E. Flügel

Microfacies of Carbonate Rocks

Erik Flügel

Microfacies of Carbonate Rocks

Analysis, Interpretation and Application

With 330 Figures and 151 Plates, some in color

~Springer

PROFESSOR DR. ERIK FLUGEL

Institute of Paleontology Loewenichstrasse 28 D-91054 Erlangen Germany

E-mail: efluegel@pal. uni-erlangen.de

ISBN 978-3-662-08728-2 ISBN 978-3-662-08726-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-08726-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2004104816

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained Irom Springer-Verlag. Violatwns are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law.

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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

Camera-ready by Erentraud Fliigel-Kahler, Erlangen Cover design: E. Kirchner, Heidelberg Production: Almas Schimmel

Printed on acid-free paper 32/3141/as 5 4 3 2 1 O

Preface

The objective of this book is to provide a synthesis of the methods used in microfacies studies of carbonate rocks and to show how the application of microfacies sturlies has contributed to new developments in car­bonate geology. In contrast with other textbooks on car­bonate sedimentology this book focuses on those com­positional and textural constituents of carbonates that reflect the depositional and diagenetic history and de­termine the practical usefulness of carbonate rocks.

The chapters are written in such a way, that each one can be used as text in upper level undergraduate and graduate courses. The topics of the book also ap­ply to research workers and exploration geologists, looking for current information on developments in the use of microfacies analysis.

Since microfacies studies are based on thin sections, instructive plates showing thin-section photographs ac­companied by thorough and detailed explanations form a central part of this book. All plates in the book con­tain a short summary of the topic. An-> sign leads the reader to the figures on the plate. The description of the microphotographs are printed in a smaller type. Care has been tak:en to add arrows and/or letters (usually the initials of the subject) so that the maximum informa­tion can be extracted from the figures.

Rather than being a revised version of 'Microfacies Analysis ofLimestones' (Flügel1982) 'Microfacies of Carbonate Rocks' is a new book, based on a new con­cept and offering practical advice on the description and interpretation ofmicrofacies data as well as the ap­plication of these data to basin analysis. Microfacies analysis has the advantages over traditional sedimen­tological approaches ofbeing interdisciplinary, andin­tegrating sedimentological, paleontological and geo­chemical aspects.

'Microfacies of Carbonate Rocks': • analyses both the depositional and the diagenetic his­

tory of carbonate rocks, • describes carbonate sedimentation in various ma­

rine and non-marine environments, and considers both tropical warm-water carbonates and non-tropi­cal cool-water carbonates,

• presents diagnostic features and highlights the sig­nificance of microfacies criteria,

• stresses the biological controls of carbonate Sedi­mentation and provides an overview on the most common fossils found in thin sections of limestones, discusses the relationships between diagenetic pro­cesses, porosity and dolomitization,

• demonstrates the importance of microfacies for es­tablishing and evaluating sequence Stratigraphie frameworks and depositional models,

• underlines the potential of microfacies in differenti­ating paleoclimate changes and tracing platform-ba­sin relationships, and

• demonstrates the value of microfacies analysis in evaluating reservoir rocks and Iimestone resources, as well as its usefulness in archaeological prov­enance studies.

Structure of the Book

Microfacies of Carbonate Rocks starts with and in­troductory chaper (Chap.1) and an overview of mod­ern carbonate deposition (Chap. 2) followed by 17 chap­ters that have been grouped into 3 major parts. Microfacies Analysis (Chap. 3 to Chap. 10) summa­rizes the methods used in microfacies sturlies followed by discussions on descriptive modes and the implica­tions of qualitative and quantitative thin-section crite­ria.

Microfacies Interpretation (Chap. 11 to Chap. 16) demonstrates the significance of microfacies studies in evaluating paleoenvironment and depositional sys­tems and, finally,

Practical Use ofMicrofacies (Chap. 17 to Chap. 19) demonstrates the importance of applied microfacies studies in geological exploration for hydrocarbons and ores, provides examples of the relationships between carbonate rock resources and their facies and physical properties, and also illustrates the value of microfacies studies to archaeologists.

Important references are listed at the end of chap­ters or sections under the heading 'Basics'. The code

VI

numbers K ... are keywords leading to references on specific fields of interest (see CD), e.g. K021 (cold­water carbonates ), K078 (micrite ), or K200 (hydrocar­bon reservoir rocks).

The book is also accompanied by a CD containing • an alphabetical list of about 14,000 references on carbonate rocks (see Appendix) as word document, and • visual comparison charts for percentage estimation.

Synopsis of the Book's Contents

Chapter 1: New Perspectives in Microfacies. Micro­facies studies, which were originally restricted to the scale ofthin sections, provide an invaluable source of information on the depositional constraints and envi­ronmental controls of carbonates, as well as on the prop­erties of carbonate rocks. Microfacies studies assist in understanding sequence Stratigraphie pattems and are of economic importance both in reservoir studies and in the evaluation of Iimestone resources.

Chapter 2: Modern Depositional Environments. Knowl­edge of modern carbonates is a prerequisite for under­standing ancient carbonate rocks. Modem carbonates are formed both on landandin the sea, in shallow- and in deep marine settings, and in tropical and non-tropi­cal regions, but the present is only part a key to the Past.

Microfacies Analysis Chapter 3: Methodology. Which methods can be used in the field? Which sampling strategy should be ap­plied and how many samples are required? Which labo­ratory techniques are useful in microfacies analysis? Which other techniques should be combined with microfacies studies?

Chapter 4: Microfacies Data: Matrix and Grains. This chapter offers practical advice on how to handle micro­facies data, and deals with how to describe and inter­pret thin-section characteristics. Matrixtypes and grain categories are discussed with regard to their diagnostic criteria, origin and significance.

Chapter 5: Microfacies Data: Fabrics. Typical deposi­tional and diagenetic fabrics in Iimestones reflect the history of the rock. Microfacies criteria indicating breaks and changes in sedimentation ( discontinuity sur­faces) are of specific interest in refining sequence strati­graphic boundaries. Variously sized fissures, micro­cracks and breccias can be used in deciphering syn­and post-depositional destructive processes.

Chapter 6: Quantitative Microfacies Analysis. Whilst previous chapters focused on qualitative criteria this chapter deals with quantitative data including grain size analysis, frequency analysis and multivariate studies. Constituent analysis and the distribution pattems of spe­cific grain types are valuable tools in the reconstruc­tion of paleoenvironmental controls and depositional settings.

Chapter 7: Diagenesis, Porosity and Dolomitization. Understanding diagenetic processes and their products is ofhigh economic importance. The diagenetic micro­facies of a rock reflects changes in the course of its lithification history. The main topics discussed in this chapter are porosity types, carbonate cements, diage­netic textures including compaction and pressure solu­tion, and dolomitization/dedolomitization and dolomite textures. The last part of the chapter deals with thin­section criteria for metamorphic carbonates and marbles.

Chapter 8: Classification - chosing a name for your sample. A classification is simply a tool for organizing information, and should not be the only source of con­clusions. Whilst a name based on texture and compo­sition can not replace a well-defined microfacies type, rock names are essential for the categorization of samples. Textura! classifications proposed by Dunharn and by Folk have proven to be the most practical. Spe­cific concepts must be adhered to in the naming of reef limestones, non-marine carbonates, recrystallized car­bonates rocks and mixed siliciclastic-carbonate rocks.

Chapter 9: Limestones are Biological Sediments. In contrast to siliciclastic rocks, both the formation and the destruction of most Iimestones is directly or indi­rectly influenced and controlled by biological pro­cesses. This chapter stresses the biological controls on carbonate Sedimentation. Microbes, encrusting organ­isms, and macro- and microborers can yield useful in­formation on paleoenvironment, depositional con­straints and carbonate production.

Chapter 10: Fossils in Thin Sections. It ls Not That Difficult. The recognition of fossils in thin sections is not so difficult once the diagnostic criteria for the main groups have been understood, particularly for algae and foraminifera, sessile invertebrates, and organisms with shells. This chapter provides an overview of the most common fossils found in thin sections of limestones. The text concentrates on identification criteria, envi­ronmental and temporal distribution, and on the sig­nificance of the fossils. Numerous instructive plates are included to aid in the recognition and differentia­tion skeletal grains in thin sections.

Microfacies Interpretation Chapter 11: Summarizing Microfacies Criteria: Micro­facies Types. How can microfacies data be combined in sensitive and practicable microfacies types? Which criteria should be used, which grain types are of par­ticular importance and, how many microfacies types are reliable? The creation of microfacies types is illus­trated by means of examples.

Chapter 12: Recognizing Paleoenvironmental Condi­tions. Carbonate sediments are particularly sensitive to environmental changes. Microfacies and organisms are excellent paleoenvironmental proxies as they re­flect hydrodynamic conditions, the impact of storms, substrate conditions, light, oxygenation, seawater tem­perature and salinity. Significant differences between the compositions of skeletal grain associations for warm-water and cold-water carbonates provide a use­ful tool for estimating paleoclimatic changes. How deep was the sea? Microfacies studies provide an answer.

Chapter 13: Integrated Facies Analysis. Understand­ing the formation and diagenesis of carbonate rocks requires the combination of microfacies with mineral­ogical and geochemical data. The chapter deals with acid-insoluble residues and authigenic minerals in car­bonate rocks, discusses the value of minor elements and stable isotopes in tracing the depositional and di­agenetic history of limestones, and deals with the po­tential of organic matter in carbonate rocks for facies analysis.

Chapter 14: Depositional Models, Facies Zones and Standard Microfacies. Microfacies areessential for de­fining depositional models and recognizing facies zones. Facies models assist in understanding deposi­tional history. Changes in sedimentological and bio­logical criteria across shelf-slope-basin transects form the basis of generalized models for carbonate platforms, ramps and shelves. Facies belts are reflected by their biotic zonation pattems and the distribution of Stan­dard Microfacies Types (SMF Types). The latter are virtual categories that summarize microfacies with iden­tical criteria. Which criteria are used in differentiating the SMF Types of platform and ramp carbonates? What are the problems involved in the SMF concept? Re­vised and refined SMF types are a meaningful tool in tracing facies belts, but must be used with care. Com­mon microfacies of carbonate ramps (Ramp Micro­facies Types) show only partial correspondence to the SMF Types of rimmed platforms.

Chapter 15: BasinAnalysis: Recognizing Depositional Settings. Which diagnostic criteria characterize lime-

VII

stones of different carbonate systems? Case studies for non-marine and marine carbonate rocks demonstrate how to translate microfacies into ancient depositional settings. Non-marine settings can be successfully re­constructed for perlogenie carbonates, paleokarst de­posits and ancient speleothems, travertine deposits, and lacustrine carbonates, these can be characterized by spe­cific microfacies types. Marine settings can be differ­entiated into peritidal carbonates, platforms and ramps, platform-slope-basin transects, and pelagic deep-ma­rine carbonates. Grain Composition Logs are particu­larly effective in tracing platform-basin relations.

Chapter 16: Recognizing Depositional Constraints and Processes. Selected case studies are used to demon­strate the value of microfacies data in interpreting depo­sitional controls. • How can microfacies be used in sequence stratigra­phy? Cyclic depositional pattems and sequence Strati­graphie constraints are documented by microfacies data that assist in recognizing sequence boundaries, para­sequences, high-frequency sea-level changes, and sys­tems tracts. • Which criteria characterize reef limestones? Major reef types differ in biota, matrix, sediment, and cements. Which methods should be employed in reconstructing former platforms and reefs that are only recorded by eroded relicts deposited on slopes and in basins? Clast analysis can solve this puzzle. • Which criteria define ancient cold-water carbonates? Ancient cool-water shelf and reef carbonates are typi­fied by specific biotic, compositional and diagenetic features. • Which facies criteria are diagnostic of ancient vent­and seep carbonates? Case studies provide answers. • How to handle mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sedi­ments and interpret limestone-marl successions? • Constraints on carbonate deposition exhibit secular variations, which are discussed in the last section.

Practical Use of Microfacies Chapter 17: Reservoir Rocks and H ost Rocks. Carbon­ates are the most important reservoir rocks for hydro­carbons as well as forming important host rocks for ores. Limestones and dolomites contain more than 50% of the world's oil and gas reserves. Reservoir potential differs for carbonates formed in different depositional settings and depends on the interplay of depositional processes and diagenetic history. The microfacies of cores and cuttings assist in the translation of lithological data into petrophysical information. Facies-based out­crop-analogue studies indicate the scale of porosity and

VIII

permeability variations within carbonate bodies. Micro­facies analysis also assists in the genetic interpretation of carbonate-hosted base metal deposits controlled by specific facies pattems.

Chapter 18: Carbonate Resources, Facies Control and Rock Properties. Carbonate rocks are important raw materials for chemical and construction industries and arehigh on the list of extracted mineral resources, both in terms of quantity and of value. Both exploration and exploitation can be enhanced by taking into account the relationships between depositional and diagenetic facies that control technologically relevant chemical and physical parameters, as well as the weathering and decay properties of carbonate rocks. Conservation and preservation of works of art and building stones should start with thin-section studies of the textural and di­agenetic criteria that describe the porosity and perme­ability of the material.

Chapter 19: Archaeometry. Microfacies analysis, com­bined with geochemical data has considerable poten­tial in provenance analysis of archaeological materi­als. Thin sections reveal the source of building stones and of material used for mosaics and works of arts. The microfacies of temper grains in ancient pottery helps in understanding the source and production ar­eas for ceramics. Last but not least, microfacies stud­ies can throw new light at the love affair between Antony and Cleopatra ....

Acknowledgments

Thanks are due to many people who have provided photographs, information and advice:

Gernot Arp (Göttingen), Martina Bachmann (Bre­men), Benoit Beauchamp (Calgary), Thilo Bechstädt (Heidelberg), Michaela Bemecker (Erlangen), Joachim Blau (Giessen), Florian Böhm (Kiel), Thomas Brachert (Mainz), Ioan Bucur (Cluj-Napoca), Wemer Buggisch (Erlangen),Thomas Clausing (Halle), Wolf-Christian Dullo (Kiel), Paul Enos (Lawrence, Kansas ), Gerd Flajs (Aachen), Christof Flügel (München), Helmut Flügel (Graz), Beate Fohrer (Erlangen), Holger Forke (Ber­lin), Andre Freiwald (Erlangen), Robert van Geldem

(Erlangen), Markus Geiger (Bremen), Gisela Gerdes (Oldenburg), Eberhard Gischler (Frankfurt), Dirk von Gosen (Erlangen), Jürgen Grötsch (Damascus). Hans­Georg Herbig (Köln), Richard Höfling (Erlangen), Bernhard Hubmann (Graz), Andi Imran (Makassar), Michael Joachimski (Erlangen), Josef Kazmierczak (Warszawa), Martin Keller (Erlangen), Stephan Kempe (Darmstadt), Helmut Keupp (Berlin), Wolfgang Kiessling (Berlin), Roman Koch (Erlangen), Karl Krainer (lnnsbruck), Jochen Kuss (Bremen), Michael Link (Erlangen), Heinz Lorenz (Erlangen), Ulrich Michel (Nümberg), Axel Munnecke (Erlangen), Fritz Neuweiler (Göttingen), Alexander Nützel (Erlangen), Joachim Reitner (Göttingen), Jürgen Remane (Neuchatel), Elias Samankassou (Fribourg), Diethard Sanders (Innsbruck), Chris Schulbert (Erlangen), Baba Senowbari-Daryan (Erlangen), Robert J. Stanton (Thousand Oaks, Califomia), Torsten Steiger (Bad Blankenburg), Thomas Steuber (Bochum), Harald Tragelehn (Köln), Jörg Trappe (Bonn), Dragica Tumsek (Ljubljana), Andreas Wetzel (Tübingen).

I am indebted to Birgit Leipner-Mata and Marieluise Neufert (Institute of Paleontology Erlangen) for labo­ratory work and photography.

Chris Schulbert (Institute of Paleontology) was a valuable help with all computer problems.

I am sincerely grateful to my friend Johann Georg Haditsch ( Graz) for critical reading the text of the book. Special thanks go to Karen Christensou (Nümberg­Kraftshof) who took care of linguistic problems and pitfalls.

Editing, layout, drawings and the preparation of plates and figures have been carried out by my wife Erentraud Flügel-Kahler. I am most grateful for her en­couragement and constant help.

Finally, I am obliged to all institutions who gave permission to use published material and to the staff of Springer Verlag, especially to Dr. Wolfgang Engel for his constant encouragement and to Dr. J. Witschel for assistance with the book.

1 1.1 1.2

2 2.1 201.1 2ol.2

201.3 2.2 2.3 20301 2o3o2 2.30201 2.30202 2.4 2.401 2.401.1 2.40102 2.401.3 2.40105 2.401.6 2.401.7 2.40108 2.402

2.40201 2.40202 2.403 2.40301 2.40302 2.403.3 2.403.4 2.4.4

2.4.401

2.4.402 2.4.403 2.405 2.40501 2.40502 2.4.5.3 2.405.4

Contents

New Perspectives in Microfacies 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o 0 0 0 0 The Microfacies Concept 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 New Perspectives 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 o o o 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o 0 0 0

Carbonate Depositional Environments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Introduction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Carbonates are Born not Made 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o 0 0 0 The 'Sorby Principle': Limestonesare Predominantly Biogenie Sediments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Modem Carbonates: Obligatory Reading 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Carbonate Sediments Originate on Land and in the Sea o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o 0 0 0 Classification of Marine Environments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Boundary Levels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 0 0 Vertical and Horizontal Zonations 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vertical Zonations 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Horizontal Zonations 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Review of Modem Carbonate Depositional Environments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 0 0 Non-Marine Carbonate Environments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pedogenic Carbonates, Paleosols, and Caliche/Calcretes 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Palustrine Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . Cave Carbonates, Speleothems and Karst 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Glacial Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Travertine, Calcareous Tufa and Calcareous Sinter 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lacustrine Carbonates: Lak:es 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fluvial Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Transitional Marginal-Marine Environments: Shorelines and Peritidal Sediments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Beach (Foreshore ), Barriers and Coastal Lagoons 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Peritida1 Environments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Shallow-Marine Sedimentary Environments: 'Shallow' and 'Deep' 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pericontinental vs Epicontinental Shallow Seas 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Carbonate Shelves, Ramps and Platforms 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Shelf Margins 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reefs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tropical and Non-Tropical Carbonates: Different in Composition, Contro1s and Significance 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Latitudinal Zonation and Diagnostic Criteria of Tropical and Non-Tropical Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tropical and Subtropical Shallow-Marine Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Non-Tropical Shelf and Reef Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Deep-Marine Environments 0 0 o o o o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Settings 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 o o o 0 o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sedimentation Processes 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pelagic Sedimentation 0 0 o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Resedimentation ('Allochthonous Carbonates') 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1

7 7 7

7 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 13 13 14 14 18 21

24 24 24 25 26 26 28 29

30

31 34 37 46 46 47 47 49

X

2.4.5.5 2.4.5.6 2.4.5.7 2.4.6

3 3.1 3.1.1 3.1.1.1 3.1.1.2

3.1.1.3 3.1.1.4 3.1.2 3.1.2.1 3.1.2.2 3.1.2.3 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.3.1 3.2.3.2 3.2.3.3 3.2.4 3.2.5

4 4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.4.1 4.2.4.2 4.2.5 4.2.6

4.2.7 4.2.8 4.2.8.1 4.2.8.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2

Carbonate Plankton and Carbonate Oozes ......................... . Preservation Potential and Dissolution Levels ...................... . Carbonate Slopes, Periplatform Carbonates and Caronate Aprons ...... . Seep and Vent Carbonates ..................................... .

Microfacies Analysis Methods ................................................... . Field Work and Sampling ...................................... . Field Observations ........................................... . Lithology, Texture and Rock Colors ............................. . Bedding and Stratification, Sedimentary Structures and Diagenetic Features .......................................... . Fossils and Biogenie Structures ................................. . Field Logs and Compositional Logs ............................. . Sampling ................................................... . Search Sampling and Statistical Sampling ......................... . How Many Samples? ......................................... . Practical Advice for Microfacies Sampling ........................ . Laboratory Work: Techniques .................................. . Slices, Peels and Thin Sections ................................. . Casts, Etching and Staining .................................... . Microscopy ................................................. . Petrographie Microscopy ...................................... . Stereoscan Microscopy ....................................... . Fluorescence, Cathodoluminescence and Fluid lnclusion Microscopy ... . Mineralogy and Geochemistry .................................. . Trace Elements and Stable Isotope Analysis ....................... .

Microfacies Data: Matrix and Grains .......................... . Fine-Grained Carbonate Matrix: Micrite, Microspar, Calcisiltite ....... . Micrite .................................................... . Modes of Formation of Micrite and Other Fine-Grained Matrix Types .. . Microspar .................................................. . Calcisiltite .................................................. . Practical Aids in Describing and Interpreting Fine-Grained Limestones .. Significance of Fine-Grained Carbonates ......................... . Carbonate Grains ............................................ . Bioelasts (Skeletal Grains) ..................................... . Peloids: Just a Term of Ignorance? ............................... . Cortoids - Carbonate Grains Characterized by Micrite Envelope ....... . Oncoids and Rhodoids ........................................ . Oncoids .................................................... . Rhodoids and Macroids ....................................... . Ooids ..................................................... . Pisoids and Vadoids- Simply 'Larger Ooids' or Carbonate Grains on their Own? .............................................. . Aggregate Grains: Grapestones, Lumps and Other Composite Grains ... . Resediments: Intra-, Extra- and Lithoclasts- Insiders and Foreigners ... . Intraclasts: Origin and Facies-Diagnostic Types .................... . Extraclasts: Strange Foreigners ................................. . Morphometry of Carbonate Grains .............................. . Intentions and Methods ....................................... . Significance of Morphametrie Data for Carbonate Grains ............ .

Contents

49 49 50 51

53 53 53 53

55 59 60 61 62 62 63 64 64 65 66 66 66 67 70 70

73 73 74 80 94 95 98 98 100 101 llO 118 121 124 137 142

157 163 166 167 172 173 174 175

Contents

5 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5 5.1.5.1 5.1.5.2 5.1.5.3 5.1.5.4 5.1.6 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4

5.2.4.1 5.2.4.2 5.2.5 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.1.1 5.3.1.2 5.3.1.3 5.3.1.4 5.3.2 5.3.2.1 5.3.2.2 5.3.2.3 5.3.3 5.3.3.1 5.3.3.2 5.3.3.3 5.3.3.4 5.3.3.5

6 6.1 6.1.1 6.1.1.1 6.1.1.2 6.1.1.3 6.1.2 6.1.2.1 6.1.2.2 6.1.2.3 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.1.1 6.2.1.2 6.2.1.3

Microfacies Data: Fabrics .................................... . Depositional and Diagenetic Fabrics ............................. . Geopetal Fabrics ............................................. . Biofabrics and Grain Grientation ................................ . Bedding and Lamination Fabrics ................................ . Burrowing and Bioturbation Fabrics ............................. . Birdseyes, Fenestral Fabrics and Stromatactis ...................... . Birdseyes .................................................. . Fenestral Fabrics ............................................ . Stromatactis ................................................ . Significance of Birdseyes, Fenestral Fabrics and Stromatactis ......... . Nodular Fabrics ............................................. . Discontinuity Surfaces: From Microfacies to Sequence Stratigraphy .... . Classification of Discontinuities ................................ . Major Criteria of Discontinuities ................................ . Microfacies Criteria and Significance of Exposure Surfaces ........... . Microfacies Criteria and Significance of Condensation Surfaces and Hardgrounds ................................................ . Hardgrounds ................................................ . Condensation Surfaces and Condensed Sections .................... . Discontinuities and Sequence Stratigraphy ........................ . Syn- and Postdepositional Features: Fissures, Veins, Breccias ......... . Sediment-Pilied Fissures: Neptunian Dikes and Fissure Fills .......... . Origin, Development and Filling of Sedimentary Pissures ............ . Microfacies Analysis of Neptunian Dikes ......................... . Case Studies of Neptunian Dikes in Carbonates .................... . Significance of Sediment-Pilied Pissures .......................... . Microfractures and Veins (Calcite Veins) .......................... . Origin and Classification of Calcite V eins ......................... . Descriptive Criteria of Calcite-Filled Microfractures ................ . Significance of Microfractures in Carbonate Rocks ................. . Carbonate Breccias and Conglomerates ........................... . Terminology ................................................ . How to Describe Carbonate Breccias? ............................ . Carbonate Breccia Types: Origin, Classification, Criteria ............. . Carbonate Conglomerates ..................................... . Significance of Carbonate Breccias and Conglomerates .............. .

Quantitative Microfacies Analysis ............................. . Grain-Size Analysis .......................................... . Grain-Size Analysis: Methods and Aims .......................... . Measuring Grain Sizes and Describing Size Distributions ............ . Approaches to the Environmental Interpretation of Grain-Size Data .... . Grain-Size Analysis in Thin Sections ............................. . Grain-Size Studies of Modem and Ancient Carbonates ............... . Grain-Size Studies of Modem Carbonate Sediments ................. . Application of Grain-Size Analyses to Carbonate Rocks ............. . Significance of Grain-Size Studies of Carbonate Rocks .............. . Frequency Analysis of Microfacies Data .......................... . Methods of Frequency Analyses ................................ . Counting ................................................... . Estimating .................................................. . Image Analysis .............................................. .

XI

177 177 177 181 184 185 190 192 192 193 197 198 203 203 203 205

206 206 211 215 216 217 217 221 221 223 223 224 225 225 228 228 229 233 239 242

243 243 244 244 246 247 248 248 251 253 254 254 254 257 259

XII

6.2.1.4 6.2.1.5 6.2.2 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2

7 7.1 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.1.4 7.1.5 7.1.5.1 7.1.5.2

7.2 7.2.1 7.2.1.1 7.2.1.2 7.2.1.3 7.2.1.4 7.2.2 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.1.1 7.3.1.2 7.3.1.3 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.4 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.2.1 7.4.2.2 7.4.3 7.4.4 7.4.4.1 7.4.4.2 7.4.4.3 7.4.5 7.5 7.5.1 7.5.2 7.5.3 7.6 7.6 1 7.6.2 7.7 7.8 7.8.1

Constituent Ranking, Diversity and Maturity ...................... . Integrated Frequency Studies of Reef Carbonates ................... . Practical Advice ............................................. . Multivariate Microfacies Studies ................................ . Methods: Variations between Constituents and between Sampies ....... . Significance of Multivariate Studies: Constituent Analysis as a Clue to Environmental Conditions and Depositional Settings .......... .

Diagenesis, Porosity, and Dolomitization ........................ . Carbonate Mineralogy and Diagenetic Processes ................... . Modem Carbonate Sediments and Ancient Carbonate Rocks .......... . Common Carbonate Minerals .................................. . Diagenetic Processes and Controls .............................. . From Soft Sediments to Hard Rocks ............................. . Oscillating Trends in Phanerozoic Carbonate Mineralogy ............ . Secular Variations ............................................ . How to Recognize Former Aragonite and Mg-Calcite Mineralogy in Ancient Low-Calcite Limestones? ............................... . Major Diagenetic Environments ................................ . Meteoric, Marine and Burial Diagenesis .......................... . Meteoric (Freshwater) Diagenesis ............................... . Mixing Zone and Marine Vadose Environment ..................... . Marine Diagenesis ........................................... . Burial Diagenesis ............................................ . Early and Late Diagenesis ..................................... . Porosity of Carbonate Rocks ................................... . Porosity Categories, Pore Geometry and Penneability ............... . Basic Definitions ............................................ . Pore Geometry and Penneability ................................ . Porosity Measurements and Pore Types in Thin Sections ............. . Porosity Terminology and Classification .......................... . Porosity in Limestones and Dolomites ............................ . Pore-Filling Processes: Cementation ............................. . Controls on Carbonate Cementation ............................. . Morphology and Fabrics of Cement Types ........................ . Cement Types ............................................... . Cement Fabrics .............................................. . Cement Types and Diagenetic Environments ...................... . Facies-Controlled Diagenesis ................................... . Carbonate Platforms and Ramps ................................ . Reefs ...................................................... . Cold-Water vs. Warm-Water Diagenesis .......................... . Diagenetic Pathways and Patterns ............................... . Diagenetic Textures .......................................... . Mechanical Processes: Compaction .............................. . Chemical Processes: Pressure Solution and Stylolitization ............ . Significance of Compaction and Pressure Solution .................. . Neomorphic Processes: Alteration and Recrystallization ............. . Recrystallized Carbonate Rocks: What to do? ...................... . How to DescribeRecrystallized Carbonate Rocks? .................. . Sparite: Recrystallization Product or Carbonate Cement? ............. . Dolomitization and Dedolomitization ............................ . Descriptive Criteria and Terminology of Dolomite Fabrics ............ .

Contents

260 260 261 262 262

263

267 267 267 270 271 272 272 272

272 274 276 276 276 277 277 278 278 278 278 282 282 283 288 289 292 295 295 299 299 301 301 302 308 308 310 311 314 321 321 321 324 324 325 328

Contents

7.8.1.1 7.8.1.2 7.8.1.3 7.8.2 7.8.2.1 7.8.2.2 7.8.2.3 7.8.3 7.8.3.1 7.8.3.2 7.8.3.3 7.9

8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.2.1 8.3.2.2 8.3.2 8.3.2.1 8.3.2.2 8.4 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.5 8.6

9 9.1 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 9.1.3.1 9.1.3.2 9.1.4 9.1.5 9.1.5.1 9.1.5.2 9.1.5.3 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3

9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 9.3.3.1 9.3.3.2

Thin-Section Description and Terminology of Dolomite Rocks ........ . Dolomite Cement ............................................ . Value of Dolomite Textures .................................... . Some Dolomitization Models ................................... . Dolomites Associated with Evaporites ............................ . Mixing-Water and Seawater Models ............................. . Subsurface Burial Dolomites ................................... . Dedolomitization ............................................ . Textural Criteria for Recognizing Dedolomitization ................. . Origin of Dedolomite ......................................... . Significance of Dedolomitization ................................ . Metamorphie Carbonate and Marbles ............................ .

Classification - A Name for Your Sampie ....................... . Basic Concepts .............................................. . Reef Limestonesand Microbial Carbonates (Autochthonous Carbonates) . Classifications Based on Depositional Texture ..................... . Prerequisites ................................................ . Original and Expanded Dunharn Classification ..................... . Concepts ................................................... . Discussion ................................................. . Original and Expanded Folk Classification ........................ . Concepts ................................................... . Discussion ................................................. . Specific Classifications ....................................... . Diagenetic Changes in Depositional Textures ...................... . Some Nonmarine Carbonates Need very Specific Names ............. . Classification of Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Rocks ............... . A Name for Your Samples: Some Practical Advice .................. .

Limestones are Biological Sediments ........................... . Microbial Carbonates and Stromatolites .......................... . Bacterial Contribution to Carbonate Precipitation ................... . How to Recognize Microbial Carbonates? ......................... . Describing and Classifying Benthic Microbial Carbonates ............ . Terminology and Descriptive Criteria ............................ . Classification of Benthic Microbial Carbonates .................... . Stromatolites are Laminated Microbialites ........................ . Occurrence and Significance of Microbialites and Stromatolites ....... . Development through Time .................................... . Paleoenvironmental Significance of Microbial Carbonates ............ . Economic Importance of Stromatolites ........................... . Biogenie Encrustations ........................................ . Criteria and Constraints of Encrusters ............................ . Phanerozoic Encrusters ....................................... . Significance of Encrustation Patterns in Recognizing Depositional Settings and Environmental Controls .................. . Bioerosion, Boring and Grazing Organisms ....................... . Recent and Fossil Microborers .................................. . Recent and Fossil Macroborers ................................. . Micro- and Macroboring through Time ........................... . Qualitative Changes in Micro- and Macroborer Groups .............. . Quantitative Changes in the lntensity of Macroboring in Coral Reefs ... .

XIII

328 329 330 330 330 331 332 332 333 333 334 334

339 339 340 348 348 348 349 350 356 356 361 361 361 361 361 364

369 369 369 370 370 370 371 374 377 377 379 379 379 381 384

384 386 387 388 392 392 394

XIV

9.3.4 9.4

10 10.1 10.1.1 10.1.2 10.1.3 10.2 10.2.1 10.2.1.1 10.2.1.2 10.2.1.3 10.2.1.4 10.2.1.5 10.2.1.6 10.2.1.7 10.2.1.8 10.2.1.9 10.2.2 10.2.2.1 10.2.2.2 10.2.2.3 10.2.3 10.2.3.1 10.2.3.2 10.2.3.3 10.2.3.4 10.2.4 10.2.4.1 10.2.4.2 10.2.4.3 10.2.4.4 10.2.4.5 10.2.4.6 10.2.4.7 10.2.4.8 10.2.4.9 10.2.5 10.2.6 10.2.6.1 10.2.6.2 10.3 10.4

11 11.1 11.2 11.3

Contents

Microborer Associations are Proxies for Paleo-Water Depths .......... . 396 Practical Advice: How to Describe Microbialites and Stromatolites, Biogenie Encrustations and Borings? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

Fossils in Thin Section: It is Not That Difficult ................... . Specifics of Thin-Section Fossils ................................ . How to Determine Fossils in Thin Sections? ....................... . Which Fossils in which Time Interval? ........................... . Practical Advice ............................................. . Diagnostic Criteria of Fossils in Thin Sections ..................... . Cyanobacteria and Calcareous Algae ............................. . Cyanobacteria and Calcimicrobes ............................... . Corallinacean and Peyssoneliacean Red Algae ..................... . Solenoporacean Red Algae ..................................... . Ancestral Red Algae and Problematic Red Algae ................... . Udoteacean Green Algae and Gymnocodiacean Algae ............... . Phylloid Algae .............................................. . Dasyclad Green Algae ........................................ . Charophyta: Fresh-Water and Brackish-Water Algae ................ . 'Calcispheres' and Algal Cysts .................................. . Foraminifera and other Protozoa ................................ . Foraminifera ................................................ . Radiolaria .................................................. . Calpionellids ................................................ . Benthic Sessile Organisms ..................................... . Sponges ................................................... . Hydrozoans ................................................. . Corals ..................................................... . Bryozoans .................................................. . Shells ..................................................... . Brachiopods ................................................ . Bivalves ................................................... . Gastropods ................................................. . Cephalopods ................................................ . Tentaculitids and Other Conical Shells (Cricoconarida; Hyolithida) ..... . Serpulids and Other Worm Tubes ............................... . Crustacean Arthropods ........................................ . Trilobites .................................................. . Echinoderms ................................................ . Rare Thin-Section Fossils ..................................... . Microproblematica ........................................... . Inventory of Microproblematica ................................ . Discussion of Selected Microproblematica ........................ . Biozonation of Platforms with Thin-Section Fossils ................. . Where to Look for Thin-Section Pictures of Fossils and Microfacies Types ........................................ .

Microfacies Interpretation Summarizing Microfacies Criteria: Microfacies Types ............ . MFT Concepts .............................................. . How to Differentiate Meaningful Microfacies Types ................ . Making Microfacies Types ..................................... .

399 399 399 400 401 402 404 408 412 418 422 422 427 430 447 452 453 453 482 487 491 491 508 509 514 518 519 522 529 533 537 540 542 547 548 558 559 559 560 570

571

575 575 576 584

Contents

12 12.1 12.1.1 12.1.1.1 12.1.1.2 12.1.1.3 12.1.2 12.1. 2.1 12.1.2.2 12.1.2.3 12.1.3 12.1.3.1 12.1.3.2 12.1.4 12.1.4.1 12.1.4.2 12.1.5 12.1.5.1 12.1.5.2 12.1.5.3 12.1.6 12.1.6.1 12.1.6.2 12.1.7 12.1.7.1 12.1.7.2 12.1.7.3 12.1.8 12.1.8.1 12.1.8.2 12.1.8.3 12.2 12.2.1 12.2.2 12.2.2.1 12.2.2.2 12.2.2.3 12.3 12.3.1 12.3.2

13 13.1 13.1.1 13.1.2 13.1.2.1 13.1.2.2 13.1.2.3 13.1.2.4 13.2 13.2.1 13.2.2

Recognizing Paleoenvironmental Conditions .................... . Reconstructing Environmental Constraints ........................ . Hydrodynamic Controls ....................................... . Hydrodynamic Energy Levels .................................. . Classifying Low-Energy and High-Energy Environments ............ . Paleocurrent Data ............................................ . Storms ..................................................... . Storm Deposits (Tempestites) on Shelves, Ramps and Platforms ....... . Impact of Tropical Storms on Reefs .............................. . Significance of Carbonate Storm Deposits ........................ . Marine Carbonate Substrates ................................... . Carbonate Substrate Typesand Organism-Sediment Interactions ....... . Recognizing Substrate Types ................................... . Light ...................................................... . Zonation and Light Conditions ................................. . Recognition of Photic and Aphotic Conditions ..................... . Oxygen .................................................... . Terminology and Classification ................................. . Recognizing Paleo-Oxygenation ................................ . Case Study: Black Shale Development on a Carbonate Platform ....... . Seawater Temperature ........................................ . Seawater Temperature: Biotic Proxies ............................ . Geochemical Proxies of Seawater Temperatures .................... . Salinity .................................................... . Biotic and Microfacies Proxies of Paleosalinity .................... . Geochemical Proxies of Paleosalinity ............................ . Microfacies Proxies for Hypersaline and Evaporitic Conditions ........ . Productivity and Nutrients ..................................... . Nutrients ................................................... . Estimating Paleonutrient Levels ................................. . Effects of Nutrient Excess on Reef and Platform Carbonates .......... . Estimating Paleoclimatic Conditions: Grain Association Analysis ...... . Concepts ................................................... . Practical Advice, Examples and State of Current Information ......... . Distinguishing Grain Association Types .......................... . Examples .................................................. . State of the Art .............................................. . Assessing Water Depths ....................................... . Hints to Paleowater Depths .................................... . Case Study: Assessing the Water Depth of a Carbonate Ramp ......... .

Integrated Facies Analysis .................................... . Non-Carbonate Constituents ................................... . Insoluble Residues (IR): Clay Minerals and Detrital Quartz ........... . Authigenic Minerals .......................................... . Silicification of Carbonates, Authigenic Feldspar and Glauconite ...... . Sulfides: Pyrite .............................................. . Sulfates: Evaporite Minerals ................................... . Phosphates ................................................. . Geochemical Proxies ......................................... . Trace Elements .............................................. . Strontium and Manganese - Favorite Tools for Facies Studies ......... .

XV

587 587 588 589 591 593 593 594 600 604 605 606 607 610 611 611 612 613 613 614 615 616 616 617 618 619 622 623 623 624 624 625 625 627 627 628 628 634 635 637

641 641 641 643 643 646 647 648 652 652 652

XVI

13.2.3 13.2.4 13.3

14 14.1 14.1.1 14.1.1.1 14.1.1.2 14.1.1.3 14.1.2 14.1.2.1 14.1.2.2 14.1.2.3 14.1.3 14.1.3.1 14.1.3.2 14.1.4 14.1.5 14.1.6 14.1.7 14.1.8 14.2 14.2.1 14.2.2 14.3 14.3.1 14.3.2 14.3.3 14.3.4 14.3.4.1 14.3.4.2 14.3.5 14.3.6 14.4

15 15.1 15.1.1 15.1.2 15.2 15.2.1 15.2.2 15.3 15.4 15.4.1 15.4.1.1 15.4.1.2 15.4.1.3 15.4.2 15.5 15.5.1 15.5.1.1

Contents

Significance of Trace Elements in Facies Studies of Carbonate Rocks . . . . 653 Stahle Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 Organic Matter in Carbonate Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656

Depositional Models, Fades Zones and Standard Microfacies . . . . . . . 657 Depositional Facies Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 Conceptual, Dynamic and Computer Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 Conceptual Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 Dynamic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 Numerical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 Basic Elements of Carbonate Facies Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 Common Facies Belts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 Common Depositional Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 Different Depositional Settings Require Different Facies Models . . . . . . . 660 Facies Zones of Rimmed Carbonate Platforms: The Wilson Model . . . . . . 660 Standard Facies Zones and the Modified Wilson Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Discussion and Use of Standard Facies Zones.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661 Carbonate Ramp Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Non-rimmed Shelves and Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Isolated Platforms and Atolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Epeiric Platform Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 Epeiric Ramp Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 Biotic Zonation Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 Concepts and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 Case Study: Foraminiferal Distribution in Late Triassie Reefs and Platforms 676 Standard Microfacies Types (SMF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 Revised Standard Microfacies Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Discussion of Standard Microfacies Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 Stratigraphie Microfacies Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 Common Microfacies Types of Carbonate Ramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 Microfacies Criteria of Carbonate Ramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 Microfacies Types of Carbonate Ramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 Tracing Facies Zones with Microfacies Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 Determining Standard Microfacies Types: A Practical Guide . . . . . . . . . . . 720 Dynamic Microfacies Types and Environmental Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723

Basin Analysis: Recognizing Depositional Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725 Pedogenic Carbonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725 Microfacies Criteria of Paleocaliche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726 Significance of Paleocaliche and Paleosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 Paleokarst and Ancient Speleothems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730 Diagnostic Criteria of Paleokarst and Paleospeleothem Structures . . . . . . . 731 Significance of Paleokarst and Cave Carbonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734 Travertine, Calcareous Tufa and Calcareous Sinter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734 Lacustrine and Palustrine Carbonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737 Microfacies of Lacustrine Carbonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738 Microfacies Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738 Microfacies Types of Lacustrine Limestones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 40 Distribution ofLacustrine Microfacies Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 Palustrine Carbonates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742 Peritidal Carbonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745 Criteria of Peritidal Limestones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745

Contents

15.5.1.2 15.5.1.3 15.5.2 15.6 15.6.1 15.6.2 15.6.2.1 15.6.2.2 15.6.3 15.6.3.1

15.6.3.2 15.6.3.3

15.7 15.7.1 15.7.2 15.7.2.1 15.7.2.2 15.7.2.3 15.7.2.4 15.7.2.5 15.7.2.6 15.7.3 15.7.3.1 15.7.3.2 15.7.3.3 15.7.3.4

15.7.4 15.7.5 15.7.5.1 15.7.5.2 15.8 15.8.1 15.8.2 15.8.2.1 15.8.2.2 15.8.3

16 16.1 16.1.1 16.1.1.1 16.1.1.2 16.1.1.3

16.1.2 16.1.2.1 16.1.2.2 16.1.2.3

16.2

Major Facies Criteria of Peritidal Carbonates ...................... . Synopsis of Diagnostic Criteria ................................. . Case Study: Midd1e Devonian Peritidal Carbonates from Po1and ....... . Carbonate Platforms and Ramps ................................ . Ecological Controls on Platforms and Ramps ...................... . The Response of Carbonate Platforms to Drowning ................. . Microfacies Signals of Drowning History ......................... . Case Study: Platform Drowning Reflected by Microfacies ............ . Case Studies: Platform and Ramp Carbonates ...................... . A Late Jurassie Bahamian-Type Carbonate Platform from the Northem Calcareous Alps ..................................... . A Middle Devonian Ramp from Graz, Southem Austria .............. . A Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous Ramp from the Subsurface of Southem Bavaria, Germany .................................. . Platform-Slope-Basin Transects ................................. . Types and Composition of Carbonate Slopes ...................... . Allochthonous Slope and Basin Deposits: Diagnostic Criteria ......... . Submarine Rockfalls ......................................... . Breccias and Megabreccias .................................... . Debris-Flow Deposits ......................................... . Grain-Flow Deposits ......................................... . Turbidites .................................................. . Sliding and Slumping ......................................... . Microfacies of Slope Carbonates: Case Studies ..................... . Permiau of Sicily: Megablocks and Base-of-Slope Carbonates ......... . Triassie of the Southem Alps: Allochthonous Slope Sediments ........ . Jurassie of Morocco: Platform-Slope-Basin Transect ................ . Jurassie of the Northem Calcareous Alps: Detailed Information from Limestone Turbidites on Source and Deposition Patterns ............. . Slope Stability Reflected by Texture and Microfacies ................ . Tracing Platform-Basin Transitions Using Grain Composition Logs .... . Concept and Methods ......................................... . Case Study: Late Triassie of the Gosaukamm Region, Austria ......... . Pelagic Deep-Marine Carbonates ................................ . Setting, Controls and Biota of Pelagic Limestones .................. . Examples and Case Studies of Pelagic Carbonates .................. . Microfacies of Paleozoic Basinal Carbonates ...................... . Microfacies of Mesozoic Basinal Carbonates ...................... . Contourites ................................................. .

Realizing Depositional Constraints and Processes ................ . Cyclic Carbonates, Microfacies and Sequence Stratigraphy ........... . Cyclic Carbonates ........................................... . Cyclic Carbonates: Some Basics ................................ . Microfacies and Cyclic Carbonates .............................. . Case Studies: The Lofer Cycle and the Latemar Cycle (Triassic of the Alps) ......................................... . Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy ............................... . Sequence Analysis: Some Basics ................................ . Microfacies Data Applied to Sequence Stratigraphy ................. . Case Studies: Sea-Level Fluctuations and Systems Tracts Documented by Microfacies ................................................. . Understanding Reef Carbonates ................................. .

XVII

746 749 752 753 753 756 756 757 759

760 768

768 769 769 771 771 772 772 773 773 779 780 780 781 784

786 786 788 788 789 793 793 795 795 796 801

803 803 803 804 805

808 815 816 818

822 830

XVIII

160201 160202 160203 16020301 16020302 1602.4 160205 16020501 16o2o5o2 160206 16020601

16020602

16020603

16.3 160301 160302 16030201

16030202 16.4 16.401

160402 16.5 16o5o1 160502 16050201 16050202 16.6 160601 160601.1 16060102 160601.3 160602 16.7

160701 160701.1 160701.2 160701.3 160702 160703 1607.4

17 17.1 1701.1 1701.2

Contents

What is a Reef? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 830 Reef Types 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 830 Reef Fossils 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 831 Reef Biota: Compositional Changes during Time 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 831 Reef Guilds: Ecologic Units 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 831 How to Classify Reef Carbonates? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 833 Microfacies Approach to Reef Studies 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 833 Basic Constituents of Reef and Mound Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 834 Describing Reef Carbonates: A Practical Guide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 836 Case Studies of Some Ancient Reefs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 836 Mud Mounds: The Early Devonian 'Kess Kess' Mounds in the Anti-Atlas, Southern Morocco 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 838 Waulsortian Mud Mounds: Early Carboniferous (Lower Mississippian) Muleshoe Mound, Sacramento Mountains, New Mexico, UoSoA. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 842 Reefs: The Capitan Reef, Permian Reef Complex, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas and New Mexico, UoSoA. 0 o o o o 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 843 Fingerprinting Lost Platforms 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 847 Methods 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 84 7 Case Studies 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 848 Case Study: Platform Facies Patterns Derived from the Microfacies of Early Carboniferous Conglomerates (Southern Spain) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 848 Case Study: Reconstruction of Paleo-Escarpments from Microfacies Data 849 Recognizing Ancient Cool-Water Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 852 Microfacies Criteria of Non-Tropical Cold-Water Shelf and Reef Limestones 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 852 Case Study: Early Tertiary Cool-Water Coral Reef 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 856 Testing for Ancient Vent and Seep Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 857 Diagnostic Criteria of Ancient Seep and Vent Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 857 Case Studies 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 858 Late Eocene 'Whiskey Creek' Seep Carbonates of Washington State, UoSoA. 859 Early Cretaceous Seep Carbonates in the Canadian Arctic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 860 Mixed Carbonate-Siliciclastic Settings and Limestone/Mari Sequences 0 0 0 862 Carbonate-Siliciclastic Environments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 862 Modem Carbonate-Siliciclastic Environments o o 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o 862 Ancient Mixed Carbonate-Siliciclastic Environments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 864 Describing Carbonate-Siliciclastic Sediments: Practical Advice 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 864 Limestone-Mari Sequences: Primary or/and Diagenetic Origin? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 866 Secular Variations in Carbonate Depositional Patterns and Temporal Changes in Microfacies Criteria 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o 0 o 0 o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 868 Changes of Major Carbonate Depositional Environments During Time 0 0 0 868 Phanerozoic Carbonate Platforms 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 869 Phanerozoic Reef Patterns 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 870 Pelagic Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 872 Differences in Phanerozoic Benthic Carbonate Factories 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 873 Temporal Changes in Non-Skeletal and Skeletal Mineralogy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 874 Temporal Changes in the Abundance and Significance of Microfacies Criteria 874

Practical Use of Microfacies Reservoir Rocks and Host Rocks 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Carbonate Hydrocarbon Reservoirs 0 0 0 o 0 0 o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Distribution of Carbonate Reservoirs during Time 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Depositional Setting and Environmental Controls of Carbonate Reservoirs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

877 877 878

878

Contents

17.1.2.1 17.1.2.2 17.1.3 17.1.3.1 17.1.3.2 17.1.4 17.1.4.1 17.1.4.2 17.1.4.3 17.1.4.4 17.1.5 17.1.5.1 17.1.5.2 15.1.5.3 17.2 17.2.1 17.2.2

18 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.4.1 18.4.2

19 19.1 19.2 19.2.1 19.2.2 19.3 19.3.1 19.3.2 19.4 19.4.1 19.4.2 19.5 19.5.1 19.5.2 19.6 19.7

1 2 2.1 2.2 3

Index

Depositional Setting .......................................... . Environmental Controls ....................................... . Diagenetic Controls on Carbonate Reservoirs ...................... . Reservoir Properties .......................................... . Diagenetic Controls on Reservoir Properties ....................... . Methods ................................................... . Seismic Interpretation ........................................ . Log Response ............................................... . Cores and Cuttings ........................................... . Reservoir-Related Outcrop Analog Studies ........................ . Microfacies, Lithofacies and Reservoir Rock Types ................. . Reservoir Heterogeneity ....................................... . Relevant Microfacies Data ..................................... . Reservoir Rock Types and Facies Criteria ......................... . Carbonate-Rosted Mineral Deposits ............................. . Ore Deposits and Carbonate Settings ............................. . Microfacies and Ore Deposits .................................. .

Carbonate Rock Resources, Fades, Weathering, Preservation ...... . Industrial U se of Carbonate Rocks ............................... . Exploration and Exploitation of Carbonate Rocks ................... . Facies and Physical-Chemical Properties of Carbonate Rocks ......... . Weathering, Decay and Preservation of Carbonate Rocks ............. . Weathering of Carbonate Rocks ................................. . Preservation ................................................ .

Microfacies and Archaeology ................................. . Questions and Methods ....................................... . Building Stones ............................................. . Building Stones: Methods ..................................... . Building Stones: Examples .................................... . Mosaic Material ............................................. . Mosaic Material: Methods ..................................... . Mosaic Material: Examples .................................... . Works of Art ................................................ . Works of Art: Methods ........................................ . Works of Art: Example ........................................ . Ceramies ................................................... . Ceramics: Methods ........................................... . Ceramics: Example .......................................... . Marble Studies .............................................. . Antony and Cleopatra: Tracing a Famous Love Affair ............... .

Appendix Answers to Exercises ........................................ . Looking at the Attached CD .................................. . Comparison Charts ........................................... . U sing the List of References ................................... . Permissions ................................................ .

XIX

878 881 881 881 881 884 884 884 885 885 888 888 888 890 892 892 893

895 895 895 896 897 897 899

903 903 903 903 904 905 905 906 907 907 907 910 910 912 913 913

917 919 919 919 919

921