E-25 for finals

Approach : this refers to “theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching”. It offers a model of language

competence. An approach describes how people

acquire their knowledge of the language and makes statements about conditions which will promote successful language learning.

Method : a method is the practical realization of an approach. Methods include various procedures and techniques as part of their standard fare.

Procedure : a procedure is an ordered sequence of techniques. A procedure is a sequence which can be described in terms such as first you do this, then you do that… Smaller than a method and bigger than technique.

Technique : is a classroom device or activity and thus

represents the narrowest of the four concepts

Some examples: dictation, imitation , and repetition

a common technique when using video material is called “silent viewing”. This is where the teacher plays the video with no sound.

Silent viewing is a single activity rather than a sequence, and as such is a technique rather than a whole procedure.

A term that is also used in discussions about teaching is “model” – used to describe typical procedures, usually for teachers in training. Such models offer abstractions of these procedures, designed to guide teaching practice.

This is a method that has been used by language teachers for many years.

At one time it was called Classical Method,since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages,Latin and Greek.

Earlier in this century,it was used for the purpose of helping students read and appreciate foreign language literature.

Classes are taught in the students mother tongue,with little active use of the target language;

Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists;

Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided;

Reading of difficult text is begun early in the course of study;

Little attention is paid to the content of text,which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.

Pedagogical orientation

Focus on students’ knowledge about the L2Predominant attention to reading & writingEmphasis on formal accuracy

Instructional content and presentation

Explanation of grammar rulesIllustration of grammar rulesExplanation of texts sentence by sentenceParsing of sentences in textsContrastive analysis of the L1 and L2Explicit & direct correction of learner errors

Language practice activities

Grammar exercisesTranslation exercises

Teacher and learner roles

Teacher talks for most of classTeacher-fronted instructionTeacher control over class

Learning materials Structure-based textbooks

A reaction to the Grammar Translation Approach and its failure to produce learners who could communicate in the foreign language they had been studying

No use of the mother tongue is permitted Lessons begin with dialogues and

anecdotes in modern conversational style Actions and pictures are used to make

meanings clear Grammar is learned inductively

Literary texts are read for pleasure and are not analyzed grammatically

The target culture is also taught inductively

The teacher must be a native speaker or have native like proficiency in the target language

Reading Approach A reaction to the problems experienced

in implementing the Direct Approach

Reading was viewed as the most usable skill to have in foreign language since not many people traveled abroad at that time

Also few teachers could use their foreign language well enough to use direct approach effectively in class.

Reading Approach Only the grammar useful for reading

comprehension is taught Vocabulary is controlled at first and

then expanded Translation is once more a

respectable classroom procedure Reading comprehension is the only

language skill emphasized The teacher does not need to have

good oral proficiency in the target language

Audio-lingual methodology owes its existence to the Behaviourist models of learning using the Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement model, it attempted, through a continuous process of such positive reinforcement, to engender good habits in language learners.

Audio-lingualism relied heavily on drills like substitution to form these habits.

Habit-forming drills have remained popular among teachers and students, and teachers who feel confident with the linguistic restriction of such procedures

Pedagogical orientation

Instructional content and presentation

Language practice activities

Emphasis on formal Pedagogical orientation accuracyPredominant attention to aural & oral skills

Explicit & direct correction of learner errorsUse of L2 in conducting a lessonInductive teaching of grammar

Sentence pattern practiceReading-aloud of dialogues & textsMemorization of dialogues & textsPrepared language performance

Teacher and learner roles

Learning materials

Teacher-fronted instructionTeacher control over class

Structure-based textbooksAdherence to prescribed textbooksKnowledge about grammar & vocabularyInauthentic texts

A variation on Audio-lingualism in British-based teaching and elsewhere is the procedure most often referred to as PPP, which stands for Presentation, Practice, and Production.

In this procedure the teacher introduces a situation which contextualizes the language to be taught. The students now practice the language using accurate reproduction techniques such as choral repetition, individual repetition, and cue-response drills.

The PPP procedure came under a sustained attack in the 1990s.

Michael Lewis suggested that PPP was inadequate because it reflected neither the nature of language nor the nature of learning.

Jim Scrivener advanced what is perhaps the most worrying aspect of PPP,the fact that it only describes one kind of lesson;it is inadequate as a general proposal concerning approaches to language in the classroom.

In response to these criticism many people have offered variations on PPP and alternative to it: ARC, OHE, ESA.

ARC put forward by Jim Scrivener

stands for Authentic use, Restricted use and Clarification and focus

Communicative activity will demonstrate authentic use; elicted dialogue or guided writing will provoke restricted use of language by students; finally clarification language is that which the teacher and students use to explain grammar,give examples,analyze errors,elicit or repeat things.

OHE

Michael Lewis claims that students should be allowed to

Observe (read or listen to language) which will then provoke them to

Hypothesize about how the language works before going on to

Experiment on the basis of that hypothesis.

ESA

In the ESA model three components will usually be present in any teaching sequence,whether of five,fifty or a hundred minutes:

E stands for Engage - students have to be engaged emotionally

S stands for Study A stands for Activate - any stage at

which students are encouraged to use all and/or any of the language they know

Oral – situational Approach

A reaction to the Reading Approach and its lack of emphasis on oral-aural skills;

Was dominant in Britain during the 1940’s, 1950’s and 1960’s;

It draws from the Reform Movement and the Direct Approach but adds features from Firthian linguistics and the emerging professional field of language pedagogy.


The spoken language is primary; All language material is practiced

orally before being presented in written form;

Only the target language should be used in the classroom.

Efforts are made to ensure that the most general and useful lexical items are presented;


Grammatical structures are graded from simple to complex;

New items are introduced and practiced situationally (e.g., at the post office, at the bank, at the dinner table)

Cognitive Approach

A reaction to the behaviorist features of the Audiolingual Approach;

Influenced by cognitive psychology (Neisser 1967) and Chomskyan linguistics (Chomsky 1959, 1965);

Language learning is viewed as rule acquisition, not habit formation;

Instruction is often individualized; learners are responsible for their own learning;

Cognitive Approach

Grammar must be taught but it can be taught deductively (rules first; practice later) and/or inductively (rules can either be stated after practice or left as implicit information for the learners to process on their own);

Pronunciation is de-emphasized; perfection is viewed as unrealistic and unattainable;

Reading and writing are once again important as listening and speaking;

Cognitive Approach

Vocabulary instruction is once again important, especially at intermediate and advanced levels;

Errors are viewed as inevitable, to be used constructively in the learning process;

The teacher is expected to have good general proficiency in the target language as well as an ability to analyze the target language;

Affective-Humanistic Approach

A reaction to the general lack of affective considerations in both Audiolingualism and the Cognitive Approach; e.g., Moskowitz 1978 and Curran 1976;

Respect is emphasized for the individual ( each student, the teacher) and for his or her feelings;

Communication that is meaningful to the learner is emphasized


Instruction involves much work in pairs and small groups;

Class atmosphere is viewed as more important than materials or methods;

Peer support and interaction are viewed as a self-realization experience;

The teacher is a counselor or facilitator;


The teacher should be proficient in the target language and the student’s native language since translation may be used heavily in the initial stages to help students feel at ease; later it is gradually phased out.

Comprehension-Based Approach

An outgrowth of research in first language acquisition that led some language methodologists to assume that second or foreign language learning is very similar to first language acquisition; e.g., Potovsky 1974; Winitz 1981; Krashen and Terrell 1983)

Comprehension-Based Approach Listening comprehension is very

important and is viewed as the basic skill that will allow speaking, reading, and writing to develop spontaneously over time, given the right conditions.

Learners should begin by listening to meaningful speech and by responding nonverbally in meaningful ways before they produce any language themselves.

Comprehension-Based Approach Learners should not speak until

they feel ready to do so; this results in better pronunciation than if the learner is forced to speak immediately.

Learners progress by being exposed to meaningful input that is just one step beyond their level of competence.

Rule learning may help learners monitor what they do, but it will not aid their acquisition or spontaneous use of the target language.

Comprehension-Based Approach Error correction is seen as

unnecessary and perhaps even counterproductive; the important thing is that the learners can understand and can make themselves understood.

If the teacher is not a native (or near-native) speaker, appropriate materials such as audio-tapes and videotapes must be available to provide the appropriate input for the learners.

The Communicative Approach

The communicative approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is the name which was given to a set of beliefs which included not only a re-examination of what aspects of language to teach but also a shift in emphasis on how to teach!


The communicative approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) was developed in the 1970s, and in critical reaction to the formal and boring types of exercises used under the audiolingual approach (‘drill-and-skill’ exercises).


The communicative approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) puts the focus on communicative interaction in class, not on a correct but mind- and meaningless reproduction of the linguistic forms prescribed for a specific lesson.


The communicative approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an outgrowth of the work of anthropological linguists (e.g. Hymes 1972) and Firthian linguists (e.g. Halliday 1973) who view language first and foremost as a system for communication.

Non-communicative activities Communicative

activities

The communication continuum

No communicative desire

No communicative purpose

Form not content

One language item only

Teacher intervention

Materials control

A desire to communicate

A communicative purpose

Content not form

Variety of language

No teacher intervention

No materials control

Task-Based Learning (TBL) Popularized by Prof. Phrabu, who

speculated that students were likely to learn if they were thinking about a no-linguistic problem.

Three basic stages of TBL (Jane Willis)a. Pre-task (intro to topic and task)b. Task cycle (task, planning and report)c. Language focus (analysis, practice)

Four Methods

• These methods developed in 1970s and 1980s as humanistic approaches to remove psychological barriers to learning1. CLT

-students sitting in a circle-a counselor or a knower -making the utterance

Four Methods

• These methods developed in 1970s and 1980s as humanistic approaches to remove psychological barriers to learning2. The Silent Way

-the teacher says as little as possible

-interacting with physical objects especially with Cassimere rods-pointing to a phonemic chart

Four Methods

• These methods developed in 1970s and 1980s as humanistic approaches to remove psychological barriers to learning

3. Suggesttopaedia

-George Lozanov

-physical surroundings and atmosphere of the classroom are of a vital importance

-the reason for our inefficiency is that we set up psychological barriers to learning: we fear that we will be unable to perform,

Four Methods


3. Suggesttopaedia-…that we will be limited to learn,

that we will fail.-one result is that we do not use the

full mental powers that we have and according to Lozanov, we may be using 5-10% of our mental capacity.

Four Methods


3. Suggesttopaedia-in order to make better use our

reserved capacity, the limitations we think we have need to be “dessugested.

-parent-teacher (teacher-student) relationship

Four Methods


3. Suggestopaedia--three main parts: oral review,

presentation and discussion, concert session

Four Methods


3. Suggestopaedia

-desuggestopedia/suggestopaedia, the application to pedagogy, has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful or the negative association they may have toward studying and, thus, help them overcome the barriers to learning.

Four Methods


3. Suggestopaedia-one of the ways the students’

mental capacities are stimulated is through integration of fine arts.

Techniques

• CLASSROOM SET-UP – the challenge for the teacher is to create a classroom environment which is bright and cheerful. The teacher should try to provide as positive environment as possible.

• PERIPHERAL LEARNING – this technique is based upon that we perceive much more in our environment than that to which we consciously attend.

Techniques

• PERIPHERAL LEARNING-it is claimed that , by putting poster containing grammatical information about the target language on the classroom walls, students will absorb the facts effortlessly.

Techniques

• POSITIVE SUGGESTION-it is the teacher responsibility to orchestrate the suggestive factors in a learning situation, thereby helping students breakdown the barriers to learning that they bring with them. Teachers can do this through direct and indirect means.

Techniques

• BAROQUE MUSIC-it has specific rhythm of 60 beats per minute, and Lozanov believed

it created a level of relax concentration

that facilitated the intake and retention of huge quantities of

material.

• The originator of TPR, James Asher, worked from the premise that adult second language learning could have similar developmental patterns to that of child acquisition.

• Children learn language from their speech through the forms of commands, then adults will learn in that way too.

• In responding to commands students get a lot of comprehensible input , and in performing physical actions they seem to echo the claims of Neuro-linguistic programming that certain people benefit greatly from kinesthetic activity.

• This method is developed to reduce stress people while studying foreign language. Learners are allowed to speak when they are ready.-using commands to direct behavior-role reversal-action sequence

1. The students’ understanding of the target language should be developed before speaking.

2. Students can initially learn one part of the language rapidly by moving their bones.

3. Feelings of success and low anxiety facilitates learning.4. Language learning is more effective when

it is fun.

5. Students are expected to make errors when they first begin speaking. Teachers should be tolerant of them. Work on the fine details of the language should be postponed until students have become somewhat proficient.

• Humanistic teaching has found a greater acceptance at the level of procedures and activities, in which students are encouraged to make use of their own lives and feelings in the classroom.

• When I was a child my favorite food was hamburger, or When I was a child my favorite relative was my uncle, I was shown how to crawl, I pushed out of my mother’s womb.

• The lexical approach, discussed by Dave Willis, and popularized by the writer Michael Lewis is based on the assertion that language doesn’t consist of traditional grammar and vocabulary , but also of phrases, collocations , and idioms.

• A lexical approach would steer us toward the teaching of phrases which show words in combination. Thus instead of teaching will for the future, we might have students focus on its use in a series of archetypical utterances such as I’ll give you a ring.

• A mismatch between “teacher intention and learner interpretation.” Our attitudes to the language , and the way it is taught, reflect cultural biases and beliefs about how we should communicate and how we should educate each other.

• EXPOSURE TO LANGUAGE

-students need constant exposure to language since this is the key

component to LA.

• INPUT

-students need comprehensible input but this is not enough in itself , they need some opportunity for noticing or

consciousness – raising to help students remember language facts.

• CLT-communicative activities and task-based

teaching offer real learning benefits.

• THE AFFECTIVE VARIABLE-anxiety need to be lowered for learning

to take place.

• DISCOVERY-where culturally appropriate, students

should be encouraged to discover things for themselves.

• GRAMMAR LEXIS-showing how words combine together and behave both semantically and grammatically is an important part in any language learning progamme.

• METHODOLOGY AND CULTURE-teaching methodology is rooted in popular culture. Therefore, compromise may be necessary.

• Pragmatic eclecticism does not just mean that “anything goes”. On the contrary, students have a right to expect that they are being asked to do things for a reason ,and that their teacher has some aim in mind in which he or she can, if asked, articulate clearly. Teaching plans should always be designed to meet an aim or aims.

• What seems to work in English classes will depend upon the age and character – type of leaners , their cultural backgrounds, and the level they are studying at – not to mention the teacher’s own beliefs and references!

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