Education, internationalisation and cosmopolitanism: some

considerations

Gavin SandersonBEd, BEd Hons, PhD [Flinders], MEd (Int Ed) [Monash]

Senior Lecturer in Academic Development (Internationalisation), Learning Connection,

UniSA

ISANA Conference 2006ISANA Conference 2006

1/ John Biggs’s (2003) three levels of teaching.

2/ Towards a cosmopolitan outlook. The inward journey of

personal discovery and the outward journey of discovering

others.

Today’s scheduleToday’s schedule

What is internationalisation?What is internationalisation?

“The process of integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education” (Knight, 2004, p. 11)

Figure 1 The depth & breadth dimensions of the reach of internationalisation in Knight’s (2004) definition

Depth dimensionof the reach of

internationalisation

Intercultural, international, and global flows of technology, economy, knowledge, people, values, and ideas

National level

Sector level

Institution level

Breadth dimension of the reach of internationalisation

Source.Source. Sanderson, 2006, p. 149Sanderson, 2006, p. 149

Limits of Knight’s

(2004) depth

dimension

Intercultural, international, and global flows of technology, economy, knowledge, people, values and ideas

Individual level

National level

Sector level

Institution level

Regional level

Global level

Breadth dimension of the reach of internationalisation

Faculty/Department level

Depth dimension of the reach of

internationalisation

Supranational level

Within-institution level

Figure 2 The true extent of the depth dimension of the reach of internationalisation (Source. Sanderson, 2006, p. 149)

The Profile and its qualificationsThe Profile and its qualifications

Q1: General.Q2: Issues related to using a non-native language of instruction.Q3: Factors related to dealing with cultural differences.Q4: Specific requirements regarding teaching and learning styles.Q5: Using media and technology.Q6: Specific requirements connected with the academic discipline and diploma recognition.Q7: Knowledge of foreign education systems.Q8: Knowledge of the international labour market.Q9: Personal qualities.

66% of 66% of Profile’s Profile’s criteriacriteria

The international classroomThe international classroom

Teaching approaches and strategies which Teaching approaches and strategies which are traditionally driven by national are traditionally driven by national perspectives and needs might no longer be perspectives and needs might no longer be wholly sufficient for the novel teaching and wholly sufficient for the novel teaching and learning environment of the international learning environment of the international classroom.classroom.

(Teekens, 2000, p. 5)(Teekens, 2000, p. 5)

John Biggs – the fly in the ointment?John Biggs – the fly in the ointment?

Figure 3Figure 3 The focus in cross-cultural teaching (The focus in cross-cultural teaching (SourceSource. Biggs, 2003, p. 124). Biggs, 2003, p. 124)

Level 1 teaching: assimilateLevel 1 teaching: assimilate

Based on stereotypesBased on stereotypes

What are the stereotypes What are the stereotypes of international students?of international students?

(… and Australian (… and Australian students?)students?)

Learning problems Learning problems attributed to studentsattributed to students

Students must assimilate Students must assimilate into the local systeminto the local system

▼▼

A deficit model of A deficit model of educationeducation Figure 4Figure 4 The ‘typical’ Australian male The ‘typical’ Australian male

((SourceSource. Mezger, 1992, p. 22). Mezger, 1992, p. 22)

Level 2 teaching: accommodateLevel 2 teaching: accommodate

Based on the teacher Based on the teacher adjusting to the adjusting to the

characteristics of the characteristics of the studentsstudents

▼▼

‘‘Multi-grid reference ► Multi-grid reference ► curricula’curricula’

▼▼

Teachers have culture-Teachers have culture-specific knowledge specific knowledge

Minor-to-radical Minor-to-radical adjustments to curriculaadjustments to curricula

▼▼

A deficit model of A deficit model of educationeducation

Level 3 teaching: educateLevel 3 teaching: educate

Based on the teacher Based on the teacher meeting the learning meeting the learning needs of the studentsneeds of the students

▼▼

Curricula are Curricula are ‘constructively aligned’‘constructively aligned’

▼▼

The The onlyonly justifiable justifiable approach to teaching approach to teaching

students students

Biggs (2003) says Biggs (2003) says “ethnicity is beside the “ethnicity is beside the

point”point” (p. 134). (p. 134).

▼ ▼

““Teach better, and you’ll Teach better, and you’ll address the problems address the problems

presented by ISs presented by ISs [international students]”[international students]”

(p. 138).(p. 138).

Level 3 teaching: educateLevel 3 teaching: educate

Figure 5Figure 5 Explaining social taboos (Explaining social taboos (SourceSource. Mezger, 1992, p. 37). Mezger, 1992, p. 37)

But what about …But what about …

““Teaching with an awareness of Teaching with an awareness of cultural diversity is simply good cultural diversity is simply good teaching” (Prosser and Trigwell, teaching” (Prosser and Trigwell,

1998, p. 170).1998, p. 170).

What to do lah?What to do lah?

Figure 6 Country index scores for Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (Source. ITIM Culture & Management Consultants, 2003)

Table 1 Key differences in schooling between low & high PDI societies ((Source. Hofstede, 2001, p. 107).

Australia (Low PDI) Malaysia (High PDI)

Teachers treat students as equals

Students depend on teachers

Students treat teachers as equals

Students treat teachers with respect, even outside class

Student-centred education Teacher-centred education

Students initiate some communication in class

Teachers initiate all communication in class

Teachers are experts who transfer impersonal truths

Teachers are gurus who transfer personal wisdom

Examples of suitable teaching strategiesExamples of suitable teaching strategies

Inculcate students into Australian academic culture;

Establish names (including pronunciation) early in the semester;

Provide opportunities for students to use their English writing skills for non-assessment tasks;

Provide explicit expectations about assessment;

Provide clear instructions for oral presentations;

Provide opportunities for success. For example, allow students Provide opportunities for success. For example, allow students time to discuss issues in pairs or small groups before speaking time to discuss issues in pairs or small groups before speaking to the whole group;to the whole group;

Use a staged assessment schedule to enable students to build Use a staged assessment schedule to enable students to build skills.skills.

But are these But are these justjust for international students? for international students?

Inculcate students into Australian academic culture;

Establish names (including pronunciation) early in the semester;

Provide opportunities for students to use their English writing skills for non-assessment tasks;

Provide explicit expectations about assessment;

Provide clear instructions for oral presentations;

Provide opportunities for success. For example, allow students Provide opportunities for success. For example, allow students time to discuss issues in pairs or small groups before speaking time to discuss issues in pairs or small groups before speaking to the whole group;to the whole group;

Use a staged assessment schedule to enable students to build Use a staged assessment schedule to enable students to build skills.skills.

Level 3 teachingLevel 3 teaching

Is it possible to make ‘culture’ invisible in the classroom from the point of view of a strict interpretation of teaching??

Do good teachers look beyond stereotypes?Do good teachers look beyond stereotypes?

InterculturalityInterculturality – perhaps the best practical and – perhaps the best practical and achievable outcome for those wanting to achievable outcome for those wanting to aspire to Biggs’s (2003) Level 3 teaching.aspire to Biggs’s (2003) Level 3 teaching.

Cross-cultural? Multicultural? Intercultural?

What are we talking about?What are we talking about?

Interculturality is primarily concerned with“issues of identity and engagement”

and contains both a“culture-general (and) culture-specificcomponent” (Liddicoat, 2003, p. 19).

InterculturalityInterculturality

Begins with knowing yourself (culture-general enquiry):

“Before we can recognize the ‘Other’, we have to know ourselves well” (Stromquist, 2002, p. 93).

“Only when we have clearly defined our own person and identity are we able to understand other identities” (Breuer, 2002, p. 15).

InterculturalityInterculturality

“A degree of confident self awareness is not necessarily to be seen as a conservative force in society. It can be a pre-condition for a sustained program of social or economic revival” (Milner, 1996, p. 17).

“Respect for the other presupposes that a person has considerable self-awareness” (Djebar, 2002, p. 229).

InterculturalityInterculturality

“If one is to understand others, one must first understand oneself” (International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century, 1996, p. 93).

“Harmony with others depends on knowing ourselves and our cultures” (Pedersen, 1988, p. 74).

InterculturalityInterculturality

““The best thing we can do for our The best thing we can do for our relationships with others … is to render relationships with others … is to render our relationship to ourselves more our relationship to ourselves more conscious” (Hollis, as cited in Cranton, conscious” (Hollis, as cited in Cranton, 2001, p. 74).2001, p. 74).

“In order to learn about another culture, we need to learn about our own” (McLaughlin & Liddicoat, 2005, p. 6).

InterculturalityInterculturality

… … and the exhortation from Socrates toand the exhortation from Socrates to

know thyselfknow thyself ……

CosmopolitanismCosmopolitanism

Whilst considerations of ethnicity are Whilst considerations of ethnicity are ‘beside the point’ in teaching ‘beside the point’ in teaching international students at Level 3 international students at Level 3 teaching, it can be argued that the teaching, it can be argued that the teachers are ultimately comfortable with teachers are ultimately comfortable with cultural difference. They have good cultural difference. They have good intercultural sensibilities. Compared to intercultural sensibilities. Compared to Level 1 teachers, Level 1 teachers, they exhibit a they exhibit a cosmopolitan disposition.cosmopolitan disposition.

A cosmopolitan outlookA cosmopolitan outlook

I am a citizen of I am a citizen of the world – the world – DiogenesDiogenes

(around 350(around 350BCBC))

Definition of ‘cosmopolitan’Definition of ‘cosmopolitan’

““Belonging to, or representative of, all Belonging to, or representative of, all parts of the world … Free of national parts of the world … Free of national prejudices; international in experience prejudices; international in experience or outlook” (Manser & Thompson, or outlook” (Manser & Thompson, 1995, p. 289).1995, p. 289).

““beliefbelief in a cosmopolitan outlook” in a cosmopolitan outlook” (Manser & Thompson, 1995, p. 289).(Manser & Thompson, 1995, p. 289).

CosmopolitanCosmopolitanismism

““Feeling at home in the world” Feeling at home in the world” (Gunesch, 2004,(Gunesch, 2004, p. 256).p. 256).

“An intellectual and aesthetic sense of “An intellectual and aesthetic sense of openness towards people, places and openness towards people, places and experiences from different cultures, experiences from different cultures, especially those from different especially those from different nations” (Tomlinson, as cited in nations” (Tomlinson, as cited in Matthews & Sidhu, 2005).Matthews & Sidhu, 2005).

CosmopolitanCosmopolitanismism

Grounded, or rooted, cosmopolitanism.Grounded, or rooted, cosmopolitanism.

“the global me: local people who are “the global me: local people who are neither limited to their particularities neither limited to their particularities nor doomed to an empty we-are-the-nor doomed to an empty we-are-the-world universalism” (G. Pascal Zachary, world universalism” (G. Pascal Zachary, 2000, p. xv). 2000, p. xv).

ReferencesReferences

Biggs, J. (2003). Teaching for quality learning at university (2nd ed.). Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Breuer, R. (2002). Freedom’s twin. In S. Stern & E. Seligmann (Eds.), The end of tolerance? (pp. 11-16). London: Nicholas Brearley Publishing.

Cranton, P. (2001). Becoming an authentic teacher in higher education. Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company.

Djebar, A. (2002). Return to Islamic roots? In S. Stern & E. Seligmann (Eds.), The end of tolerance? (pp. 228-232). London: Nicholas Brearley Publishing.

G. Pascal Zachary. (2000). The global me: why nations will succeed or fail in the next generation. St Leanords: Allen & Unwin.

Gunesch, K. (2004). Education for cosmopolitanism? Cosmopolitanism as a personal cultural identity model for and within international education. Journal of Research in International Education, 3(3), 251-275.

Hofstede, G. (2001). Cultural consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications

References (cont)References (cont)

International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century. (1996). Learning: The treasure within: report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.

ITIM Culture & Management Consultants. (2003). Compare your home culture with your host culture. Retrieved 3 May, 2005, from http://www.geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_dimensions.php?

Knight, J. (2004). Internationalization remodelled: definition, approaches, and rationales. Journal of Studies in International Education, 8(1), 5-31.

Liddicoat, A. (2003). Internationalisation as a concept in higher education: perspectives from policy. In A. Liddicoat, S. Eisenchlas & S. Trevaskes (Eds.), Australian perspectives on internationalising education (pp. 13-26). Melbourne: Language Australia Ltd.

McLaughlin, M., & Liddicoat, T. (2005). Teachers’ professional learning in the context of intercultural language learning. Babel, 40(1), 4-12, 38.

Manser, M., & Thomson, M. (Eds.). (1995). Chambers combined dictionary thesaurus. Edinburgh: Chambers.

Matthews, J., & Sidhu, R. (2005). Desperately seeking the global subject: international education, citizenship and cosmopolitanism. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 3(1),49-66.

References (cont)References (cont)Mezger, J. (1992). Bridging the intercultural communication gap: a guide for TAFE teachers of international students (2nd ed.). Hobart: National TAFE Overseas Network.

Milner, A. (1996). Defining Australia in Asia. In G. E. Jones (Ed.), Cunningham Lecture and Symposium 1995: Australia in its Asian context (Vol. Occasional Paper Series 1/1996). Canberra: Academy of Social Sciences in Australia.

Pedersen, P. (1988). A handbook for developing multicultural awareness. Alexandria: American Association for Counseling and Development.

Prosser, M., & Trigwell, K. (1998). Teaching in higher education. In B. Dart & G. Boulton-Lewis (Eds.), Teaching and learning in higher education (pp. 250-268). Camberwell: ACER Press.

Sanderson, G. (2006). Examination of a profile of the ideal lecturer for teaching international students. Adelaide: Flinders University.

Stromquist, N. (2002). Globalization, the I, and the Other. Retrieved May 29, 2003, from http://www.tc.columbia.edu/CICE/articles/nps142.htm

Teekens, H. (2000). Introduction. In H. Teekens (Ed.), Teaching and learning in the international classroom (pp. 5-7). The Hague: Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in Higher Education (NUFFIC)