, cutting, heating etc.

Burn Back Fusing of electrode wire to currentcontact tube by sudden lengthening of the arc.

Burn Off Rate The linear rate of consumptionof a consumable electrode

Burn Through A localised collapse of themolten pool due to “Melt Through”.

CMTR (Certified Material TestReports) States the chemical and physicalproperties of a specific material as well as safetywarnings and handling information.

CO2 Flux Welding Metal-arc welding in whicha flux-coated or flux containing electrode isdeposited under a shield of carbon dioxide.

CO2 Welding Metal-arc welding in which a barewire electrode is used the arc and molten poolbeing shielded with carbon dioxide.

Carbon-arc Welding Arc welding using acarbon electrode or electrodes.

Chain Intermittent Weld An intermittentweld on each side of a joint (usually fillet welds in Tand lap joints) arranged so that the welds lieopposite to one another along the joint.

Concave Fillet Weld A fillet weld in whichthe weld face is concave (curved inwards).

Cone The more luminous part of a flame,adjacent to the nozzle orifice.

Convex Fillet Weld A fillet weld in which theweld face is convex (bulbous).

Coupon Plate A test piece made by addingplates to the end of a joint to give an extension ofthe weld for test purposes used in the shipbuildingindustry.

Crater Pipe Depression due to shrinkage at theend of a run where the heat source was removed.

Cruciform Test Piece A flat plate to whichtwo other flat plates or two bars are welded at rightangles and on the same axis.

Cutting Electrode Electrode with a coveringthat creates an arc that blows away molten metalto produce a groove or cut in the work.

Cutting Oxygen Oxygen used at a pressuresuitable for cutting.

De-seaming The removal of the surface defectsfrom ingots, blooms, billets and slabs by means ofa manual thermal cutting.

Dip Transfer A method of metal-arc welding inwhich fused particles of the electrode wire incontact with the molten pool are detached from theelectrode in rapid succession by the short circuitcurrent, which develops every time the wiretouches the molten pool.

Drag The projected distance between the twoends of a drag line.

Drag Lines Serrations left on the face of a cutmade by thermal cutting.

Duty Cycle The amount of time a machine canbe used at a particular output. Expressed as apercentage of a ten minute cycle, a 150 ampmachine with a 30% duty cycle will allow 3 minutesof use for every ten and a 60% duty cycle wouldallow 6 minutes of use for every ten. Duty cycleincreases as the power setting decreases so if the150 amp machine were to be used on a 30 ampsetting the duty cycle might be 100%.

Electrode A component of the circuit thatterminates the arc, molten conductive slag, orbase metal.

Excess Penetration Bead Excessive metalprotruding through the root of a fusion weld madefrom one side only.

Feather The zone, visible around the cone of aflame where there is excess carbonaceous gas.

Fillet Weld a fusion weld, other than a butt,edge or fusion spot weld, which is approximatelytriangular in transverse cross-section.

Flame Cutting Oxygen cutting in which theappropriate part of the material to be cut is raisedto ignition temperature by an oxy-fuel gas flame.

185

Glossary of Terms W E L D I N G

Glossary of Welding Terms(continued)Flame Snap-out Retrogression of the flamebeyond the blowpipe body into the hose, withpossible subsequent explosion.

Flame washing A method of surface shapingand dressing by flamecutting using a nozzledesigned to produce a suitably shaped cuttingoxygen stream.

Flashback Arrestor A safety device fitted inthe oxygen and fuel gas system to prevent anyflashback reaching the gas supplies.

Floating Head A blowpipe holder on a flamecutting machine which, through a suitable linkage,is designed to follow the contour of the surface ofthe plate, thereby enabling the correct nozzle-to-workpiece distance to be maintained.

Free Bend Test A test made without a former.

Fusion Penetration In fusion welding. Thedepth to which the parent metal has been fused.

Fusion Zone The part of the parent metalwhich is melted into the weld metal.

Gas Economiser An auxiliary device designedfor temporarily cutting off the supply of gas to thewelding equipment except the supply to a pilot jetwhere fitted.

Gas envelope The gas surrounding the innercone of an oxy-gas flame.

Gas Pore A cavity (<1.6 mm in diameter)formed by trapped gas during solidification ofmetal.

Gas Regulator A device for attachment to acylinder or pipeline for reducing and regulating thegas pressure to the working pressure required.

Guided Bend Test A test made by bendingthe specimen round a former.

Heat affected zone The part of the parentmetal which is metallurgically affected by the heatof welding or thermal cutting but not melted. (Alsoknown as the zone of thermal disturbance).

High Frequency TIG Start Produces a lowamperage arc between the electrode and the basemetal and serves as the path for the TIG Arc toignite without the electrode contacting base metal.

Hose Protector A non-return valve at the blow-pipe end of a hose to resist the force of flashback.

Inclusion Slag or foreign matter trapped duringwelding. The defect is usually more irregular inshape than a gas pore.

Inert gas Used to shield the electric arc fromcontaminants and gases which may react with theweld. An inert chemical is one with a full outer shellof electrons which do not normally react with othersubstances - e.g. argon and helium. Some non-inert gases are used for welding such as CO2.

Inverter A power source that increases thefrequency of the incoming primary power, thusproviding improved electrical characteristics forwelding, such as faster response time and morecontrol for pulse welding.

Kerf The void left after metal is thermally cut.

Leftward Welding A gas welding technique inwhich the flame is forward welding.

Leg The width of a fusion face in a fillet weld.

MIG Metal inert gas welding. (Also referred asgas metal arc welding). The “metal” refers to thewire which is used to start the arc. It is shielded byinert gas, the feeding wire also acts as the fillerrod.

Metal Transfer Transfer of metal across thearc from an electrode to the molten pool.

Metal-arc Cutting Thermal cutting by meltingusing the heat of an arc between a metal electrodeand the metal to be cut.

Metal-arc Welding Arc welding using aconsumable electrode.

Nick-Break Test A fracture test in which aspecimen is broken from a notch cut at apredetermined position where the interior of theweld is to be examined.

Open Arc Welding Welding where the arc isvisible.

Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV) As the nameimplies, no current is flowing in the circuit becausethe circuit is open. The voltage is impressed uponthe circuit, however, so that when the circuit iscompleted, the current will flow immediately. i.e. amachine that is turned on but not being used forwelding at the moment will have an open-circuitvoltage applied to the cables attached to theoutput terminals of the welding machine.

Overlap An imperfection at a toe or a root of aweld caused by metal flowing on to the surface ofthe parent metal without fusing it.

Oxygen Lance A steel tube, consumed duringcutting, through which cutting oxygen passes, forthe cutting or boring of holes.

Oxygen-arc Cutting Thermal cutting in whichthe ignition temperature is produced by an electricarc, and cutting oxygen is conveyed through thecentre of an electrode, which is consumed in theprocess.

Packed Lance Oxygen lance with steelrods/wires.

Penetration Bead Weld metal protrudingthrough the root of a weld made from one side only.

Plasma Fourth state of matter after solid, liquid,and gas. Plasma is an ionised form of gas. Inplasma cutting, a gas (i.e. Nitrogen) is sent underpressure through the torch where it begins to swirland is forced out a small orifice at which point itpasses through an electric arc and the gas isionised. The electricity “excites” the electrons ofthe gas atoms.

Plug Weld A weld made by filling a hole in onecomponent of a workpiece so as to join it to thesurface of an overlapping component exposedthrough the hole.

Porosity A group of gas pores

Postflow Time Time interval from current shutoff to either shielding gas or cooling water shut off.

Postflow This feature prevents contamination ofboth the electrode and the weld puddle.

Powder Cutting oxygen cutting in whichpowder is injected into the cutting oxygen stream toassist the cutting action.

186

W E L D I N G Glossary of Terms

Glossary of Welding Terms(continued)Powder Lance An oxygen lance in whichpowder is mixed with the oxygen stream.

Preflow Time The time interval between startof shielding gas flow and arc starting.

Preheating Oxygen Oxygen used at asuitable pressure in conjunction with fuel gas forraising to ignition temperature the metal to be cut.

Pulse DC Welding By controlling the durationof current, metals sensitive to heat input, metals ofdissimilar thickness, and very thin metals can bejoined with good penetration and a minimum ofdistortion.

Residual Welding Stress Stress remainingin a metal part or structure as a result of welding.

Reverse Bend Test A bend test in which theother than that specified for a face bend test is intension.

Rightward Welding A gas welding techniquein which the flame is backward welding.

Root (of weld) The zone on the side of the firstrun farthest from the welder.

Root Face The portion of a fusion face at theroot which is not bevelled or grooved.

Run-off Plate A piece, or pieces, of metal soplaced as to enable the full section of of weld to beobtained at the end of the joint.

Run-on Plate A piece, or pieces, of metal soplaced as to enable the full section of weld metalto be obtained at the beginning of a joint.

Scarfing The removal of the surface defectsfrom ingots, blooms, billets and slabs by means ofa flame cutting machine.

Scratch TIG A third method of starting awelding arc when lift arc or high frequency is notavailable. To start the arc the tungsten electrodemust contact the base metal. This basic methodfor starting an arc contaminates and causesdamage to the tungsten electrode every time thearc is initiated this way.

Seal Weld A weld, not being a strength weld,used to make a (sealing weld).

Sealing Run The final run deposited on theroot side of a fusion (backing run).

Shielding Gas Protective gas used to preventatmospheric contamination of the weld pool.

Shrinkage Groove A groove caused bycontraction of the metal along each side of apenetration bead.

Side Bend Test A bend test in which the faceof a transverse section of the weld is in tension.

Single-Phase Circuit An electrical circuitproducing only one alternating cycle within a 360degree time span.

Skip Sequence A welding sequence in whichshort lengths of run are (skip welding).

Slag-trap A configuration in a joint or jointpreparation which may lead to slag entrapment.

Slot Lap Joint Joint between two overlappingcomponents made by depositing a fillet weld roundthe outside of a hole in one piece so as to join it tothe other piece through the hole.

Spatter Metal particles blown away from the arc.These do not become part of the completed weld.

Spray Transfer Metal transfer caused byglobules forming of diameter substantially largerthan that of the electrode from which they aretransferred.

Stack Cutting The thermal cutting of a stackof plates usually clamped together.

Staggered Intermittent Weld A weld oneach side of a joint (usually fillet welds in T and lapjoints) arranged so that the welds on one side lieopposite the spaces on the another side of thejoint.

Stick Welding (or Shielded Metal Arc) An arcwelding process that melts/joins metals by heatingwith an arc between an electrode and the work.Shielding gas comes from the electrode outercoating (flux). Filler metal comes from the electrodecore.

Striking Voltage The minimum voltage atwhich any specified arc may be initiated.

Submerged-arc Welding Metal-arc weldingin which a bare wire electrodes are used; the arc isenveloped in flux, some of which fuses to form aremovable covering of slag on the weld.

Surface-fusion Welding Gas welding inwhich a carburising flame melts the surface of theparent metal which unites with metal from a fillerrod.

Sustained Backfire Retrogression of theflame into the blowpipe neck or body the flameremaining alight. Note: This manifests itself eitheras "popping" or "squealing" with a small pointedflame issuing from the nozzle orifice or as a rapidseries of minor explosions inside.

TIG Tungsten inert gas welding. (Also called gastungsten arc welding). The arc is started with atungsten electrode shielded by inert gas. A filler rodis fed into the weld puddle separately. Slower thanMIG, but produces more precise welds. Can beused at lower amperages for thinner metal/exoticmetals.

Thermal Cutting The parting or shaping ofmaterials by the application of heat with or withouta stream of cutting oxygen.

Toe The boundary between a weld face and theparent metal or between weld faces.

Touch Welding Metal-arc welding using acovered electrode, the covering of which is kept incontact with the parent metal during welding

Tungsten Inclusion An inclusion of tungstenfrom the electrode in TIG-welding.

Weld Junction The boundary between thefusion zone and the heat affected zone.

Welding Wire A form of welding filler metal,normally packaged as coils or spools, that may ormay not conduct electrical current depending uponthe welding process with which it is used.

Worm-hole An elongated or tubular cavityformed by trapped gas during the solidification ofmolten metal.

187

Welding PreparationBefore any welding work is performed it is essential that theedges are correctly prepared and clean. All mill scale, grease,primer or rust must be thoroughly removed or welding will be

difficult and the

deposit

contaminated.

Weld integrity

depends on

preparation and

below are

recommended

edges.

When welding

brittle materials it

is recommended

that suitable

Preheat be

applied to prevent

rapid thermal

expansion and

subsequent

cracking. On

completion of

welding a Post-

heat treatment

may also be used

to allow the joint

and parent metal

to cool down

together again to

prevent cracking.

If fluxes have beenused then theresidue should bethoroughly removedas they exhibit postweld corrosivetendencies which

will damage theweld.

Preparat ion & Techn iques W E L D I N G

Thickness of

metal

Diameterof welding

rod

Edge preparation

Less than 3/64-1/16”

20 swg

20 swg 1/16-1/8”

-1/8”

1/8-3/16” 1/8-5/32”

3/16-5/16” 1/8-5/32”

5/16-6/8” 5/32-1/4”

5/8 and 1/4”

over

1/32i”-1/8”

1/8”-5/32”

1/16”-1/8”

1/8”-5/32”

1/8”-5/32”

600v

600v800v

Top

Bottom

800v

600v

Speedft

per hour

Thicknessof

metal

25-30 1/32”

20-25 1/16”

20-25 3/32”

18-20 1/8”

15-18 5/32”

12-15 3/16”

10-12 1/4”

7-8 5/16”

6-7 3/8”

41/2-5 1/2”

33/4-41/2 5/8”

3-31/4 3/4”

2-21/2 1”

Rig

htw

ard

weld

ing

Left

ward

weld

ing

800v

3.2mm (1/8”) Gap

Steel Non-ferrous 4.8mm (3/16”)4.8mm (3/16”)

3.2mm (1/8”) Gap

3.2mm (1/8”) Gap

3.2mm (1/8”) Gap1.6mm (1/16”)

3.2mm (1/8”)

Downhand Welding

Vertical Welding

Setting up for Gas WeldingCorrect welding practice requires a steady constant flame shapeand this can only be achieved by using Multi-Stage regulators.Good welds are the result of good ‘set up’ and time should betaken to learn the correct pressure settings for each nozzle size.The recommendations given on the following pages are a guide tocreating the best flame shape with optimum gas economy,coupled with reduced risk of backfire or flashback. Never force anozzle, use the right size. Most welding operations require theneutral flame to produce quality joints. This flame burns equalproportions of each gas. Other flames are needed for specialisedoperations as shown below.

Oxidising Flame(excess oxygen)

Neutral Flame (equalquantities of oxygenand acetylene

Carburising Flame(excess acetylene)

To ignite the weldingnozzle open the fuel-gas control valve andlight gas with a sparklighter. When doing soensure the sparklighteris held at right anglesto the nozzle. Adjust the valve until the flame just ceases tosmoke then gradually turn on the oxygen control valve until thewhite cone of the flame is sharply defined with the merest trace ofacetylene haze. In this condition the flame is neutral and isburning approximately equal volumes of oxygen

188

Gas Pressure & Nozzle Size Recommendations - Welding

Mild Steel Nozzle Gas Welding Operating PressuresPlate Size Lightweight Nozzles Heavy Duty Nozzles

Thickness Oxygen Acetylene Oxygen Acetylene

mm inch SWG No. bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI0.9 0.035 20 1 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 21.2 0.050 18 2 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 22.0 0.080 5/64 14 3 0.20 3 0.20 3 0.15 2 0.15 22.6 0.100 12 5 0.30 4 0.20 3 0.20 3 0.20 33.2 0.125 1/8 10 7 0.35 5 0.20 3 0.20 3 0.20 34.0 0.160 3/32 8 10 0.35 5 0.30 4 0.30 4 0.30 45.0 0.200 3/16 6 13 0.50 7 0.35 5 0.30 4 0.30 46.5 0.250 1/4 3 18 0.55 8 0.40 6 0.35 5 0.35 58.2 0.312 5/16 0 25 0.65 10 0.55 8 0.50 7 0.40 610.0 0.375 3/8 4/0 35 - - - - 0.65 10 0.65 1013.0 0.500 1/2 7/0 45 - - - - 0.50 7 0.40 6>25.0 1.000 1 90 - - - - 0.60 9 0.60 9

Oxidising Flame

Neutral Flame

Carburising Flame

W E L D I N G Preparat ion & Techn iques

189

Gas WeldingTechniquesLeftward Welding

Used on steel forflanged edge welds,for unbevelled plates up to 5mm and for bevelled plates up to 8.Omm It is alsothe method usually adopted for cast iron and non-ferrous metals.Welding is started at the right-hand end of the joint and proceedstowards the left. The welding nozzle is given a forward motion witha slight sideways movement to, maintain melting of the edges ofboth plates at the desired rate a welding rod is movedprogressively along the weld seam. Sideways motion of thewelding nozzle should be kept to a minimum.

Rightward

Rightward welding isrecommended forsteel plate over5mm thick. Platesup to 8.Omm neednot be bevelled. Over 8.Omm the edges are bevelled to 30O togive an included angle of 60°° for the welding V. Suitable forhorizontal or vertical position. The weld is started at the left-handend and moves towards the right with the welding nozzle andflame preceding the filler rod in the direction of travel. The rod isgiven a circular forward motion and the welding nozzle is movedsteadily along the weld seam - this is faster than leftward weldingand consumes less gas; the V angle is smaller, less filler rod isused and there is less distortion.

All-Position Rightward Welding

A variation of the above suitable for mild steel plate and pipe inthe vertical and overhead position. The advantages are that itenables the welder to obtain a uniform penetration bead and aneven build-up, particularly in fixed position welding. The welder canwork with complete freedom of movement and has a clear view ofthe weld pool and the fusion zone of the joint.

Vertical Welding

Used on bevelled steel plate up to 3mm thickness and up to15mm when two welders are employed working on both sides of the joint.Weldingstarts atthe bottomandproceedsvertically.

30°° to 40°°

30°° to

40°°

30°°

40°° to

50°°

1.6mm: 30°°3.2mm: 60°°4.8mm: 80°°

60°° to

70°°

Nozzle

Rod

Nozzle

Rod

Nozzle

Rod

Preparat ion & Techn iques W E L D I N G

190

Mild Steel Nozzle Gas Cutting Operating PressuresPlate Size Acetylene Nozzles Propane Nozzles

Thickness Oxygen Acetylene Oxygen Propane

mm inch No. bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI< 3 < 1/8 ASNM 1.5 20 0.25 4 - - - -

3 - 6 1/8 - 1/4 1/32 1.5 20 0.15 2 1.5 20 0.20 36 - 12 1/4 - 1/2 3/64 2.0 30 0.15 2 2.0 30 0.20 3

12 - 25 1/2 - 1 1/16 2.5 35 0.15 2 2.5 35 0.30 425 - 50 1 - 2 1/16 3.0 45 0.15 2 3.0 45 0.30 450 - 75 2 - 3 1/16 3.5 50 0.15 2 3.5 50 0.30 475 - 100 3 - 4 5/64 3.0 45 0.15 2 3.0 45 0.30 4

100 - 150 4 - 6 3/32 3.0 45 0.20 3 3.0 45 0.40 6150 - 200 6 - 8 7/64 3.5 50 0.20 3 4.0 60 0.40 6200 - 250 8 - 10 1/8 4.5 65 0.20 3 4.5 65 0.50 7250 - 300 10 - 12 1/8 5.5 80 0.20 3 5.5 80 0.60 9

Cutting TechniqueOxy-fuel gas flame cutting is an exothermic chemical action wherethe steel is oxidised, not melted. The workpiece is pre-heated tored heat (Ignition point) high pressure oxygen is then directed atthe metal through. Iron is immediately oxidised to magnetic ironoxide (Fe304). Oxygen steam blows away the oxidised area leavinga clean cut.

ANM Acetylene Nozzles

One piece drawn copper al loyconstruction. Ensures the bestconditions for high velocity gas(acetylene) and enhances stabilityand cutting efficiency. The seats ofANM nozzles are diamond turnedto guarantee a good seal with theblowpipe head. Essential to avoidhead seat leaks, reducing backfire.

PNM Propane Cutting Nozzles

Two piece design. Brass inner nozzlewith splines and a hollow drawn copperouter. PNM’s differ from ANM’s in thatdifferent mixing criteria apply. Oxy-propane has a lower burning velocitythan oxy-acetylene. Good flameconditions depend firstly on turbulencebetween the inner and outer parts ofthe nozzle, ensuring adequate mixing ofthe propane and oxygen. Secondly, thevolume of mixed oxy-propane needs tobe more than double that of oxy-acetylene for the same usable heat.This is achieved by having large splinesto conduct greater gas volume.

Gas Pressure & Nozzle Size Recommendations - Cutting

Pre-Heat Cutting

HeatingSplines

Recessed for FlameStability

W E L D I N G Preparat ion & Techn iques

191

Trouble Shoot ing W E L D I N G

Welding Trouble Shooting. The following pages show the most commonproblems encountered with welded joints, along with the likely causes.

Unsatisfactory Weld ProfilesProblem Likely Cause

Uneven fillet leg length.

Fillet weld with insufficientthroat thickness.

Fillet weld with excessivethroat thickness.

Excessive concavity in buttweld profile.

Excessive convexity in buttweld profile.

Undesirable weld profile(lap fillet - excess meltingof plate edge, givinginsufficient throatthickness.

Notch effect with overlap atside of fillet weld.

Notch effect with overlap atside of butt weld.

Excessive penetration.Excess fusion of rootedges.

Burn through.

Incorrect angle of filler rodand blowpipe.

Speed of travel too fast,leading to insufficientdeposited weld metal.

Speed of travel too slowcausing heavy deposit. Fillerrod too large.

Excess heat build-up withtoo fast a speed of travel,or filler rod too small.

Insufficient heat — too slowa speed of travel — nozzlesize too small — filler rodtoo large.

Incorrect tilt angle ofblowpipe fusing top edge ofplate, which flows down toproduce unequal leg lengthfillet with undesirableprofile.

Incorrect manipulationtogether with incorrectangle of blowpipe and fillerrod.

Incorrect manipulationtogether with incorrectangle of blowpipe and fillerrod.

Angle of slope of nozzle toolarge. Insufficient forwardheat. Flame size and/orvelocity too high. Filler rodtoo large or too small.Speed of travel too slow.

Excessive penetration hasproduced local collapse ofweld pool resulting in a holein the root run.

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W E L D I N G Troub le Shoot ing

Undercut Notching EffectProblem Likely Cause

Under-cut along verticalmember of fillet welded teejoint.

Root run too large withundercut in butt joint.

Under-cut both sides ofweld face in butt joint.

Blowpipe used at incorrectangle.

Use of too large a nozzleand/or excessive lateralblowpipe manipulation withtoo slow a speed of travel.

Incorrect use of blowpipe.Wrong distance from platesurface. Excessive lateralmovement. Use of too largea nozzle in the root run.

Oxidised and Overheated WeldsProblem Likely Cause

Oxidised weld face.Porous dirty appearanceof surface. Cracked scaleadhering on weld facewith dull appearance.

Overheated weld.

Use of oxidising flamesetting. Insufficient cleaningof plate surfaces. Incorrectmanipulation of blowpipepermitting cone to contactthe molten pool.Atmospheric contamination.

Use of too large a nozzle.Speed of travel too slow.Excess blowpipemanipulation extending theweld pool.

Incomplete Root PenetrationProblem Likely Cause

Incomplete root penetrationin butt joints (single vee ordouble vee).

Incomplete root penetrationin close square tee joint.

Welds incorrectlypositioned.

Notch, instead of rootunderbead.

Lack of root penetration.

Incorrect set-up and jointpreparation. Use ofunsuitable procedureand/or welding technique.

Incorrect set-up and jointpreparation. Use ofunsuitable procedureand/or welding technique.

Welds have been depositedout of alignment with thecentre line of the joint.

Lack of root penetration.Angle of nozzle too smalLSpeed of travel too fast.

Insufficient heat applied.

Incorrect joint penetrationand set up. Gap too smalLVee preparation too narrow.Root edges touching

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