EFFECTIVE PRACTICES - Library · Volume 2/issn1554-0464 Issue 9/isbn978-1-57922-171-3 September...

CONTENTS

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Conflict and Conflict Management . . . . . 2Conflict Management and Social Justice . 5Factors Affecting Our Conflict Modes . . 9Deciding When and How to Engage

in Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Conflict Management Styles of

Academic Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Improving Conflict Management skills . . 10Developing Conflict Management

Awareness in the Department Culture . 11Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Annotated Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Nancy E. Algert received her Ph.D. in edu-

cational psychology from Texas A&M Uni-

versity. She is president of the Center for

Change and Conflict Resolution, a licensed

professional counselor, and a TMCA Dis-

tinguished Mediator in Bryan, Texas. She

serves as a visiting assistant professor in

the Department of Educational Psychology

at Texas A&M.

Christine A. Stanley received her Ph.D. in cur-

riculum and instruction from Texas A&M

University and is executive associate dean for

faculty affairs and professor of higher educa-

tion administration in the university’s Col-

lege of Education and Human Development.

EDITORS

Timothy J. DelmontDirector, Center for Human ResourceDevelopment/Office of Human ResourcesUniversity of [email protected]

Robert SecorVice Provost Emeritus for Academic AffairsPennsylvania State [email protected]

Executive Summary

A successful academic leader such as a department chair or dean must be

able to discern and manage conflicts effectively. Conflict is a natural state

of existence in our everyday lives, and the academic setting is no exception.

In an era of greater accountability, pressures to increase student enroll-

ment, declining resources, and the expectation to recruit and retain a more

diverse faculty and student body, the probability of an academic leader en-

gaging in or having to resolve conflict is on the rise. The nature or types of

conflicts in an academic setting vary, from the individuals involved to the

issues that lead to them. Conflict can arise over issues related to faculty

hires, the allocation of department and college resources, performance eval-

uations, achieving and working with diversity, and relationships among de-

partmental personnel.

We cannot avoid conflict in an academic setting any more than we can

elsewhere in our daily experiences, but the consequences of engaging in it

are not always negative. In fact, conflict, if managed well, can lead to growth

and development. However, many of us are not equipped with the skills to

manage conflict, and we do not know whom to refer to when conflicts arise

on a college or university campus. We assume that academic leaders know

how to manage conflict well, but conflict management is an overlooked area

of faculty and administrator development

This briefing conveys an overview of conflict management, some com-

mon causes of conflict, how people respond to conflict, how social justice in-

fluences conflict, the modes people use to address conflict, how to identify

our conflict management style, conflicts involving bullying and bias, and

how administrators can enhance their skills in conflict management.

IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN

This briefing includes our observations from working and consulting with

faculty and administrators in college and university settings across the

country and noting what constitutes best practices in conflict management.

Our primary audience is administrators, but faculty members who are in-

terested in understanding conflict and how to identify and manage it in an

academic setting should also benefit from our findings.

Administrators such as department chairs and deans face many chal-

lenges in academia, including coping with stress. In his briefing, Stress

Management Strategies for Academic Leaders, Gmelch (2006) identified five

factors that impact stress for administrators. These stress factors include

dealing with conflict, including “handling student concerns and conflicts”

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Volume 2/issn 1554-0464 Issue 9/isbn 978-1-57922-171-3 September 2007

EFFECTIVE PRACTICESFOR ACADEMIC LEADERS

Conflict Managementby Nancy E. Algert and Christine A. Stanley

16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM

Volume 2, No. 9, September 2007 Copyright © 2007, Stylus Publishing, LLC Effective Practices for Academic Leaders

2

and “handling faculty conflicts and desires and dealing with faculty bul-

lies” (p. 4). However, administrators are not the only ones faced with chal-

lenges. Faculty members also encounter conflict and stress related to

working toward tenure and promotion, securing funding for research,

feeling a sense of belonging, and complying with expectations from many

external sources (Gmelch, 2006). If administrators are not always

equipped with the skills necessary to handle conflict, then the ordinary

faculty member is even less equipped to manage stress and conflict.

Therefore, effective academic leaders must seek ways to avoid and resolve

conflicts among faculty and staff.

Our basic premise is that when we learn to effectively manage and re-

solve conflicts with others, more opportunities for successful teamwork and

increased faculty productivity and enhanced work life are available to us. If

we can learn to manage conflict (as educators, we average five conflicts per

day; Opotow, 1989), then we will be less apt to practice destructive behav-

iors that will negatively impact faculty relationships and collegiality. More-

over, research shows that unresolved conflict can lead to serious aggressive

behavior. Most people first learn conflict skills and conflict behavior from

what they observe growing up. Some of us observed good conflict manage-

ment, others observed faulty conflict management, but most of us have rea-

sons to improve our conflict-management skills (Stanley & Algert, 2007).

Developing good conflict-management skills can help faculty and adminis-

trators in a number of ways, including enhancing their skills in communica-

tion, leadership, management, collaboration, cross-cultural understanding,

problem solving, and facilitation of difficult dialogues. It is our hope that

this briefing will prove useful for administrators and faculty who wish to

better manage conflict in the academic setting.

CCOONNFFLLIICCTT AANNDD CCOONNFFLLIICCTT MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT

We can often measure our progress by watching the nature of our conflicts. . . . If a

man should tell you that his chief daily conflict within himself is “shall I steal or not

steal?” you would know what to think of his development. . . . In the same way, one

test of your [organization] is not how many conflicts do you have, for conflicts are

the essences of life, but what are your conflicts, and how do you deal with them?

(Follett, 1940, p. 35)

Before we address some of the common causes of conflict, we will define

conflict and provide a concise overview of conflict management. Conflict

may be defined as a struggle or contest between or among individuals with

opposing needs, ideas, beliefs, values, or goals. In an academic setting, par-

ticularly in a department, faculty members, faculty members and students,

students, faculty members and staff, faculty members and department

chairs, or department chairs and deans may encounter conflict. Conflict ex-

ists even if only one person perceives it (Algert & Watson, 2005). Conflict

in the academic setting is inevitable; however, the results of conflict are not

predetermined. Conflict might escalate and lead to nonproductive behav-

ior, or conflict can be beneficially resolved and lead to positive results. In

our study of conflict styles of department heads (Stanley & Algert, 2007),

one department chair stated,

EF F E C T I V E PR A C T I C E S F O RAC A D E M I C LE A D E R S

ADVISORY BOARDTrudy W. BantaVice Chancellor for Planning and InstitutionalImprovement, Indiana University Purdue UniversityIndianapolisCarole J. BlandProfessor and Director of Research, Department ofFamily Medicine, University of MinnesotaBetsy E. BrownAssociate Vice President for Academic Affairs andExecutive Director of the UNC Leadership Institute atthe University of North CarolinaTheodore H. CurryProfessor and Director, School of Labor andIndustrial Relations, Michigan State University

Gerardo E. de los SantosPresident and CEO, League for Innovation in theCommunity CollegeWalter H. GmelchDean, School of Education, University of San Francisco

C. Kristina GunsalusAdjunct Professor, College of Law, University of Illinois,Urbana-Champaign

William B. HarveyVice President and Chief Officer for Diversity andEquity, University of VirginiaVal MiskinDirector of Graduate Programs, College of Businessand Economics, Washington State University

Daniel W. WheelerProfessor and Head, Ag Leadership, Education, andCommunication, University of Nebraska-Lincoln

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16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM

Effective Practices for Academic Leaders Copyright © 2007, Stylus Publishing, LLC Volume 2, No. 9, September 2007

3

You can’t [only] be a good manager, and

you can’t just be a good leader; you have to

be both. There is a skill set there, and we

ought to be developing that skill set . . .

[especially when] working with conflict.

In a certain way I don’t even like the

phrase conflict management; it’s like you

are managing the conflict. I’m more inter-

ested in what the conflict means; what it is

about and how you understand it; how do

you work on it so that you can create a

positive, supportive, caring environment

that is getting great work done? (p. 61)

Therefore, learning to manage con-

flict is integral to achieving a high-

performance department, college, or

university. Although very few faculty

members or administrators seek con-

flict, more often than not, conflict re-

sults because of miscommunication

between faculty members regarding

their needs, ideas, beliefs, goals, or val-

ues. The principle that undergirds

conflict management is that not all

conflicts can be resolved, but learning

how to manage conflicts can decrease

the odds of nonproductive escalation.

Conflict management involves acquir-

ing skills related to resolving conflict,

achieving self-awareness about con-

flict modes, developing conflict com-

munication skills, and establishing a

structure for management of conflict

in your environment. Before attempt-

ing to resolve any conflict in which

you are involved, there are two initial

steps you need to take: (1) recognize

your physiological responses when

perceiving conflict, and (2) notice and

identify your thoughts and feelings

(Algert & Watson, 2005).

RReessppoonnsseess ttoo CCoonnflfliicctt

Feelings that individuals often have

when in conflict are fear, guilt, anger,

and resentment. Their thoughts often

take the form of “they’re doing it

again,” “they’re trying to win,” “they’re

messing with my area,” “I won’t toler-

ate this,” “I don’t like this,” or “they’re

wrong” (Algert & Watson, 2005, p. 2).

Physiologically we respond to conflict

in one of two ways: we want to “get

away from the conflict” or we are ready

to “take on anyone who comes our

way.” Research by Taylor et al. (2000)

indicates that women may have a dif-

ferent response to conflict than most

men. Women have a larger behavior

repertoire than solely “fight or flight,”

and their impulse may be to “tend and

befriend.” Think for a moment about

how you feel when you are in conflict.

Do you want to leave or do you want to

sit and work through the conflict is-

sues? Neither physiological response is

good or bad—it is a matter of personal

response. What is important to learn,

regardless of our initial physiological

response to conflict, is that we should

intentionally choose our response to

conflict. Whether we feel that we want

to fight or flee when a conflict arises,

we can deliberately choose the conflict

mode most appropriate to solving the

problem at hand.

PPrroodduuccttiivvee CCoonnflfliicctt MMaannaaggeemmeenntt

Productive conflict management re-

quires facilitating an open dialogue be-

tween or among individuals in which

differing opinions, values, and beliefs

are shared, heard, and respected, in

order to reach a reasonable level of

understanding or resolution. The col-

lege and university environment are

microcosms of our society and the

world. Therefore, the primary con-

stituent groups of a campus commu-

nity—students, faculty, and staff—

are at times as diverse in their needs

and assumptions as are the various

constituency groups in society. More-

over, there is diversity within and

across each group, all contributing

to opportunities for conflict. Conse-

quently, the more we work to hone our

skill set to engage in productive con-

flict management, the greater our

chances of creating more comfortable

and high-performing work environ-

ments for all in our college and univer-

sity communities.

The goal should be to turn conflict

itself into productive and positive out-

comes. For example, we know of a case

in which two members of a department

were in conflict with each other but

were able to work through their con-

flict using the process of mediation.

Like any other intervention approach

(e.g., facilitating, modeling, negotiat-

ing, arbitrating, judging) mediation is

dependent on the nature of the conflict

and the long-term relations and inter-

actions of the disputants with each

other and the intervening party. In this

case, an untenured assistant professor

perceived that his colleague, a senior

full professor, had been spreading ru-

mors about his research to colleagues

and graduates. These two faculty mem-

bers expressed their concerns to the as-

sociate provost at the university, who

offered mediation. During the media-

tion process, they were both able to

share their perspective, goals, needs,

and feelings, and before long it became

clear that they wanted to work through

the conflict for the sake of their colle-

gial relationship and the climate of the

department as a whole. As a result, they

developed a memorandum of under-

standing on how they would work to-

gether in the future. Several weeks after

the mediation, the untenured assistant

professor volunteered to us that while

he came to the process with apprehen-

sion, he realized how much of the con-

flict was due to miscommunication, and

he learned information about his senior

colleague that he had not known prior

to the mediation that made him appre-

ciate his point of view. This case study

is not atypical. Our work in conflict

management continues to affirm to us

that the primary motivation for adults

16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM


4

to engage in productive conflict man-

agement is catharsis and relief, and that

the end result is not only better rela-

tionships but a happier and more pro-

ductive unit.

TThhee FFiivvee CCoonnflfliicctt MMooddeess

Typically we respond to conflict by

using one of the following five modes

(Thomas & Kilmann, 1974):

1. Competing

2. Avoiding

3. Accommodating

4. Compromising

5. Collaborating

Each of these modes can be character-

ized along two scales: assertiveness and

cooperation. None of these modes is

wrong to use, but there are right and

wrong times to use each.

IIddeennttiiffyyiinngg YYoouurr CCoonnflfliicctt

MMaannaaggeemmeenntt SSttyyllee

The key to managing conflict effec-

tively is to choose the conflict manage-

ment style appropriate for the conflict.

Most of us are prone to using a partic-

ular style; however, it is important

that we learn about the range of styles

and their characteristics and limita-

tions. The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict

Mode Instrument is a widely used as-

sessment tool for determining conflict

modes. The assessment takes less than

15 minutes to complete and yields con-

flict scores for the five conflict modes.

Following are detailed descriptions of

these modes and a discussion of their

strengths and weaknesses.

CCoommppeettiinngg

The competing conflict mode is high

assertiveness and low cooperation. This

mode is most appropriate to use when

quick action needs to be taken, when

unpopular decisions need to be made,

when vital issues must be handled, or

when one is protecting self-interests.

For example, a department chair might

be faced with a conflict that involves the

allocation of merit raises in the depart-

ment. The allocation of merit might

take into account input from a variety

of people; however, the final decision

rests with the department chair. Com-

peting skills include the following:

• Arguing or debating

• Standing one’s ground

• Using rank or influence

• Stating one’s position

• Asserting one’s opinions or feel-

ings

AAvvooiiddiinngg

The avoiding mode is low assertiveness

and low cooperation. Many times indi-

viduals will avoid conflicts because they

are afraid of engaging in them or be-

cause they do not have confidence in

their conflict-management skills. How-

ever, the avoiding mode is most appro-

priate to use when you have issues of

low importance; when you are in a

position of lower power; or when you

want to reduce tensions or buy some

time, perhaps to gather more data or

learn more about what is causing the

conflict. Avoiding skills include the

following:

• Being able to withdraw

• Being able to leave things un-

resolved

• Being able to sidestep issues

• Having a sense of timing

AAccccoommmmooddaattiinngg

The accommodating mode is low as-

sertiveness and high cooperation. This

mode is more appropriate to use when

you wish to show reasonableness, de-

velop performance, create goodwill, or

keep peace. Some people use the accom-

modating mode when the issue or out-

come is of low importance to them. This

mode can be problematic when used to

“keep a tally” or to be a martyr. By ac-

commodating you may hope for some

reciprocal accommodation in a future

conflict, but you should not expect this

if you keep a tally of the number of times

you have accommodated someone in or-

der to call in future debts. Accommodat-

ing skills include the following:

• Forgetting your desires

• Being able to yield

• Possessing selflessness

• Obeying orders

CCoommpprroommiissiinngg

The compromising mode is moderate

assertiveness and moderate coopera-

tion. Some people define compromise

as “giving up more than you want,”

whereas others see compromise as both

parties winning. The compromising

mode is more appropriate to use when

you are dealing with issues of moderate

importance, when you have equal

power status, or when you have a

strong commitment for resolution. The

compromising mode can also be used as

a temporary solution when there are

time constraints. For example, if you

perceive that there is merit to issues

presented by both parties in conflict,

you might choose to ascertain if there is

room for compromise through negotia-

tion. Compromising skills include the

following:

• Negotiating

• Assessing value

• Finding a middle ground

• Making concessions

CCoollllaabboorraattiinngg

The collaborating mode is high as-

sertiveness and high cooperation. Col-

laboration has been described as

16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM


“putting an idea on top of an idea on

top of an idea . . . in order to achieve

the best solution to a conflict” (S.

Leura, personal communication, 1998).

It can construct a creative solution to

the conflict that would not have been

generated by a single individual. With

the potential for such a positive out-

come, the collaboration mode might

be seen as the best conflict mode to

use in all conflict situations. However,

collaborating takes a great deal of

time and energy and, thus, should be

used only when the conflict warrants

the time and energy. For example, if

your department is establishing ideas

for a code of conduct on how its mem-

bers can work together effectively,

then using the collaborating mode

could be quite useful. On the other

hand, if several faculty members are in

conflict about where to take a faculty

candidate to lunch, the time and en-

ergy necessary to collaboratively re-

solve the conflict is probably not

warranted. The collaborative mode is

more appropriate to use when the con-

flict is important to the people who

are constructing an integrative solu-

tion, when the issues are too impor-

tant to compromise, when merging

perspectives, when gaining commit-

ment, when improving relationships,

or when learning. Collaborating skills

include the following:

• Engaging in active listening

• Identifying concerns

• Using nonthreatening confron-

tation

• Analyzing input

CCoonnflfliicctt CCaassee SSttuuddyy

Consider the case study in figure 1. Try

to read it from the perspective of each of

the participants involved and respond

to the guiding questions that follow.

CCOONNFFLLIICCTT MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT

AANNDD SSOOCCIIAALL JJUUSSTTIICCEE

In addition to differences in values, be-

liefs, and attitudes, conflict can be trig-

gered by ethnic, racial, religious, or

economic differences. We have learned

from conflict theory and mediation

practice that social justice issues are

important to consider when managing

conflict. A basic tenet of social justice

is inclusiveness. We cannot effectively

manage conflict without ensuring that

all parties involved have a voice at the

table and are provided with an opportu-

nity to tell their story from their seat of

identity or multiple identities (i.e.,

gender, age, race, ethnicity, sexual ori-

entation, culture, nationality, physical

and/or learning ability, class, and reli-

gion). Parties whose voices may not be

heard or heeded in conventional forums

must be given the opportunity to be

heard in the conflict resolution process.

More important, the views, needs, and

interests of the participants in a dispute

must be given full consideration, and

the “power” differences among the par-

ticipants must be equalized in reaching

a fair resolution of the conflict. For

example, we have worked with an ad-

ministrative office at a major research

university that provides mediation

services. Faculty members are trained

to be mediators and are called on to

mediate faculty conflicts when they

arise. The mediators receive 40 hours of

extensive training (a requirement of the

State Bar where the university is lo-

cated), and a large part of that training

is learning about the relationship be-

tween conflict and social justice. Issues

such as racial identity development, the

cycle of socialization, the dynamics of

oppression, and responding to triggers

that can lead to conflict are important

topics of discussion during the training.

The mediation service is voluntary

and available to all faculty members.

One of the attributes of this service is

that the associate provost works to as-

sign co-mediators to cases to ensure

that the power relations are reason-

ably equal, especially when it is per-

ceived that the nature of the conflict

might involve a social justice issue

such as racism. For example, if there is

a perceived racial conflict, the office

works to find a biracial team of co-me-

diators. Mediators are never from the

parties’ department and college, and

when more than one mediator is in-

volved representing each of the par-

ties, every effort is made to ensure that

co-mediators are equally matched re-

garding academic rank.

CCoonnflfliiccttss IInnvvoollvviinngg DDiivveerrssiittyy

Most of our colleges and universities

are striving to model the diversity

that is representative of our society

and/or state as a whole. Regarding

the goals and achievements of a di-

verse campus, Lee Bollinger (2007),

president of Columbia University,

states,

The experience of arriving on a campus

to live and study with classmates from a

diverse range of backgrounds is essential

to students’ training for this new world,

nurturing in them an instinct to reach

out instead of clinging to the comforts

of what seems natural or familiar. We

know that connecting with people very—

or even slightly—different from ourselves

stimulates the imagination; and when we

learn to see the world through a multiplic-

ity of eyes, we only make ourselves more

nimble in mastering—and integrating—

the diverse fields of knowledge awaiting

us. (p. B20)

However, the learning experience

that Bollinger rightly applauds when

people with diverse backgrounds inter-

act can also lead to misunderstanding

and conflict. As a result, universities

5

16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM


and academic leaders find themselves

having to deal with racial incidents or

hate crimes on their campuses. Individ-

uals on campus are also often uncertain

as to how to deal with these incidents.

Still too often, we will serve on a com-

mittee or attend a meeting only to

hear someone make a disparaging

comment that is perceived as sexist,

racist, homophobic, anti-Semitic, or

Islam-phobic, and it is met by silence.

We often observe and critique the

conflict management skills of individ-

uals who work to resolve these diffi-

cult conflicts.

Learning how to discern and man-

age racial conflicts on a college or uni-

versity campus is an intellectually,

emotionally, and politically challeng-

ing exercise (Bell, Love, & Roberts,

2007). For those of us who have en-

gaged in discussions regarding racial

conflict, we relive comments such as,

“Is this really happening?” “Why is

this a race issue?” “You people are so

sensitive,” and “They just don’t get

it!” Comments like these are more

6

Figure 1 Conflict Case Study

You are in your first year as chair of a department with 14 full-time faculty members. You have already heard somegrumbling about three faculty members who spend much time consulting and rarely seem to be on campus. You talkwith one of them, Dr. Bucks, to find out about his consulting activities. He is somewhat evasive about the extent ofhis consulting activities but emphatically stresses the importance to the department of professional activities outsidethe university.

Dr. Brightlight has a national reputation. Students in her courses complain that guest speakers and videos are of-ten used to conduct the class while she is off consulting. On the other hand, the department needs her, probably morethan she needs it. Her luminary reputation is helpful to the department’s status and research activities.

Dr. Dolittle is a full professor who has been with the university for 23 years. He recently invested in a business andis spending increasing amounts of time analyzing and supervising its operations. He is frequently unavailable to stu-dents. You drop by during his office hours fruitlessly three times. When you finally get an opportunity to talk with himabout his off-campus activities, he responds that the new business is really a form of consulting, that it is improvinghis teaching, and that he is doing nothing different from what other faculty members are doing.

Your executive committee has suggested that absent faculty members are derailing the department’s program-matic progress. Classes are not being taught or are not of the quality that they should be. These faculty members’ re-search efforts seem to support their consultation work rather than departmental priorities. Their service to thedepartment is nonexistent. Their attitude has had a negative impact on both faculty morale and recruitment efforts,given current students’ comments to prospective students. You understand the executive committee’s concerns, butyou are also aware of what the impact will be on the department’s reputation if all three of these faculty members ex-plore leaving the department because of any action that you take.

Here are some guiding questions to ask as you work through how to resolve this conflict:

1. What is the conflict?2. Who are the disputants?3. What are the issues?4. Which of the conflict modes would you use and why?5. What are the implications of using other conflict modes?6. What is the typical response to this type of conflict?7. What are the short-term consequences of not addressing the conflict?8. What are the long-term consequences of not addressing the conflict?

16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM


likely when we do not provide our fac-

ulty, staff, administrators, and stu-

dents opportunities to dialogue about

potentially divisive racial issues in safe

and supportive spaces. In their work

on racism and white privilege curricu-

lum design, Bell et al. (2007) make

some comments that apply equally

well to campus dialogues involving is-

sues of race:

Participants bring to a course on racism a

wide range of feelings and experiences,

and often misinformation, confusion, and

bias. White participants may sincerely

want to learn about racism and figure out

how to play a role in making their commu-

nities, schools, and workplaces welcoming

places for all, but fail to see the role white

skin privilege and accumulated white ad-

vantage play in perpetuating racial in-

equality. Participants of color may want to

figure out how to break through the silence

about racism as a historic and contempo-

rary force that differentially shapes their

lives, but fear having their concerns dis-

missed, being viewed as too sensitive or as

troublemakers, or being misunderstood by

white peers and teachers. Participants

from all racial groups may be reluctant to

explore racism, especially in mixed

groups, given the complex and often

painful web of emotions that discussions

about racism inevitably raise. (p. 123)

Racial conflicts do not go away on

their own; they usually escalate if they

are not managed well. All faculty

members and college administrators

can become better models of diversity

by learning how to facilitate difficult

dialogues when racial conflicts occur.

Following are some general guide-

lines to follow when facilitating such

dialogues.

GGuuiiddeelliinnee 11:: BBee AAwwaarree ooff

YYoouurr BBiiaasseess

We all have prejudices. Prejudices may

involve taking a particular point of

view or perspective or reinforcing

stereotypes about a group of people be-

fore facts are gathered and weighed.

We observe these behaviors before and

during conflicts. However, biases be-

come problematic when we facilitate

discussion about racial conflicts from

a subjective rather than an objective

point of view. Be open to perspective

taking and learning and unlearning

information.


YYoouurr MMeennttaall MMooddeell

Mental models are explanations in our

mind of how something works in the

real world. They drive our choices, ac-

tions, and behaviors. Be cognizant of

the fact that not everyone shares the

same mental model. We all have differ-

ent life experiences, values, and beliefs

that shape who we are as human beings.

Individuals who historically have been

marginalized or have been made to feel

marginalized in our society might

bring a different mental model to a

given situation. Racial conflicts are op-

portunities to uncover mental models

so that there is growth and learning.


YYoouurr SSpphheerreess ooff IInnflfluueennccee

We can influence meaningful conflict

dialogues by examining and under-

standing the mindset and assumptions

of the various spheres that might col-

lide to create areas of conflict. The first

such sphere is that of self (including our

own attitudes, beliefs, values, knowl-

edge, and behavior in terms of socializa-

tion experiences, and our interactions

with others). The second sphere is that

of the campus itself. Does it have high

expectations for behavior for all stu-

dents and faculty? Does it provide a

welcoming environment and support

students and faculty when obstacles oc-

cur? Other spheres whose assumptions

and procedures should be examined

and understood, as they may influ-

ence behavior and attitudes resulting

in conflicts, include those of the de-

partment, college, or school (including

faculty governance and climate); com-

munity (including interactions be-

tween the campus or individual faculty

members with schools, religious or-

ganizations, business and industry,

and health-care agencies); and pro-

fessional organizations and the as-

sumptions and attitudes that might

inform faculty scholarship and work

at the local, national, and international

levels.

GGuuiiddeelliinnee 44:: WWoorrkk ttoo LLiisstteenn

RReessppeeccttffuullllyy aanndd NNoott ttoo JJuuddggee

One of the key ingredients to facilitat-

ing discussion about racial conflict or

any difficult dialogue is learning how

to listen hard. Many of us are skilled

speakers and far less proficient listen-

ers. Additionally, the ability to suspend

judgment is equally difficult for some

of us. To achieve clear communication

and to clarify misinformation, it is al-

ways helpful to restate and summarize

what you think you heard during a

conversation.

GGuuiiddeelliinnee 55:: AAcckknnoowwlleeddggee EEmmoottiioonnss

Difficult dialogues are difficult be-

cause human beings come to the dis-

cussion table laden with a variety of

emotions—fear, disappointment, frus-

tration, anger, confidence, courage,

hate, pain, pride, vulnerability, worry,

etc. These emotions often come from

direct experiences with overt and

covert discrimination. Emotions that

ensue as a result of these experiences

are natural and sustained. Avoiding di-

alogues under the guise of waiting until

individuals appear to be “calmer” is

never the best solution.

7

16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM


8

GGuuiiddeelliinnee 66:: EEssttaabblliisshh GGrroouunndd

RRuulleess ffoorr DDiissccuussssiioonn

Ground rules are helpful in setting

clear boundaries for difficult dialogues

so that everyone feels reasonably safe to

participate and contribute in a respect-

ful manner. We have found that when

participants in a dialogue work to-

gether to establish ground rules, there

is more ownership in working to ensure

that the conversation remains produc-

tive. Examples of useful ground rules

are as follows:

• Commit to active listening.

• Agree to using “I” statements to

avoid generalizations.

• Do not judge others or question

their motives.

• Do not interrupt when someone

is telling his or her story.

• Agree to confidentiality.

GGuuiiddeelliinnee 77:: EEssttaabblliisshh CClleeaarr PPllaannss

ffoorr AAccttiioonn aanndd AAccccoouunnttaabbiilliittyy

One of the questions often posed to ac-

ademic leaders before and during the

facilitation of discussion regarding

racial conflicts is, “What is going to be

done as a result of this conversation?”

Effective facilitation of such discussion

includes the development of clear

plans of action that are realistic, spe-

cific, and goal oriented. In addition, ac-

ademic leaders who are often in the

best position to ensure that plans of ac-

tion are developed, implemented, and

assessed should be held accountable for

monitoring the outcomes.

CCoonnflfliiccttss IInnvvoollvviinngg BBuullllyyiinngg

There is a growing body of literature

(Gravois, 2006; Jefferson, 2007; Levine,

2006; Namie & Namie, 2000; Powers,

2007; Twale & De Luca, in press) on

bullying in academia. A majority of the

authors of this literature agree that bul-

lying behaviors seem to take hold when

there is an imbalance of power. In fact,

as Houghton (2003) states, “Bullying

thrives in situations where the perpe-

trators are both powerful and frighten-

ing, and those around them [are] too

scared to challenge” (p. s126). In addi-

tion, these behaviors are directed at

members of targeted groups in acade-

mia such as women; faculty of color;

gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgen-

der faculty; Muslim faculty; and Jew-

ish faculty. Bullying can impact an

individual in three ways: physiologi-

cally (illness), psychologically (anxi-

ety, depression, fear), and behaviorally

(obsession, aggression, withdrawal)

(Amicus, 2005).

Academic bullies are often “older,

tenured professors who are unwilling to

take direction and create what many de-

scribe as a ‘toxic environment’ in the de-

partment” (Powers, 2007, p. 1). While

there are special opportunities for bully-

ing in the academic setting, where more

powerful professors can take advantage

of less powerful ones and graduate stu-

dents may become victims, some kinds

of bullying can take place in any work-

place. The Canadian Centre for Occupa-

tional Health and Safety (2005) offers

the following examples of workforce

bullying:

• Spreading malicious rumors, gos-

sip, or innuendo that is not true

• Excluding or isolating someone

socially

• Intimidating a person

• Undermining or deliberately im-

peding a person’s work

• Physically abusing or threatening

abuse

• Removing areas of responsibilities

without cause

• Constantly changing work guide-

lines

• Establishing impossible deadlines

that will set the individual up to fail

• Withholding necessary informa-

tion or purposefully giving the

wrong information

• Making jokes that are “obviously

offensive” by spoken word or

e-mail

• Intruding on a person’s privacy

by pestering, spying, or stalking

• Assigning unreasonable duties or

workload which are unfavorable to

one person (in a way that creates

unnecessary pressure)

• Underwork—creating a feeling of

uselessness

• Yelling or using profanity

• Criticizing a person persistently or

constantly

• Belittling a person’s opinions

• Unwarranted (or undeserved) pun-

ishment

• Blocking applications for training,

leave or promotion

• Tampering with a person’s per-

sonal belongings or work equip-

ment

Academic leaders must challenge

and support victims of bullying behav-

ior. These behaviors are on the rise

and occurring at increasing levels of

sophistication in the academy. Recog-

nizing and responding appropriately

to bullying behaviors is inherent to

effective conflict management. Acade-

mic bullying is a clear example of

behaviors that create conflicts, which

have escalated and are not effectively

addressed. Denice Denton, late chan-

cellor of the University of California,

Santa Cruz, had this to say about

confronting bullying behavior, con-

flict, and bias in her closing address

at the National Academy’s Commit-

tee on Maximizing the Potential of

Women in Academic Science and

Engineering:

16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM


9

I’m going to offer you a set of recommenda-

tions that will cost you nothing but courage.

They can also be used more broadly well

beyond the hallowed halls, and thus impact

the “cross-institutional interlock,” or as I

would say as an electrical engineer, “the

system.” First of all, we should have zero

tolerance for bullying behavior. It should

not be acceptable in the workplace or any-

where else. If you are an academic leader,

you should confront faculty and others who

are abusive to students, staff and other fac-

ulty, particularly senior faculty. Tenure is

not a license to kill. There are limits to ac-

ceptable behavior in the academy. How

many of you have seen on an academic

campus, senior people with tenure over and

over abuse people who are lower than them

in the power structure, and nobody ever

does anything? Why does that happen?

Why do we let that happen? It’s unaccept-

able. If you have issues with dealing with

conflict and you are an academic leader,

take a class. Get help. Seek support. People

don’t want to confront each other. But we

have to. It’s our job. It’s in the position de-

scription. We can learn from conflict. We

do learn from conflict. Confront people’s

biases. When biases come out if you’re an

academic leader or anything else, con-

front people’s bias. And here is another

one, and this is not a popular one, but I’m

just throwing it in there. Support your lo-

cal senior feminist colleagues, male and

female. It’s lonely at the top.(Rosser, 2006,

p. 23)

FFAACCTTOORRSS AAFFFFEECCTTIINNGG OOUURR

CCOONNFFLLIICCTT MMOODDEESS

A variety of factors, such as those de-

scribed here, can affect how we respond

to conflict:

• Gender: Some of us were socialized

to use particular conflict modes

because of our gender. For exam-

ple, some males were taught to

“always stand up to someone, and,

if you have to fight, then fight.” A

person socialized this way would

be more likely to use assertive

conflict modes versus cooperative

modes.

• Self-concept: How we think and feel

about ourselves affects how we ap-

proach conflict. Do we think our

thoughts, feelings, and opinions

are worth being heard by the per-

son with whom we are in conflict?

• Expectations: Do we believe the

other person wants to resolve the

conflict?

• Situation: Where is the conflict

occurring? Do we know the per-

son with whom we are in conflict?

Is the conflict personal or pro-

fessional?

• Position (Power): What is our power

status (i.e., equal to, more than, or

less than) in relation to the person

with whom we are in conflict?

• Practice: Practice involves being

able to use all five conflict modes

effectively, being able to determine

what conflict mode would be most

effective to resolve the conflict,

and having the ability to change

modes as necessary while engaged

in conflict.

• Knowledge: Through knowledge

about conflict and through prac-

tice we develop a “conflict man-

agement understanding” and can,

with ease and limited energy, de-

termine what conflict mode to use

with the particular person with

whom we are in conflict.

• Communication skills: The essence

of conflict resolution and conflict

management is the ability to com-

municate effectively. People who

use effective communication will

resolve their conflicts with greater

ease and success.

• Life experiences: As mentioned ear-

lier, we often practice the conflict

modes we observed growing up,

unless we have made a conscious

choice as adults to change or adapt

our conflict styles. Some of us had

great role models who taught us to

manage our conflicts, and others

had poor role models. Our life ex-

periences, both personal and pro-

fessional, have taught us to frame

conflict as either something posi-

tive that can be worked through or

something negative to be avoided

and ignored at all costs.

Discerning how we manage conflict

and why we manage it the way we do

and thinking about the value of engag-

ing in conflict with others are impor-

tant. With better understanding we

can make informed choices about how

and when we engage in conflict. The

next section provides points to con-

sider when determining whether to

enter into a conflict situation.

DDEECCIIDDIINNGG WWHHEENN AANNDD HHOOWW

TTOO EENNGGAAGGEE IINN CCOONNFFLLIICCTT

Sometimes the question is not one of

how to resolve a conflict but one of

whether to engage in a conflict. The

following six questions are helpful

when deciding whether or not to en-

gage in conflict and can be used by ac-

ademic leaders in counseling others

about engaging in conflict situations:

1. How invested in the relationship are

you? The importance of the working/

personal relationship often dictates

whether you will engage in a conflict.

If you value the person and/or the re-

lationship, going through the process

of conflict resolution is important.

2. How important is the issue to you?

Even if the relationship is not of

great value to you, you often must

engage in conflict if the issue is im-

portant to you. For example, if the

issue is a belief, value, or regula-

16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM


10

tion that you believe in or are hired

to enforce, then engaging in the

conflict is necessary. If the rela-

tionship and the issue are both im-

portant to you, there is an even

more compelling reason to engage

in the conflict.

3. Do you have the energy for the con-

flict? Many of us say, “There is not

enough time to do all that I want to

do in a day.” Often the issue is not

how much time is available but how

much energy we have for what we

need to do. Even in a track meet,

runners are given recovery time be-

fore they have to run another race.

Energy, not time, is being managed

in these situations.

4. Are you aware of the potential conse-

quences? Many times people will en-

gage in conflict and then be shocked

by the outcome or consequences of

doing so. Thoughtful reflection

about the potential consequences,

both positive and negative, is wise

when determining whether or not

to engage in a conflict. For exam-

ple, there may be a risk to your

safety, a risk of job loss, or an

opportunity for a better working

relationship.

5. Are you ready for the consequences?

After analyzing potential conse-

quences of engaging in conflict,

you need to determine whether

you are prepared for those conse-

quences. For example, a staff mem-

ber anticipated a job loss if she

continued to engage in the conflict

she was having with her boss. Af-

ter careful consideration, the staff

member concluded that she be-

lieved strongly enough about the

issue that she should continue to

engage in the conflict. Her annual

contract was not renewed for the

upcoming year. However, because

she had thought through the con-

sequences of engaging in the con-

flict, she was prepared to be with-

out a job for a while and was able

to plan financially and emotionally

for this outcome.

6. What are the consequences if you do not

engage in the conflict? To avoid los-

ing a sense of self, there are times

when you must engage in conflict.

If you are going to sacrifice one of

your core beliefs or values by avoid-

ing a conflict, you need to ask

whether the loss of self-respect is

worth the price of avoidance.

CCOONNFFLLIICCTT MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT SSTTYYLLEESS

OOFF AACCAADDEEMMIICC LLEEAADDEERRSS

Few studies focus on the conflict man-

agement styles of academic leaders

such as deans and department chairs

(Gmelch, 1991; Hickson & McCroskey,

1991) and virtually none focus on fac-

ulty. This is clearly an area that re-

quires more research. In 2004, we

conducted a qualitative research study

of 20 department heads who repre-

sented 10 academic colleges at a major

public research university. Eleven of

the department heads self-reported

that they used the compromising mode

most to manage conflict in their de-

partments (Stanley & Algert, 2007).

The common conflicts that department

heads described were “data conflicts

(e.g., limited resources), inadequate

personnel, [and] space issues” (Stanley

& Algert, 2007, p. 58). It should also be

pointed out that 10 of the 20 depart-

ment heads indicated a need for more

professional development opportuni-

ties for department heads and deans in

the area of conflict management and

specifically addressing how the uni-

versity culture impacts the manage-

ment of conflict. Here are two

representative comments from the de-

partment heads:

Provide professional development on a

regular basis. Conflict management is a

daily activity. When you go from a faculty

member to a department head, even though

you may have done things with the organ-

ization [department], it is not the same

because now the scale of conflict is different

and escalates. (Stanley & Algert, 2007,

p. 61)

I never had any training in conflict

management. I have been at this university

for a long time . . . , but every day is a new

event; and so you wrestle with it to make

sure that you do all the things that I am

talking about. That you are fair, that you

are listening, that you make sure that to the

extent you can, that parties walk away

with a win-win situation. I would think

that there would be a lot of value in giving

somebody an opportunity to have to go

through some training where conflict man-

agement issues would be sorted out, you

know, maybe in terms of some scenario de-

velopment, situations that you would find

yourself in so that it’s a little less sort of

learning on the job while you are doing it.

(Stanley & Algert, 2007, p. 58)

When academic leaders, such as de-

partment chairs and deans, work to

learn more about their conflict manage-

ment styles, there is a high probabil-

ity of decreased resource expenditure,

improved communication, and in-

creased faculty and staff productivity.

Furthermore, departmental and col-

lege communities will have a clear

understanding of the university con-

flict culture.

IIMMPPRROOVVIINNGG CCOONNFFLLIICCTT

MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT SSKKIILLLLSS

Understanding the five different modes

of conflict management, the factors af-

fecting these modes, and the processes

for selecting one or more approaches to

conflict involves both self-awareness

and an awareness of the others in-

volved in the conflict. In terms of self-

awareness, it is important to ask the

16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM


following questions when deciding how

to approach a conflict situation:

1. Am I in conflict?

2. With whom am I in conflict?

3. Why am I motivated to engage in

the conflict?

4. What conflict mode am I going to

use to manage this conflict?

Because conflict involves at least two

people, awareness of the other party

or parties involved should inform the

choice of approach to a conflict situation.

It is with that awareness that the follow-

ing questions should also be asked:

1. What is the nature of the conflict;

that is, what is the conflict about?

2. What might motivate the other

person(s) involved to resolve the

conflict?

3. What conflict modes is the other

person using?

4. How might I intervene to resolve/

manage the conflict?

Learning more about conflict al-

lows greater intentionality in selecting

a conflict response. Most people have

set reactions to conflicts. By learning

more about the principles of conflict

and about conflict modes and reflect-

ing on the previous questions, we can

be more intentional in deciding on a

conflict response.

GGuuiiddeelliinneess ffoorr EEffffeeccttiivvee

CCoonnflfliicctt MMaannaaggeemmeenntt

Academic leaders can either contribute

to the conflict or create an environment

that fosters a positive conflict culture.

Therefore, they have the capacity to be

effective (or ineffective) conduits of con-

flict management. Following are five

general guidelines that academic lead-

ers should follow in order to practice ef-

fective conflict management and build a

positive conflict culture:

GGuuiiddeelliinnee 11:: BBee AAwwaarree ooff YYoouurr

CCoonnflfliicctt MMaannaaggeemmeenntt SSttyyllee

We all have a particular style of manag-

ing conflict. Be cognizant of your style

and know its strengths and limitations.

Let the nature of the conflict determine

the appropriate action to take, including

which conflict mode to use. Determine

the importance of the issues involved,

the nature of the relationship between

and among the parties, and the power

differentials involved in the conflict.

GGuuiiddeelliinnee 22:: BBee AAwwaarree ooff HHooww YYoouu

EEnnggaaggee iinn aanndd AAddddrreessss CCoonnflfliicctt

There are many strategies to use in re-

solving and managing conflict. How

you manage conflict will set the tone

for the department’s or organization’s

conflict culture. Ignoring a conflict

once it has come to your attention is

not always the best strategy. Don’t get

consumed by conflict. Be open to dif-

ferent perspectives. Listen actively.

Value the diversity of all voices that

you are hearing, including those from

historically marginalized and under-

represented groups.

GGuuiiddeelliinnee 33:: KKnnooww YYoouurr

DDeeppaarrttmmeenntt’’ss CCoonnflfliicctt CCuullttuurree

Every organization and/or department

has a conflict culture. The culture of an

organization is a pattern of shared basic

assumptions that the group has learned

as it has solved problems over time.

These shared assumptions are passed

on to new members as the correct way

to perceive, think, and feel in relation to

problems and conflicts that arise. The

culture is expressed in terms of the

organization’s artifacts (visible struc-

tures and processes), espoused values

(strategies, goals, philosophies), and

basic underlying assumptions (uncon-

scious beliefs, perceptions, thoughts,

and feelings). Anyone joining an aca-

demic unit on a college or university

campus should work at learning and

understanding its underlying conflict

culture.

GGuuiiddeelliinnee 44:: DDiissccuussss YYoouurr

DDeeppaarrttmmeenntt’’ss CCoonnflfliicctt CCuullttuurree

Academic departments very rarely en-

gage in dialogue about the artifacts,

espoused values, and basic underlying

assumptions that undergird the mis-

sion and vision of the department. It is

assumed that new members know

what is expected of them. This is often

a source of frustration for faculty, es-

pecially new members to the depart-

mental community, and can lead to

aggression and affect faculty recruit-

ment and retention.

GGuuiiddeelliinnee 55:: EEssttaabblliisshh CCooddeess ooff

CCoonndduucctt ffoorr MMaannaaggiinngg CCoonnflfliicctt

Many departments and working groups

and teams have found it useful to de-

velop codes of conduct for managing

conflict. Codes of conduct are rules that

help to outline appropriate practices

and responsibilities within an organiza-

tion. They are most useful and mean-

ingful when they are created with input

from everyone who works in a unit and

shared so that there is ownership and

accountability. See figure 2 for an ex-

ample of a code of conduct.

DDEEVVEELLOOPPIINNGG CCOONNFFLLIICCTT

MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT AAWWAARREENNEESSSS IINN

TTHHEE DDEEPPAARRTTMMEENNTT CCUULLTTUURREE

Not only do academic leaders need to

develop conflict management skills,

but they need to find ways of develop-

ing conflict management awareness and

skills within the unit so that everybody

appreciates the need and the process for

resolving conflicts. Figure 3 provides

an exercise for reflection and figure 4 a

team activity that can be used to build

such awareness and skills.

11

16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM


CCOONNCCLLUUSSIIOONN

The goal of this briefing is to provide

administrators and faculty members

with conflict management information

that can be beneficial both personally

and professionally. Some people think

that conflict is a topic that should not

be discussed and that we should not

engage in conflict. Productively en-

gaging in conflict is always valuable.

Most individuals are willing and inter-

ested in resolving their conflicts; they

just need the appropriate skill set and

opportunities to practice it. Without a

conflict skill set, individuals wish to

avoid conflict, hoping it will go away,

or not wanting to make a “big deal out

of nothing.” There are times when

avoiding conflict is the appropriate

strategy, but avoidance is usually not

the best strategy, and the implications

of not acting to resolve the conflict

should always be considered. Re-

search and personal experiences show

us that there are always consequences

that accompany the decision to en-

gage or not engage in conflict.

Through conflict self-awareness we

can more effectively manage our con-

flicts and, therefore, our professional

and personal relationships. Further-

more, by discussing issues related to

conflict management, academic units

can establish an expected protocol to

be followed by all when in conflict. All

colleges, universities, and academic

units have a conflict culture (the way

that everyone responds or does not

respond to conflict). However, most

members of the campus community

never discuss what the conflict cul-

ture is, leading some to make assump-

tions that can be counterproductive

to the unit.

Practicing one’s conflict manage-

ment skills leads to more successful en-

gagement in conflict with outcomes of

greater understanding, better commu-

nication, and increased productivity for

both the individual and the unit. When

we manage our conflicts more effec-

tively, we spend more of our energy on

the issues and relationships that matter

most to us.

Figure 2 Example Code of Conduct

Code of Cooperation for the Management Team

1. Remember that every member is responsible for the team’s progress and success.2. Listen to and show respect for the contributions of other members.3. Criticize ideas, not persons.4. Do not allow hidden agendas.5. Do not allow collusion.6. Strive for consensus.7. Resolve conflicts constructively.8. Pay attention; avoid disruptive behavior.9. Avoid disruptive side conversations.

10. Allow only one person to speak at a time.11. Ensure that everyone participates and that no one dominates.12. Be succinct; avoid long anecdotes and examples.13. Understand that pulling rank is not allowed.14. Attend to your personal comfort needs at any time but minimize team disruption.15. Make your best effort to attend each team meeting.16. Be comfortable (attire).17. Respond in a timely fashion (e-mail).

• Do not send frivolous e-mail.• Copy to all team members on e-mail related to project business.

18. Have the team leader ensure that required materials are present at meetings.19. Voice your discomfort.20. Have on-campus teams operate in a team-based, continuous improvement mode.21. Defend those who are absent.22. Have fun!

12

16743-EPNL2.9 10/30/07 3:31 PM


Figure 3 Individual Reflection Exercise on Conflict Management

Smith (2000) suggests that the following exercise might provide individuals with valuable information about theirperspectives on conflict. This exercise could be used in a retreat setting or as a professional development activity forany academic leader.

Exercise: Write the word conflict in the center of a blank piece of paper and draw a circle around it. Quickly jotdown all the words and phrases you associate with the word conflict around the circle. Review your list of associ-ations and categorize them as positive, negative, or neutral. Count the total number of positive, negative, and neu-tral associations, and calculate the percentages that are positive, negative, and neutral. Were more than 90 percentof your associations positive? Were more than 90 percent negative? What do your associations with the wordconflict indicate about your views on conflict and your approach to conflict?

Learning About Your Conflict ModesReview the brief descriptions of the five conflict modes (avoiding, accommodating, competing, compromising, andcollaborating) and choose your primary conflict mode. The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) (1974),based on the Blake and Mouton (1964) conflict model, is an instrument that provides information about your conflictmodes. Taking the TKI assessment (www.kilmann.com) will provide information about your primary conflict modes.Using this information and engaging in additional individual reflection will help you to determine your level of com-fort with your conflict resolution styles and whether you wish to consider making changes in them.

Creating an Individual Conflict Management PlanA conflict management plan is a thought and behavior process that you can follow when in conflict. The literatureshows that if we can identify that we are in conflict and can then implement a conflict management plan, the oppor-tunity for resolving the conflict increases significantly. We need to recognize our physiological responses when inconflict and to identify the thoughts and feelings that trigger us to realize that we are experiencing a conflict. Thereare three steps to making a conflict plan. First, write down what physiological responses you have when you knowyou are in conflict (e.g., “My palms sweat,” “My heart races”). Second, write down what thoughts you typically havewhen in a conflict (e.g., “I want to hurt him,” “I want to just get away from her”). Third, list four to eight steps thatyou can follow to help you manage your thoughts and emotions in a productive way to manage/solve your conflict(e.g., “I will take a deep breath,” “I will think about how I want to respond”).

To learn more about creating a conflict management plan, see Algert and Watson (2005).

ListeningImproving listening skills is one approach to improving conflict management skills. Raudsepp (2002) states, “Studiesshow, however, that only about 10% of us listen properly.” Read Raudsepp’s article “Hone Listening Skills to BoostYour Career,” take the listening quiz, and develop an action plan for improving your listening skills.

Suggestions for Further ActivitiesLambert and Myers’s (1999) book 50 Activities for Conflict Resolution contains 25 activities for self-development onconflict. These activities include “The Role of Values in Conflict Resolution,” “Resolving Conflict Through Planning,”“Evaluating Your Conflict Resolution Skills,” and “Uncovering the Hidden Agenda.”

This reflection exercise is adapted and used with permission from Jeff Froyd, Foundation Engineering Coalition, Texas A&M University.For more information, visit http://foundationcoalition.org/publications/brochures/conflict.pdf.

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The department chair can integrate the five different modes of conflict management, factors affecting modes of con-flict management, and processes for selecting one or more approaches to conflict into the department culture by in-creasing the awareness of faculty and staff about the way they view and approach conflict. There are two basic typesof team-building activities that could be used for this purpose:

1. Individual team members learn more about their perspectives and approaches to conflict through either indi-vidual reflection or appropriate instruments. They then share what they have learned with their team members.

2. The team engages in an activity that simulates a low level of conflict. Then the team reflects about its ac-tions, learns from its experiences, and develops ways to address conflict more constructively in the future.

Following are suggestions for possible team activities.

Collaborating with Different Individual Conflict ModesAsk everyone in the department to complete the exercise in figure 3 in order to identify his or her primary mode ofconflict management. Then ask each individual team member to share his or her own primary mode of conflict man-agement and to provide examples that illustrate that mode. Next, ask the team to identify potential strengths for thecombination of different styles and potential problems that might arise with the combination of conflict managementmodes. Finally, ask the team to develop strategies to minimize potential problems and build on the possible strengthsthat would be involved in attempting to combine conflict management modes.

Developing a Positive Team Perspective About ConflictStart with the individual reflection exercise in figure 3 in which each member writes the word conflict and associ-ates different words or phrases with it. Then, ask each member to share the insights that he or she learned throughthe individual reflection. Next, ask the team to combine all of the positive associations with conflict and constructpositive ways in which the team might view conflict. Finally, ask the team to combine all of the negative associationswith conflict and devise ways in which these associations might be eliminated or minimized.

Developing a Consensus DecisionIn his book Project Management and Teamwork, Smith (2000) asks teams to rank 15 causes of death in the UnitedStates in terms of their frequency of occurrence. Similar exercises on ranking items are available at http://www.eas.asu.edu/~asufc/teaminginfo/teams.html or in Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills by Johnson andJohnson (2000) (Exercise 8.3, Stranded in the Desert; Exercise 8.4, Who Should Get the Penicillin? Exercise 8.5, Fall-out Shelter). These types of exercises can lead to low-level conflict as team members disagree about the rankings andstimulate team development in several ways. After completing the exercise, the team members should debrief theirperformance and address several questions: What were the positive aspects in the way that we handled conflict? Howdid our various modes of conflict management help our performance? How did our various modes of conflict manage-ment hinder our performance? How might we improve the ways in which we managed conflict within our team?

Intrateam CommunicationImproving intrateam communication can reduce the likelihood of conflict and increase the chances for faster, moreeffective management of conflict when it occurs.

Suggestions for Further ActivitiesLambert and Myers’s (1999) book 50 Activities for Conflict Resolution contains 25 activities for team developmenton conflict. Several of the activities are role-play, conflict scenarios that provide opportunities for teams to determinethe “best” intervention style for the conflict at hand.

This reflection exercise is adapted and used with permission from Jeff Froyd, Foundation Engineering Coalition, Texas A&M Univer-sity. For more information, visit http://foundationcoalition.org/publications/brochures/conflict.pdf.

Figure 4 Team-Building Exercise for an Academic Unit

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15

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flict management: introductions for individu-

als and organizations. Bryan, TX: Center

for Change and Conflict Resolution.

This manual is an excellent and practi-

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one’s conflict styles, understand the nature

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stress effectively.

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ties for conflict resolution. Amherst, MA: HR

Development Press.

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II focuses on 25 individualized exercises

and assessments. These activities, exercises,

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academic setting.

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exploratory study of the conflict manage-

ment styles of department heads in a re-

search university setting. Innovative Higher

Education, 32(1), 49–66.

This article describes the conflict man-

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from a public research university. It also

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ommendations for further research.

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The Thomas-Kilmann conflict mode instrument.

Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychology.

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offers a comprehensive overview of each

of the conflict modes, including their

strengths and limitations.

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16

CALL FOR PAPERS AND FEEDBACK

Academic leaders and scholars

interested in preparing an issue

for Effective Practices should

contact the editors with their

proposals. We also welcome

your feedback, suggestions for

future topics, and names of

authors you might recommend.

Please e-mail Robert Secor

([email protected]) or Timothy J.

Delmont ([email protected]).

2007 ISSUES VOLUME 2Timothy J. Delmont: Supervising Staff for SuccessJean Waltman and Beth Sullivan: Creating a Supportive

Work-Life Environment for Faculty and StaffDamon A. Williams and Charmaine Clowney: Planning

for Diversity in Higher Education—A Strategic Primerfor Leaders

Diane Enerson: Promoting a Climate for Teaching and Learning

Robert Secor: Strategies for the Academic SearchNatalie Krawitz: Department BudgetingJohn H. Schuh: Enriching the Student EnvironmentJenny Mandelbaum: Managing the Transition

Between ChairsNancy E. Algert and Christine Stanley: Conflict

ManagementWalter H. Gmelch and Val Miskin: Leading

Through TeamsGary E. Miller: Outreach: New Opportunities for

Academic DepartmentsDaniel W. Wheeler: Servant Leadership

STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

Effective Practices for Academic Leaders is a monthly publi-

cation that assists leaders to better manage their work agen-

das and make key decisions by offering critical advice and

information in a concise format for ready application in ad-

ministrative life.

Each monthly 16-page briefing sets out the context and fun-

damental issues on a key topic; summarizes key scholarly re-

search findings to ground administrative practice; offers insights

and tips on effective practices drawn from real world experi-

ences; and presents an annotated bibliography. Each issue is

written by an acknowledged authority.

These briefings cover a wide array of leadership, manage-

ment, and governance practices associated with the roles and

responsibilities of academic administration, with special empha-

sis on topics germane to academic departments. They also ad-

dress the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors needed for

exemplary administrative performance.

An online subscription provides unlimited access to all

users of an institutional network.

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