DOCUMENT RESUME Wolfson, Ron SPONS AGENCY · DOCUMENT RESUME. ED 421 374 SO 028 004. AUTHOR...
69
DOCUMENT RESUME ED 421 374 SO 028 004 AUTHOR Wolfson, Ron TITLE Curriculum on Women in Contemporary India: A Multidisciplinary and Historical Approach. Fulbright-Hays Summer Seminars Abroad 1966 (India). SPONS AGENCY United States Educational Foundation in India. PUB DATE 1997-00-00 NOTE 126p.; Some photocopied pages will not reproduce clearly. For related items, see SO 027 999- SO 028 007. PUB TYPE Guides Non-Classroom (055) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC06 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Asian Studies; *Females; Foreign Countries; Global Education; High Schools; *Indians; Instructional Materials; *Interdisciplinary Approach; Literature; *Multicultural Education; Non Western Civilization; Social Studies; *Womens Studies IDENTIFIERS *India ABSTRACT This curriculum guide was developed to assist high school students in understanding the role of women in modern India. The one semester elective course uses historical texts, biographies, scholarly works, novels, short stories, poems, and film as a means of exploring the subject matter. The course looks at the traditional role of women in modern India over the millennium as well as the place of women in the major religions of India. Sections of the guide include: (1) "Historical India: Empire and Religion"; (2) "Contemporary India: The Raj to the Present"; (3) "Women in Contemporary Indian Literature"; and (4) "Women in Contemporary India." Reading materials include, "Careless Daughters" from "Dharma's Daughters: Contemporary Indian Women and Hindu Culture" (Sara S. Mitter); "Wedding First, Love Later: Arranged Marriage among the Educated Classes," from "May You Be the Mother of a Hundred Sons: A Journey Among the Women of India" (Elisabeth Bumiller); readings from "India" (Richard Waterstone); "Great Mughal Glory (1605-1707)" from "A New History of India, 4th ed. (Stanley Wolpert); and "Great Women in Buddhism" from "Great Women of India" (Swami Madhavananda, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, eds.). (EH) ******************************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ********************************************************************************
Transcript of DOCUMENT RESUME Wolfson, Ron SPONS AGENCY · DOCUMENT RESUME. ED 421 374 SO 028 004. AUTHOR...
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 421 374 SO 028 004
AUTHOR Wolfson, RonTITLE Curriculum on Women in Contemporary India: A
Multidisciplinary and Historical Approach. Fulbright-HaysSummer Seminars Abroad 1966 (India).
SPONS AGENCY United States Educational Foundation in India.PUB DATE 1997-00-00NOTE 126p.; Some photocopied pages will not reproduce clearly.
For related items, see SO 027 999- SO 028 007.PUB TYPE Guides Non-Classroom (055)EDRS PRICE MF01/PC06 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Asian Studies; *Females; Foreign Countries; Global
Education; High Schools; *Indians; Instructional Materials;*Interdisciplinary Approach; Literature; *MulticulturalEducation; Non Western Civilization; Social Studies; *WomensStudies
IDENTIFIERS *India
ABSTRACTThis curriculum guide was developed to assist high school
students in understanding the role of women in modern India. The one semesterelective course uses historical texts, biographies, scholarly works, novels,short stories, poems, and film as a means of exploring the subject matter.The course looks at the traditional role of women in modern India over themillennium as well as the place of women in the major religions of India.Sections of the guide include: (1) "Historical India: Empire and Religion";(2) "Contemporary India: The Raj to the Present"; (3) "Women in ContemporaryIndian Literature"; and (4) "Women in Contemporary India." Reading materialsinclude, "Careless Daughters" from "Dharma's Daughters: Contemporary IndianWomen and Hindu Culture" (Sara S. Mitter); "Wedding First, Love Later:Arranged Marriage among the Educated Classes," from "May You Be the Mother ofa Hundred Sons: A Journey Among the Women of India" (Elisabeth Bumiller);readings from "India" (Richard Waterstone); "Great Mughal Glory (1605-1707)"from "A New History of India, 4th ed. (Stanley Wolpert); and "Great Women inBuddhism" from "Great Women of India" (Swami Madhavananda, Ramesh ChandraMajumdar, eds.). (EH)
********************************************************************************
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
********************************************************************************
Women in Contemporary India:A Multidisciplinary
and Historical Approach
by
Ron Wolfson
A Curriculum Project Developed During the 1996
Fulbright-Hays Seminar Abroad Program: India Seminar
Submitted toEducational Resources Information Center (ERIC), USDE
by
United States Educational Foundation in India
1
PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE ANDDISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS
BEEN GRANTED BY
Rosalie Gendimenico
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)
2
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and Improvement
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)
his document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction Quality.
Points of view or opinions stated in this docu-ment do not necessarily represent officialOERI position or policy.
Cuggiculum on Women in Contempogagy India:rl multidiciplinary and historical approach
in fulfilment of the project requirement of the Fulbright-Hays Seminars Abroad Program
Ron WolfsonThe Chapin SchoolNew York City
Ron Wolfson1642 York Ave.Apt. 4FNew York, N.Y.
10028(212) 744-4431
Internet: [email protected]
3
Women in Contemporary India
The purpose of this one semester course is to take a mulitidisciplinary approach to thestudy of women in contemporary India. The course will use historical texts, biographies,scholarly works, novels, short stories, poems, and film as a means of exploring the subjectmatter. In order to properly understand the role of women in modern India the course willlook at the traditional role of women over the millennium as well as the place of women inthe major religions of India.
There will be two tests and two papers for this course. The first test will cover thehistorical and religious background which is discussed during the first month of thecourse. The second test will cover the time period between the British Raj and the rule ofRajiv Gandhi. The first paper will be the analysis of a piece of literature written by anIndian woman or about Indian women. There will also be an oral presentation. The otherpaper will be a research paper dealing with an issue concerning women in contemporaryIndia.
The reading assignments which are listed on the syllabus are a guide to how ateacher might wish to cover the course. The assigned reading listed on this syllabus,including the assigned novels, comes to nearly 1,000 pages. Obviously a teacher wouldneed to select which reading assignments he or she feels would best suit his or her class.Copies of chapters from the main texts and literature are provided to give teachers an ideaof the level and depth of some of the suggested readings.
This course is designed as an elective at an academically demanding private school.The schedule which follows is designed to follow the calendar ofmost schools of this typewith the first semester ending prior to winter break. The schedule, as well as topics, tests,papers, and reading assignments will need to be adapted to the needs of many differenttypes of schools, though the level of reading will necessarily be demanding.
Main TextsBumiller, Elisabeth May You Be the Mother of a Hundred Sons: A Journey Among the
Women of India, New York, Penguin Books, 1990.Madhavananda, Swami and Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra, editors, Great Women of India,
Calcutta, Ashram Advaita Publishers, 1993.Mitter, Sara S., Dharma's Daughters, India, Penguin Books, 1992.Wolpert, Stanley, A New History of India, 4th ed , Oxford, Oxford University Press,
1993.
Main Works of LiteratureDeshpande, Shashi, The Intrusion and Other Stories., India, Penguin Books, 1993.Jhabvala, Ruth Prawar, The Householder, New York, W.W. Norton, 1960.Markandaya, Kamala, Nectar in a Seive, New York, Penguin Books, 1982.
4
Women in Comtemporary India 2
Supplemental TextsAjgaonkar, Sri. Meghshyam T., editor, Mahatama: A Golden Treasury of Wisdom- -
Thoughts and Glimpses of a Life, Hripra Publication, Mumbai, 1995.Altekar, A.S., The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass,
1983Bader, Clarisse, WomeniaAncientindia, Dehli, Anmol Pub., 1987.Batliwala, Srilantha, "Empowerment and Women's Autonomy" from the Co-ordination
Unit, Bangalore, World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995, the Center forReproductive Law and Policy
Burton, Sir Richard F., ThtKamaSutranfiatasyana, London, Penguin Books, 1962.Chattopadhyay, Kamladevi, Indian Women's Battle for Freedom, Dehli, Abhinav Pub.,
1983.Fishlock, Trevor, India File, New Delhi, Rupa & Co., 1983.Jain, Devaki, editor, Indian Women, Delhi, Publications Division, New Delhi, 1975.
Women's Quest for Power, Vikas Pub., New Delhi, 1980.Jensen, Anne Furgeson, India: It's Culture and People, Longman Publishing Group, New
York, 1991.Johnson, Donald J., Johnson, Jean E., and Clark, Leon E., ThEnughindianly&s, t.
Edition, New York, CITE Books, Apex Press, 1992.Nagaraja, Bhargavi, "Reproductive Rights: Women Against the Politics ofCoercion" from
the Co-ordination Unit, Bangalore, World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995,the Center for Reproductive Law and Policy
Phadnis, Urmila and Malani, Indira, editors, Women of the World, New Delhi, Vikas Pub.,
1978.Rastogi, Veera, "Strengths and Limitations of the Laws as Pertaining to Women:
Amiocentesis and other Laws" from the Co-ordination Unit, Bangalore, WorldConference on Women, Beijing 1995, the Center for Reproductive Law and Policy
Sen, Gita, "Population Policies and Women's Health- -The Shifting Boundaries" from theCo-ordination Unit, Bangalore, World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995, theCenter for Reproductive Law and Policy
Smith, Huston, The Religions of Man, New York, Harper and Row, 1958.Waterstone, Richard, India, Little, Brown and Company, London, 1995.
SupplemcntaLWarklnfliteraturtDesai, Anita, Clear Light of Day, New York, Penguin Books, 1980.Jhabvala, Ruth Prawer, Esmondininclia, London, Penguin Books, 1958.Jhabvala, Ruth Prawer, Heat and Dust, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1975.
5
Women in Comtemporary India 3
Unit I: Historical India: Empire and Religion
SeptemberWeek 1: The Harrapan and AryansReading: Wolpert, "Indus Culture" (pps. 14-23)
"The Aryan Age" (pps. 24-36)Week 2: Hinduism and BuddhismReading: Wolpert, "North Indian Conquest and Unification" (pps. 37-54)
Waterstone, "Renunciation" (pps. 26-39)"The Forms of Vishnu" (pps. 46-62)
Nihshreyasananda, "Great Women in the Ramayana" from Great Women inIndia (pps. 140-168)
Week 3: Buddhism and the Mauryan EmpireReading: Dutt, "Great Women in Buddhism" from Great Women in India (pps. 253-274)
Wolpert, "India's First Imperial Unification" (pps. 55-69)Week 4: Islam and the Muslim InvasionReading: Wolpert, "The Impact of Islam" (pps. 104-125)
"Great Moghul Glory" (pps. 149-167)Mirza, "Great Muslim Women of Inda" from Great Women in India (pps.378-
394)Test: Indian Empires and Religions
Unit II: Contemporary India:The Raj to the Present
OctoberWeek 1: The British in IndiaReading: Wolpert, "The New Moghals" (pps.201-225)
"Indian Nationalism--The First Movement" (pps. 250-264)Mukerjee, Satswarupananda, Pillai, and Rao "Great Indian Woman of the 19th
Century" from Great Women in India (pps.395-413)Week 2: The Age of GandhiReading: Wolpert, "Toward Independence" (pps. 310-328)
"The Impact of World War Two" (pps. 329-350)Ajgaonkar, Mahatama: A Golden Treasury of Wisdom--Thoughts and Glimpses
of a Life (selected readings)Week 3: The Age of Indira GandhiReading: Wolpert, "From Collective Leadership to Indira Gandhi" (pps. 371-406)
"From Janata Rav to Rajiv Gandhi" (pps. 407-433)Bumiller, "'Indira is India, and India is Indira': Mrs. Gandhi and Her Legacy for
Indian Women in Politics" (pps. 147-178)Test: The British Empire and the Gandhi Raj
6
Women in Comtemporary India 4
Unit III: Women in Contemporary Indian Literature
Week 4: Indian short stories
Reading: Deshpande, "The Intrusion"(pps. 34-42)"An Antidote To Boredom" (pps. 61-69)
"The Stone Woman" (pps. 141-146)
"The Cruelty Game" (pps. 122-132)
"The First Lady" (pps. 1-8)
Paper assignment given on Monday
Week 5: Indian novelsReading: Jhabvala, The Householder
NovemberWeek 1: Indian novelsReading: Markandaya, Necter in the Sieve
Week 2: Oral Presentation of paper assignments
Reading: NonePaper due: Monday
Unit IV: Women in Contemporary India
Week 3: Dharma's DaughtersReading: Mitter, "Female Prowess: Shakti" (pps. 71-80)
"The Epic Wife" (pps. 91-98)
"Only a Female" (pps.109-122)"To Change Your Own Life" (pps. 123-136)
"A Four-Thousand-Year-Old History" (pps.165-176)
Week 4: Village LifeReading: Bumiller, "Beyond the Veil: The Woman of the Village of Khajuron" (pps. 75-
100)Fishlock, "Girl for ardent boy" (pps. 20-43)
Film: To be announcedDecemberWeek 1: Modem Women in India
Reading: Mitter, "The Woman's Compartment" (pps. 13-24)
"The Hazards ofHomemaking" (pps. 25-36)
"Ingredients of Everyday Life" (pps. 55-70)
Bumiller, "Her Own Place in the Sun: A Professional Woman and a Housewife"
(pps. 230-256)"Poets and Revolutionaries: Three Women in Calcutta" (pps.201-229)
Week 2: Major Issues for Women in India
Reading: Bumiller, "Wedding First, Love Later: Arranged Marriage Among the
Educated Class" (pps. 24-43)"Flames: A Bride Burning and Sati" (pps.44-74)
"No More Little Girls: Female Infanticide" (pps. 101-124)
"Towards Equality: The Indian's Women Movement" (pps. 125-146)
7
Women in Comtemporary India 5
Week 3: Major Issues for Women in IndiaPaper due on FridayReading: Mitter, "Careless Daughter" (pps. 153-165)
"The Collective Venture" (pps. 137-152)Sen, "Population Policies and Women's Health- -The Shifting Boundaries"
8
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mal
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109
viii
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s
PAR
T T
HR
EE
12.
To
Cha
nge
You
r O
wn
Lif
e
13.
The
Col
lect
ive
Ven
ture
14.
Car
eles
s D
augh
ters
15. A
Fou
r-T
hous
and-
Yea
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ldH
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ry
Cod
a
Not
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liogr
aphy
Inde
x
12
123
137
153
165
177
181
187
rpr
CA
RE
LE
SS D
AU
GH
TE
RS
Ris
e up
, ye
wom
en th
at a
re a
t eas
e!H
ear
my
voic
e, y
e ca
rele
ss d
augh
ters
!
Isai
ah 3
2:9
Tar
a's
driv
erca
me
for
us a
t fou
r-th
irty
p.m
. Iw
as g
oing
tote
a w
ith m
y fr
iend
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ela
and
her g
reat
-aun
t to
mee
t Tar
a,Sh
eela
's n
ew c
ousi
n by
mar
riag
e.B
ecau
se it
wou
ld b
e hi
ghte
a in
som
eone
's h
ome,
in th
eco
mpa
ny o
f an
aug
ust e
lder
lyla
dy, I
wor
e a
sari
. The
thre
eof
us,
all
star
ched
cot
ton
bil-
low
s, s
quee
zed
into
the
back
seat
of
the
Am
bass
ador
, the
stou
t Ind
ian
auto
mob
ile d
esig
ned
for
dura
bilit
y, n
ot c
omfo
rt.
"Why
she
did
n't s
end
the
Mer
cede
s,"
the
grea
t-au
nt m
ut-
tere
d to
her
self
.W
e w
ere
hand
ed s
moo
thly
fro
mdr
iver
to d
oorm
an to
ele
-va
tor
atte
ndan
t to
the
unif
orm
edm
aid
who
ope
ned
the
mas
-si
ve c
arve
d m
ahog
any
door
of
the
tent
h-fl
oor
apar
tmen
t. W
est
eppe
d al
ong
a pl
ant-
lined
,m
arbl
e-pa
ved
entr
y ha
ll hu
ngw
ith f
ram
ed a
nd il
lum
inat
edM
oghu
l min
iatu
res.
Reg
gae
rock
mus
ic w
as c
omin
gou
t of
the
wal
ls.
"Lov
ely
to s
ee y
ou!"
Ast
atue
sque
wom
an c
ame
forw
ard,
her
dark
hai
r pi
led
in a
hig
h to
pkno
t lik
ea
Bod
hisa
ttva
scul
ptur
e. S
he w
as w
eari
nga
rum
pled
, im
pecc
ably
whi
teco
wl-
neck
shi
rt a
nd c
otto
ntr
ouse
rs, e
xpor
t man
ufac
ture
rs'
14
t k,:
;
154
Dha
rma'
s D
augh
ters
seco
nds
that
haw
kers
sel
l on
the
side
wal
kou
tsid
e th
e- m
u-se
um. S
he'd
got
it, s
he to
ld m
e la
ter,
for
thir
ty r
upee
s (l
ess
than
two
dolla
rs);
she
'dha
rd-b
arga
ined
him
dow
n. F
or a
cces
-so
ries
, she
wor
e ha
lf a
pou
nd o
f so
lidgo
ld je
wel
ry: h
eavy
chok
er, b
road
ban
gles
and
ear
clip
s of
fre
tted
two-
tone
gol
d,an
d tw
o si
mila
rly
patte
rned
rin
gs o
n he
r ri
ght h
and.
Her
wed
ding
rin
g w
as f
our
band
s of
sm
all m
atch
ed d
iam
onds
.W
ith a
pea
rl-p
olis
hed
fing
erna
il sh
e sw
itche
d of
f th
e st
ereo
.H
er o
ther
arm
hel
d he
r fo
ur-m
onth
-old
daug
hter
.Fo
r th
e w
hole
leng
th o
f th
e vi
sit,
hove
red
over
by
cook
,m
aid,
and
nan
ny a
nd p
unct
uate
dby
arr
ival
s of
var
ious
del
iv-
ery
boys
, Tar
a di
d no
t put
the
baby
dow
n. S
he in
stal
led
her-
self
nex
t to
her
husb
and'
sA
unty
and
atte
nded
ass
iduo
usly
toth
e el
dest
gue
st, w
hile
She
ela
and
I to
oka
stro
ll ar
ound
the
vast
livi
ng r
oom
. The
trip
lepi
ctur
e w
indo
w c
omm
ande
d a
wid
e-sc
reen
vie
w o
f ot
her
luxu
ry a
part
men
t bui
ldin
gs, c
on-
stru
ctio
n w
orke
rs' s
hant
ies,
a w
ashe
rmen
'sco
lony
, the
bay
,an
d th
eop
en s
ea. T
he r
oom
was
fur
nish
ed w
ith a
ntiq
ues
and
bron
zes,
the
wal
ls a
gal
lery
of
anci
ent a
ndco
ntem
pora
ry I
n-di
an a
rt.
Aft
er a
few
min
utes
, we
wer
e ca
lled
into
the
dini
ng r
oom
and
seat
ed a
t one
end
of
the
form
ally
laid
tabl
e. T
ara
settl
edth
e ba
by o
n he
r la
p an
dsu
perv
ised
the
serv
ing
of te
a an
dpl
atef
uls
of m
ini-
keba
bs, v
eget
able
fri
tters
,ch
ickp
eas
insa
uce,
chu
tney
s, f
ruit
pudd
ing,
milk
sw
eets
, cak
es. W
e fe
llto
, usi
ng th
e he
avy
ster
ling
silv
er s
ervi
ce. T
ara
fed
hers
elf
with
the
fing
ers
of h
erri
ght h
and,
in th
e tr
aditi
onal
man
ner.
In h
er c
ultu
red
Bri
tish
acce
nt, s
he e
xpre
ssed
her
reg
ret t
hat
her
step
child
ren
wer
e no
t at
hom
egon
e to
the
dub
for
swim
min
g an
d te
nnis
. She
spo
ke f
eelin
gly
of th
eun
heal
thy
mat
eria
lism
of
the
othe
r ch
ildre
n in
thei
r ex
clus
ive s
choo
l, th
elo
ss o
f tr
aditi
ons,
the
decl
ine
of v
alue
s.Sh
e al
lude
d to
her
trav
els
to P
aris
and
New
Yor
k an
das
sure
d us
that
"A
mer
i-ca
ns a
re n
ot a
war
e of
any
thin
g ou
tsid
e th
eir
own
subu
rb."
We
got
up f
rom
the
tabl
e to
res
ettle
in th
e liv
ing
room
and
dige
st f
or a
whi
le. T
ara
rem
arke
d th
at in
this
unbe
arab
ly h
otw
eath
er s
he f
ortu
nate
ly d
id n
otev
er h
ave
to s
tep
out o
f th
eap
artm
ent:
Not
eve
n in
the
air-
cond
ition
edM
erce
des,
I th
ough
t. I
knew
that
Vir
aj, t
he b
usin
ess
mag
nate
who
m s
he m
arri
ed
CA
RE
LE
SS D
AU
GH
TE
RS
155
just
a y
ear
ago,
was
not
qui
te a
s fa
bulo
usly
ric
h as
her
for
mer
husb
and,
but
cer
tain
ly a
saf
er in
vest
men
t tha
n th
e ro
man
ticpo
lo p
laye
r w
ith w
hom
she
had
enj
oyed
the
esca
pade
that
fini
shed
off
her
fir
st m
arri
age.
I th
ough
t of
one
or tw
o of
my
own
frie
nds
who
wal
k a
fine
line
and
thri
ve o
n pr
ovoc
atio
n.T
ara
won
han
ds d
own.
The
glo
ssy
Bom
bay
mag
azin
es c
all t
hem
the
glitt
erat
im
oney
ed, a
rrog
ant w
omen
and
men
for
who
m th
ere
are
no li
mits
. Evi
dent
ly, o
ne h
as a
sen
se o
f ou
trag
e. T
he c
oars
e-fe
atur
ed, h
eavi
ly m
ade-
up, o
bese
wom
an in
a c
hiff
on s
ari
wad
dlin
g do
wn
the
step
s of
the
Taj
Mah
al H
otel
is r
epul
sive
to lo
ok a
t. H
er a
bdom
en a
nd f
labb
y si
des
hang
in d
ewla
ps:
the
sari
was
not
mea
nt to
wra
p so
muc
h m
eat.
Mor
al r
evul
-si
on f
ollo
ws
clos
ely
on th
e ph
ysic
al. T
he a
bjec
t wre
tche
dnes
sal
l aro
und
mak
es th
e co
ntem
ptuo
us in
diff
eren
ce o
f th
e su
per-
rich
mor
e re
preh
ensi
ble.
The
vie
w f
rom
thei
r pr
otec
ted
eyri
eis
too
squa
lid; t
he b
itter
toil
of th
e m
any,
om
nipr
esen
t.A
mag
azin
e re
port
s an
exh
ibiti
on-s
ale
of a
rty
orig
inal
T-s
hirt
s pa
inte
d in
one
-of-
a-ki
nd d
esig
ns, s
old
out i
n on
eho
ur a
t 2,5
00 r
upee
s ea
ch. R
ock-
and-
roll
fash
ion
show
s ar
eja
mm
ed; l
ines
for
m a
t gla
mor
ous
rest
aura
nts
that
coy
ly h
int
at W
este
rn n
augh
tines
s"M
énag
e a
Tro
is"
feat
ures
"sm
all-
is-b
eaut
iful
des
igne
r m
eals
, com
pose
d of
an
intr
igui
ng s
elec
-tio
n of
bef
ores
and
aft
ers.
"M
ost B
omba
y-ba
sed
mag
azin
es, e
ven
thos
e ai
med
at t
hesw
ingi
ng h
edon
ist,
carr
y a
som
ber
artic
le o
r tw
o on
con
di-
tions
aff
ectin
g th
e va
st m
ajor
ity. B
ut th
e in
augu
ral i
ssue
of
apu
blic
atio
n la
unch
ed in
198
7 an
d pu
rpor
ting
to "
tell
all"
abou
t wha
t goe
s on
in th
e m
egac
ity, f
rank
ly d
ispe
nsed
with
any
toke
n pi
ece
on d
rear
y to
pics
like
slu
ms,
pol
lutio
n, o
r ci
vic
irre
spon
sibi
lity.
Tha
t is
all s
impl
y pa
rt o
f th
e fo
lklo
re, t
heto
ugh
char
m th
at a
dds
spic
e to
livi
ng h
ere.
Ter
ribl
e, y
es, b
utw
hat t
o do
? O
ne is
not
a s
ocia
l wor
ker.
Snid
e ar
ticle
s an
d le
tters
lam
poon
ed th
e ce
lebr
ated
act
ress
who
join
ed a
hun
ger
stri
ke o
f sl
um d
wel
lers
who
se h
uts
had
been
raz
ed a
nd n
o al
tern
ativ
e si
te p
ropo
sed
by th
e lo
cal g
ov-
ernm
ent.
"Let
her
set
tle th
em in
her
com
poun
d at
Juh
u [t
hesu
burb
of
the
star
s],"
the
uppe
r m
iddl
e cl
ass
snif
fed
and
dis-
mis
sed
the
topi
c. T
he p
robl
em w
ould
hav
e go
ne a
way
, the
yfe
lt, if
the
actr
ess
had
not t
urne
d it
into
a p
ublic
ity s
tunt
.
1G
7
156
Dha
rma'
s D
augh
ters
For
the
outs
ider
, the
inev
itabl
e se
nse
of o
utra
ge is
like
ash
ot o
f ad
rena
lin a
t fir
st. I
t can
go
stal
e an
d ev
entu
ally
res
olve
into
a s
elf-
prot
ectiv
e ir
ony.
The
pro
blem
s ar
een
orm
ous,
and
the
nativ
e ap
titud
e fo
r de
nial
and
dis
soci
atio
n m
akes
itpo
s-si
ble
to k
eep
from
bei
ng o
verw
helm
ed. I
fyo
u liv
ed h
ere,
wha
t wou
ld y
ou d
o?Fo
r so
me,
the
wor
k of
mot
her,
wif
e, a
nd h
ome
man
ager
isno
t onl
y fu
ll-tim
e, b
ut it
has
als
o ta
ken
on n
ew a
nd s
urpr
isin
gdi
men
sion
s. A
Bom
bay
read
er w
rote
to a
wom
en's
col
umn
inT
he T
imes
of
Indi
a:
My
mot
her
had
to b
e ju
st "
mot
her.
" Sh
e w
as .t
here
to te
nd to
my
crea
ture
com
fort
s an
d w
orry
abo
ut m
y w
ell-
bein
g. I
hav
eto
be
a fr
iend
, gui
de a
nd c
ritic
to m
y ch
ildre
nmee
t the
irte
ache
rs, t
ake
them
for
sw
imm
ing
less
ons;
med
iate
bet
wee
nth
em a
nd th
eir
papa
,abo
ut lo
ng h
air
and
fade
d je
ans.
I m
ust b
ega
me
to g
o on
pic
nics
, str
uggl
ing
into
my
too
tight
jean
s; c
ook
for
an a
rmy
of m
y so
n's
frie
nds
who
dec
ide
to s
tay
and
wat
cha
mov
ie o
n vi
deo;
sta
nd in
at r
ehea
rsal
s of
jam
ses
sion
s, a
ndsu
ccum
b to
ent
reat
ies
to b
e a
darl
ing
mom
and
mak
e Fr
ench
frie
s af
ter
a ha
rd d
ay's
wor
k.
Add
a s
alar
ied
job
or p
rofe
ssio
n to
the
prog
ram
mor
eba
lls to
jugg
le a
nd th
e ad
ded
guilt
abo
ut g
ivin
gsh
ort s
hrif
t to
one'
s ro
les
as m
othe
r an
d ho
mem
aker
. Wom
en w
ithpr
o-fe
ssio
ns m
ay m
ask
thei
r en
thus
iasm
and
take
care
not
tom
anif
est a
str
ong
com
mitm
ent t
o th
eir
"out
side
" w
ork.
The
yar
e, a
fter
all,
the
prod
uct o
f an
edu
catio
n th
at h
as p
uta
pre-
miu
m o
n do
cilit
y an
d pe
rfor
man
ce a
nd s
yste
mat
ical
ly d
is-
cour
aged
ori
gina
l thi
nkin
g an
d pe
rson
al in
itiat
ive.
The
sch
ool
unif
orm
s th
at a
re s
till w
orn,
reg
ulat
ed d
own
to th
e ve
ry c
olor
of th
e el
astic
bin
ding
one
's b
raid
s,ar
e em
blem
atic
of
the
uni-
form
ity s
ough
t. G
reat
chu
nks
of b
iolo
gyar
e le
arne
d by
rot
e,w
ith a
ll th
e L
atin
nom
encl
atur
e an
d pe
rfec
tly c
opie
ddi
a-gr
ams,
and
reg
urgi
tate
d in
fre
quen
t exa
ms.
Vic
tori
an a
tti-
tude
s pr
evai
l. T
he "
hom
e sc
ienc
e" te
ache
r ca
utio
nsyo
ung
ladi
es n
ot to
touc
h an
y pa
rt o
f th
eir
pers
on w
hile
pre
pari
ngfo
od. T
he p
oetr
y te
ache
r m
arks
the
beat
as th
e cl
ass
belts
out
in u
niso
n "T
he b
oy s
tood
on
the
bur-
ning
dec
k."
Bri
ght g
irls
wor
k fa
ithfu
lly a
nd e
arn
high
mar
ks; t
hen
are
adm
itted
tosc
ienc
e fa
culti
es w
here
they
kee
p at
it, l
ivin
g in
sing
le c
ells
in
CA
RE
LE
SS D
AU
GH
TE
RS
157
wom
en's
hos
tels
. Mea
nwhi
le, t
heir
fam
ilies
beg
in p
uttin
g ou
tfe
eler
s fo
r co
mm
ensu
rate
mat
es.
A s
urve
y of
pos
tgra
duat
e sc
ienc
e de
gree
hol
ders
mad
e in
the
late
197
os e
xam
ined
thes
e w
omen
's m
otiv
atio
n fo
r se
lf-
grow
th a
nd p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent a
nd th
eir
view
s of
thei
r ro
le a
s sc
ient
ific
wor
kers
in r
elat
ion
to o
ther
rol
es.'
Fort
ype
rcen
t of
the
wom
en w
ere
unm
arri
ed. M
ost o
f th
ose
who
wer
e vo
lunt
arily
not
em
ploy
ed w
ere
mar
ried
with
you
ngch
ildre
n. T
hey
plac
ed a
hig
h va
lue
on s
tayi
ng a
t hom
e,ev
enw
hen
ther
e w
ere
dom
estic
hel
pers
or
gran
dpar
ents
in th
eho
useh
old.
One
top
grad
uate
fel
t tha
t "a
wom
an s
houl
dw
ork
only
if h
er h
usba
nd d
oes
not e
arn
enou
gh o
r if
her
fam
-ily
nee
ds m
oney
for
her
mar
riag
e ex
pens
es."
All
thos
e w
ho w
ere
not w
orki
ng a
gree
d th
at s
cien
tific
trai
n-in
g en
cour
aged
cri
tical
aw
aren
ess
and
clai
med
they
kep
t up
with
thei
r fi
eld.
Yet
with
out e
xcep
tion,
they
bel
ieve
d in
des
-tin
y (k
arm
a). M
any
obse
rved
fas
ts, v
ows,
or
ritu
al ta
boos
.Sc
ienc
e, th
ey f
elt,
may
exp
lain
nat
ural
eve
nts,
but
ther
e is
apo
wer
of
dest
iny
beyo
nd h
uman
com
preh
ensi
on a
nd c
ontr
ol.
The
wom
en s
urve
yed
had
rece
ived
mas
ter's
or d
octo
ral d
e-gr
ees
in th
e la
te 1
96os
or
earl
y 19
70s.
You
nger
wom
en, b
orn
at le
ast a
dec
ade
late
r, p
lace
hig
her
prio
rity
on b
oth
prof
es-
sion
al a
nd p
erso
nal d
evel
opm
ent.
Mos
t of
them
com
e fr
omed
ucat
ed a
nd s
uppo
rtiv
e fa
mili
es. M
any
have
bee
n af
fect
edby
the
wom
en's
mov
emen
t.Y
et, t
o su
rviv
e in
a p
rofe
ssio
n w
here
men
mak
e th
e ru
les,
aw
oman
may
lean
ove
r ba
ckw
ards
to e
mul
ate
mal
e co
lleag
ues
and
diss
ocia
tehe
rsel
f fr
om a
nyth
ing
that
sm
acks
of
"wom
en's
pro
blem
s."
No
less
a m
odel
than
Ind
ira
Gan
dhi
did
the
sam
e. I
ndir
a, a
s th
e st
ory
goes
, too
k it
as a
com
pli-
men
t to
be d
ubbe
d "t
he o
nly
man
in h
er c
abin
et."
Onc
e es
tabl
ishe
d in
a p
ositi
on o
f re
lativ
e au
thor
ity,
aw
oman
can
be
brut
al in
her
way
of
exer
cisi
ng it
. Phy
sici
ans
who
run
ste
riliz
atio
n "c
amps
"all-
day
cut-
and-
tiem
ara-
thon
s w
ith q
uota
s to
mee
twor
k w
itha
chill
ing
disr
egar
dfo
r th
eir
patie
nts
as in
divi
dual
s. I
na
cour
t cas
e br
ough
t by
new
ly r
ecru
ited
youn
g ho
spita
l nur
ses
who
had
bee
nco
m-
pelle
d ill
egal
ly to
und
ergo
vir
gini
ty te
sts,
it e
mer
ged
that
the
proc
edur
e us
ed, t
he m
ost p
ainf
ul a
nd in
vasi
ve m
etho
d, h
adbe
en im
pose
d by
a w
oman
doc
tor.
'1
8
19
158
Dha
rma'
s D
augh
ters
Such
indi
vidu
als
are
not a
pt to
ally
them
selv
es w
ithw
omen
col
leag
ues
or w
omen
's c
ause
s. T
heir
inte
rest
s lie
inm
aint
aini
ng th
e st
atus
quo
and
thei
r ow
n pr
ivile
ges
in it
. Thi
sis
the
case
for
man
y of
the
wom
en w
ho h
old
polit
ical
off
ice.
Tho
se w
ho h
ave
been
tapp
ed to
run
for
par
liam
ent b
y th
em
ale-
dom
inat
edpo
litic
alpa
rtie
s ar
e ve
ry o
ften
wiv
es,
wid
ows,
or
daug
hter
s-in
-law
of
pow
erfu
l mal
e po
litic
ians
. Afe
w w
omen
pol
itici
ans
on th
e le
ft id
entif
y th
emse
lves
with
wom
en's
pro
test
and
act
ivel
y ca
mpa
ign,
rat
her
than
sim
ply
prop
agat
ing
the
part
y lin
e. B
ut th
e re
st a
re la
rgel
y fr
omup
per-
cast
e la
nd-o
wni
ng o
r in
dust
rial
ist f
amili
es; s
ome
are
desc
enda
nts
of th
e ol
d pr
ince
ly h
ouse
s. F
ew h
ave
a po
lit-
ical
pro
gram
or
pers
pect
ive,
and
thei
r al
legi
ance
sar
e cl
ear.
Polit
ics
is ju
st a
n ex
tens
ion
of f
amily
bus
ines
s.A
nd th
en, t
here
are
the
mav
eric
kslu
cid,
pri
ncip
led,
in-
depe
nden
t, th
e ve
ry a
ntith
esis
of
a bo
urge
oise
mah
aran
i lik
eT
ara,
thou
gh g
ener
ally
issu
ing
from
the
sam
e pr
ivile
ged
clas
s. T
hey
are
true
ori
gina
ls, w
hose
onl
y re
sem
blan
ce to
one
anot
her
is in
the
pass
iona
te c
onvi
ctio
n ea
ch b
ring
s to
her
wor
k an
d th
e re
lativ
e si
mpl
icity
in w
hich
eac
h on
e liv
es.
One
who
has
a r
edou
btab
le r
eput
atio
n is
Mad
hu K
ishw
ar.
"I'm
a m
ule,
bor
n to
be
a m
ule
in a
hum
an b
ody,
"sa
ys th
efo
unde
r an
d ed
itor
of th
e pa
th-b
reak
ing
jour
nal M
anus
hi.
Stro
ngly
opp
osed
to s
tate
inte
rven
tion
even
in th
ena
me
ofso
cial
ref
orm
, Mad
hu f
eels
that
the
purp
ose
ofan
y so
cial
actio
n is
to c
reat
e sp
ace
for
mor
e hu
man
e no
rms
for
deal
ing
with
peo
ple
in g
ener
al, a
nd w
omen
in p
artic
ular
. Hig
hly
ar-
ticul
ate
and
quic
k to
spe
ak h
er m
ind,
Mad
hu, w
ho h
as b
een
ahu
man
rig
hts
activ
ist s
ince
her
stu
dent
day
s, r
efus
es a
llla
bels
, inc
ludi
ng th
at o
f fe
min
ist.
She
isw
ary
of th
eori
zing
and
rom
antic
izin
g ab
out a
str
uggl
e th
at p
roce
eds
thro
ugh
shee
r dr
udge
ry a
nd r
epea
ted
setb
acks
. "It
'san
epo
chal
stru
ggle
, but
it h
as to
be
done
. Our
exi
sten
ce, M
anus
hi's
exi
s-te
nce
are
a ch
alle
ngew
e ar
e liv
ing
that
cha
lleng
eev
ery
day.
"A
noth
er is
Nilo
ufer
Bha
gwat
, a f
ireb
rand
atto
rney
who
sepr
actic
e th
rive
s in
Bom
bay.
Her
hus
band
is p
oste
d in
New
Del
hi. T
his
mak
es f
or a
com
mut
ing
mar
riag
e;on
e te
enag
ech
ild s
tays
with
eac
h pa
rent
. Nilo
ufer
fee
ls th
at o
nly
sinc
e th
em
id-1
98os
hav
e w
omen
's is
sues
com
e to
the
fore
. "T
he f
ailu
re
CA
RE
LE
SS D
AU
GH
TE
RS
159
of r
anki
ng w
omen
in th
e po
litic
al p
artie
s w
as to
tal.
The
ir a
tti-
tude
was
sup
erfi
cial
, pat
roni
zing
as if
thes
e w
ere
char
ity is
-su
es. N
o on
e w
as p
ayin
g at
tent
ion
to th
e m
agni
tude
of
wom
en's
con
trib
utio
n to
the
basi
c ec
onom
ic u
nit o
f so
ciet
y,th
e ho
useh
old.
"A
cces
s to
lega
l aid
in B
omba
y ha
s gr
eatly
impr
oved
,N
ilouf
er f
eels
, but
a w
oman
who
see
ks d
ivor
ce is
in a
ver
ysh
aky
stat
e. S
he h
as n
o ec
onom
ic s
ecur
ity. S
he is
terr
ifie
dab
out g
oing
to a
cou
rt o
f la
w a
gain
st h
er o
wn
husb
and.
"Man
y of
the
wom
en w
ho c
ome
to m
e ar
e su
ffer
ing
from
de-
pres
sion
, and
no
won
der.
The
who
le e
thos
is th
at y
our
life
begi
ns a
nd e
nds
with
mar
riag
e. I
t doe
sn't
mat
ter
if y
ou d
on't
know
wha
t it i
s to
ste
p ou
t of
your
hom
e an
d at
tend
a m
eet-
ing,
if y
ou h
ave
not k
now
n ev
en tw
enty
-fou
r ho
urs
of h
ap-
pine
ss. Y
our
exis
tenc
e is
mea
nt f
or y
our
husb
and
and
child
reny
ou h
ave
no r
ight
to e
xist
as
an in
divi
dual
."N
ilouf
er v
iew
s th
e co
urt p
roce
edin
gs a
s an
opp
ortu
nity
for
a w
oman
to s
ee h
ow a
bra
nch
of th
e st
ate
func
tions
vis
-à-v
ishe
r ow
n lif
e. "
I te
ll m
y cl
ient
, 'Y
ou a
nd I
are
con
fron
ting
not
only
you
r hu
sban
d w
ho is
a p
rodu
ct o
f th
is s
ocie
ty, b
ut a
lso
the
stat
e, w
hich
thin
ks th
at w
e sh
ould
not
be
com
ing
here
toai
r ou
r w
oes.
' The
wom
an m
ust b
e le
d to
que
stio
n: W
hat d
oes
this
inst
itutio
n re
pres
ent?
Who
app
oint
s th
e ju
dge?
Wha
t are
his
bias
es?
Thi
s m
ust b
e an
edu
catio
nal e
xper
ienc
e fo
r th
ecl
ient
. An
atto
rney
sho
uld
neve
r ta
ke th
e at
titud
e th
at th
is is
ach
arita
ble
exer
cise
."A
sen
ior
wom
an c
olle
ague
had
rec
ently
app
eare
d on
beh
alf
of a
Par
si w
oman
who
ask
ed, a
s pa
rt o
f he
r di
vorc
e se
ttle-
men
t, th
at th
e ap
artm
ent w
here
she
had
live
d w
ith h
er h
us-
band
be
divi
ded
in tw
o, w
ith s
epar
ate
entr
ies.
Oth
erw
ise
she
wou
ld b
e on
the
stre
et. T
he o
lder
law
yer
hesi
tate
d. "
Whe
re is
the
prec
eden
t for
this
?" s
he a
sked
."W
e ar
e to
evo
lve
the
prec
eden
ts,"
Nilo
ufer
rep
lied.
"T
hat
is w
hat w
e ar
e he
re f
or. O
ur p
art o
f th
e st
rugg
le, i
n th
e le
gal
prof
essi
on, i
s to
cre
ate
the
conc
epts
, est
ablis
h th
e pr
ece-
dent
s."
Nilo
ufer
's d
octo
ral d
egre
e is
in a
dmin
istr
ativ
e ju
risp
ru-
denc
e. H
er a
dditi
onal
cas
eloa
d as
a w
omen
's r
ight
s ad
voca
teis
exh
aust
ing.
Aft
er a
per
iod
of il
l hea
lth in
298
7, s
he c
onsi
d-er
ed c
urta
iling
this
act
ivity
for
a w
hile
. But
a le
tter
from
her
71-
11.4
0 -4
15-
16o
Dha
rma'
s D
augh
ters
sixt
een-
year
-old
son
ral
lied
her.
"Ma,
" he
wro
te, "
don'
t be
ado
rman
t vol
cano
."
"My
husb
and
is a
n ex
ecut
ive
who
wor
ks in
fiv
e-st
ar h
otel
s.I
wor
k on
fiv
e-st
ar c
onst
ruct
ion
site
s."
So s
peak
s In
du B
alag
opal
,w
ith h
er e
loqu
ent s
mile
. We
have
just
ste
pped
out
of a
teem
ing
crec
he, a
sla
pped
toge
ther
bric
k ca
bin
roof
ed w
ithm
etal
she
etin
g. "
The
fiv
e- a
ndsi
x-ye
ar-o
lds
here
are
old
han
dsat
Bom
bay
life,
" In
du r
emar
ks.
"Vid
eo c
ultu
re, a
lcoh
ol, e
very
thin
g.A
for
eign
vis
itor
does
n't
caus
e m
any
head
s to
turn
. But
if I
took
you
to o
ne o
f ou
r si
tes
in th
e su
burb
s, w
here
the
wor
kers
are
raw
rec
ruits
fro
m th
evi
llage
the
child
ren
wou
ldst
art t
o cr
y at
the
sigh
t of
you.
"In
du, a
phy
sici
an, i
s th
e pr
ime
mov
er o
f M
obile
Cre
ches
inB
omba
y (d
escr
ibed
' in
Cha
pter
5). B
ut s
he h
erse
lf a
ttrib
utes
the
orig
inal
ity a
nd s
tren
gth
of th
e op
erat
ion
to it
s st
aff
ofte
ache
rs a
nd c
rech
e w
orke
rs, w
hoar
e dr
awn
from
the
low
erm
iddl
e da
ss. T
hese
wom
en m
ay h
ave
only
a p
rim
ary
scho
oled
ucat
ion
and
no w
ork
expe
rien
ce. T
hey
com
e fr
om m
odes
t,tr
aditi
onal
ly o
rien
ted
fam
ilies
,an
d th
ey n
eed
an in
com
e. A
one-
year
trai
ning
cou
rse,
in th
e cl
assr
oom
and
onsi
te, d
e-ve
lops
thei
r co
mpe
tenc
ies.
The
ypr
oduc
e th
e te
achi
ng m
ate-
rial
s an
d in
vent
the
stor
ies,
song
s, a
nd g
ames
. Ing
enio
usly
they
arr
ange
the
spac
es o
f th
ecr
eche
as
they
hav
e le
arne
dto
do in
the
cram
ped
all-
purp
ose
room
s in
whi
ch th
eir
own
fam
-ili
es li
ve.
To
tran
sfor
m'w
omen
who
had
been
taug
ht b
y th
e ru
le in
toin
nova
tive
and
perm
issi
vete
ache
rs h
as m
eant
und
oing
life
-lo
ng h
abits
of
timid
ity a
nd d
efer
ence
.In
du r
ecal
ls, "
At s
taff
mee
tings
, the
y us
ed to
open
thei
r no
tebo
oks
and
get r
eady
tow
rite
. I s
aid,
'I a
m n
ot g
oing
to s
ay a
nyth
ing
you
can
wri
tedo
wn
and
follo
w. Y
ou th
ink
abou
t the
que
stio
n an
d m
ake
som
e su
gges
tions
.' T
hey
insi
sted
, 'D
idi
[Big
Sis
ter]
, ple
ase
tell
us w
hat t
o do
.' It
took
a lo
t out
of
us, b
ut e
vent
ually
they
got t
here
. Now
it is
so
dece
ntra
lized
that
I d
on't
initi
ate
dis-
cuss
ions
or
take
dec
isio
nsat
mee
tings
. It m
ay b
e th
at s
o-an
d-so
has
com
e to
wor
k la
te te
n tim
es. S
heha
s do
mes
tic p
rob-
lem
s. S
ome
of th
e st
aff
are
puni
tive
tow
ard
her,
som
ear
em
ore
tole
rant
. The
y ha
ve to
dev
elop
a co
nsis
tent
pol
icy
and
follo
w it
thro
ugh.
"
CA
RE
LE
SS D
AU
GH
TE
RS
161
"Som
etim
es I
thin
k th
is is
mak
ing
them
sch
izop
hren
ic,"
Indu
say
s ru
eful
ly. "
A g
roup
of
crec
he w
orke
rs to
ld m
e,'N
ow w
e un
ders
tand
. You
for
ced
us to
lear
n to
thin
k fo
r ou
r-se
lves
. Her
e w
e ta
lk, a
rgue
, tak
e de
cisi
ons.
But
at h
ome
if w
esp
eak
up li
ke th
at, w
e ar
e to
ld, '
Who
do
you
thin
k yo
u ar
e?"
Man
y st
aff
wor
kers
sha
re th
eir
hom
es w
ith d
omin
atin
gm
othe
rs-i
n-la
w. O
ne w
oman
fou
nd th
at in
her
abs
ence
her
own
baby
was
bei
ng f
ed r
ice
wat
er. S
heas
ked
her
mot
her-
in-
law
to g
ive
the
child
milk
. "D
on't
act s
mar
t," r
etor
ted
the
olde
r w
oman
. "I'v
e ra
ised
man
y ch
ildre
n on
ric
e w
ater
. If
you
don'
t lik
e th
e w
ay I
look
aft
er y
our
baby
, tak
e it
with
you
toth
e cr
eche
."A
nd s
he d
id. I
t was
a c
oura
geou
s st
ep f
or th
e yo
ung
wom
an, n
ot o
nly
to d
efy
hier
arch
ical
auth
ority
, but
als
o to
disr
egar
d so
cial
tabo
os a
nd le
t her
chi
ld m
ix w
ith th
e m
otle
ycr
ew in
the
crec
he.
Ano
ther
wor
ker,
mot
her
of tw
o gi
rls,
was
pre
gnan
t. T
hefa
mily
was
pra
ying
for
a b
oyif
not
this
tim
e, th
en th
e ne
xt.
But
the
wom
an in
form
ed h
er h
usba
nd th
at s
he w
as g
oing
toha
ve h
erse
lf s
teri
lized
aft
er th
e de
liver
y, w
hate
ver
the
out-
com
e."H
ow th
ey h
ave
blos
som
ed o
ut, a
nd h
ow d
iffi
cult
it w
asfo
r th
em a
t eve
ry s
tep,
" In
du r
ecal
ls. "
At t
he s
tart
, I a
sked
: 'If
the
child
ren
are
dirt
y an
d un
kem
pt, w
ill y
ou b
e ab
le to
teac
h?' M
ost o
f th
em s
aid,
'No.
' But
now
you
see
them
, the
yw
ork
for
low
wag
es, i
n ab
omin
able
con
ditio
nsno
toile
ts,
mak
eshi
ft s
heds
with
the
sun
in th
eir
face
s, th
atch
ed r
oofs
inth
e ra
in. S
ome
trav
el a
n ho
ur b
y bu
s an
d th
e re
st o
f th
e w
ayby
foo
t to
reac
h th
e si
tes.
The
y pe
rsev
ere,
they
ada
pt a
ndcr
eate
. The
se w
omen
are
the
stre
ngth
of
Mob
ile C
rech
es."
As
for
Indu
her
self
, she
is e
ngag
ed in
a p
erpe
tual
gue
rilla
actio
n. C
onst
ruct
ion
mag
nate
s, s
ite e
ngin
eers
, mun
icip
al a
u-th
oriti
es c
an lo
ok o
ut th
e w
indo
w o
f th
eir
pala
tial o
ffic
es o
rth
eir
polis
hed
Mer
cede
s w
ithou
t see
ing
that
a la
rge
num
ber
of la
bore
rs s
logg
ing
thro
ugh
the
mud
are
wom
enan
d th
atth
eref
ore
the
law
req
uire
s pr
ovis
ion
of a
cre
che.
"M
adam
e,"
they
say
, "pl
ease
sen
d m
e al
l the
cor
resp
onde
nce,
I w
ill b
ew
ritin
g to
you
." O
ne e
lem
ent t
hat k
eeps
Ind
u go
ing
is s
urel
yhe
r w
icke
d se
nse
of h
umor
."I
live
in o
ne o
f th
ose
resi
dent
ial t
ower
s,"
she
says
. "Y
oukn
ow th
e ki
nd. T
he r
esid
ents
can
take
thei
r do
gs in
the
elev
a-2
2
.C1-
4er
a:
1.
23
162
Dha
rma'
s D
augh
ters
tor,
but
not
thei
r se
rvan
ts. W
hen
we
mov
ed in
to th
e fi
rst
build
ing,
som
e of
the
othe
rsw
ere
still
und
er c
onst
ruct
ion.
Acr
eche
was
ope
ratin
g th
ere,
that
we
had
esta
blis
hed
afte
rei
ght m
onth
s' n
egot
iatio
ns. W
hene
ver I
app
eare
d, I
was
fol
-lo
wed
by
swar
ms
of c
hild
ren.
The
new
res
iden
ts k
ept
me
atar
ms'
leng
th. '
Wha
tar
e yo
u, a
n ay
ah?'
they
ask
ed."
Ind
ula
ughs
with
gle
e. "
My
neig
hbor
sdo
n't u
nder
stan
dm
e at
all.
"
Can
a s
ensi
tive,
civ
ic-m
inde
dw
oman
mak
e a
soci
al c
om-
mitm
ent w
ithou
t bec
omin
g ei
ther
a m
aver
ick
or a
sai
nt?
Man
y un
hero
icyo
ung
wom
en g
radu
atin
g fr
om u
nive
rsiti
esdo
not
wis
h si
mpl
y to
sta
yat
hom
e an
d ra
ise
brig
ht c
hild
ren.
And
they
obj
ect t
o th
e as
sum
ptio
nsof
trad
ition
al v
olun
tary
orga
niza
tions
for
':so
cial
upl
ift."
A f
ewfm
d pl
aces
in in
sti-
tute
s or
ass
ocia
tions
eng
aged
inso
me
aspe
ct o
f w
omen
's d
e-ve
lopm
ent.
SEW
A, f
or e
xam
ple,
requ
ires
edu
cate
d E
nglis
h-sp
eaki
ng w
omen
for
fun
d ra
isin
g,pr
opos
al w
ritin
g, p
ublis
h-in
g, le
gal a
id, a
ccou
ntan
cy, a
ndth
e lik
e. O
ne s
uch
staf
f mem
-be
r to
ld m
e, "
We
feel
str
ongl
yab
out t
he w
ay w
omen
are
plac
ed, h
ow th
ey a
re tr
eate
d. W
ene
ed to
do
som
ethi
ng c
on-
stru
ctiv
e ab
out i
t, ev
en if
we
have
no
econ
omic
nee
d to
wor
k.In
a w
ay, w
e ar
e re
belli
ngto
o ag
ains
t the
exp
ecta
tions
pla
ced
on u
s."
Wor
king
in a
n or
gani
zatio
n fo
r wom
en's
dev
elop
men
t may
even
tual
ly m
ean
inte
ract
ing
with
rura
l wom
en, w
ho a
re,
afte
r al
l, th
e va
st m
ajor
ity. T
his
is a
ven
ture
into
a f
orei
gnte
rrito
ry, s
o gr
eat a
re th
e di
ffer
ence
sin
exp
erie
nce
and
expe
c-ta
tions
bet
wee
n ed
ucat
ed u
rban
and
illite
rate
rur
alw
omen
.Fi
eld
wor
kers
fro
mon
e ac
tion-
orie
nted
res
earc
h in
stitu
te,
who
had
gon
e ou
t fre
shly
ver
sed
in m
etho
dolo
gy a
nd f
ull o
fid
eals
, had
a r
ude
time
ofit.
The
y m
et d
ogge
d re
sist
ance
,ov
ert m
anip
ulat
ion,
utte
r in
diff
eren
ce.
The
ir r
espo
nden
ts,
hopi
ng f
or r
ewar
d, d
uly
spou
ted
wha
teve
r th
ey th
ough
t the
rese
arch
ers
wan
ted
to h
ear.
But
a st
int o
f liv
ing
in th
e is
ola-
tion
and
penu
ry o
f th
e vi
llage
mad
e th
em m
ore
unde
rsta
nd-
ing,
esp
ecia
lly w
hen
they
caug
ht th
emse
lves
beh
avin
g in
sim
ilar
way
s. "
You
hav
eto
live
that
life
to u
nder
stan
d ho
wa
villa
ger
will
wan
t to
grab
any
thin
gth
at's
off
ered
that
com
es
CA
RE
LE
SS D
AU
GH
TE
RS
163
from
out
side
. You
you
rsel
f be
com
e so
nee
dyle
t som
eone
brin
g m
e a
new
spap
er, a
ny li
ttle
thin
g fr
om th
e ou
tsid
ew
orld
."T
o be
in th
e co
mpa
ny o
f vi
goro
us a
nd c
omm
itted
wom
en is
a he
ady
expe
rien
ce. O
ne b
egin
s to
be
pers
uade
d th
at a
gra
ndaw
aken
ing
is a
t han
d, g
reen
sho
ots
emer
ging
in u
nlik
ely
plac
es; w
omen
at e
very
leve
l are
sta
ndin
g ta
ller,
rec
over
ing
thei
r po
wer
s, r
each
ing
out t
o ea
ch o
ther
acr
oss
crum
blin
gba
rrie
rs o
f ca
ste
and
clas
s.T
his
depe
nds
on w
hat l
ens
you
are
look
ing
thro
ugh.
Afe
min
ist c
olum
nist
cite
s a
"tre
men
dous
men
tal c
hang
e"am
ong
the
man
y re
ader
s w
ho w
rite
to h
er a
nd r
epor
ts, o
nre
turn
ing
from
a le
ctur
e to
ur, t
hat t
he M
uslim
wom
en a
rese
ethi
ng u
nder
thei
r bu
rkah
s. "
Stri
king
ly v
ibra
nt w
orki
ng-
clas
s fe
min
ism
[is
] sp
read
ing
thro
ugh
the
wes
tern
and
sou
th-
ern
part
s of
the
coun
try,
" w
rite
s a
Mar
xist
inte
llect
ual.
"One
feel
s a
curr
ent o
f ex
hila
ratio
n ru
nnin
g th
roug
h th
e ac
coun
tsof
res
earc
hers
and
act
ivis
ts in
volv
ed w
ith th
e m
ultit
ude
ofst
rugg
les
and
inno
vativ
e m
obili
zatio
n pr
oces
ses.
"'
The
re is
a p
allia
ble
exhi
lara
tion,
and
it is
ene
rgiz
ing.
But
man
y w
omen
em
broi
led
in th
e st
rugg
le a
re to
o w
eary
to f
ire
off
disp
atch
es. T
hey
know
how
sca
ttere
d th
e ga
ins
are,
how
prof
ound
the
pass
ivity
, and
how
man
y-ar
med
the
resi
stan
ce.
No
cost
-eff
ectiv
enes
s cr
iteri
acos
t of
effo
rt f
or r
esul
t ob-
tain
edca
n be
app
lied
to g
auge
the
utili
ty a
nd n
eces
sity
of
wor
king
for
the
wom
en's
cau
se in
Ind
ia.
In e
very
gen
erat
ion,
cer
tain
dau
ghte
rs o
f so
cial
ly p
rom
i-ne
nt o
r or
thod
ox B
rahm
an f
amili
es r
epud
iate
the
life
decr
eed
for
them
and
go
to li
ve in
par
ched
vill
ages
and
org
aniz
e co
op-
erat
ives
or
deve
lop
artis
anal
indu
stry
in r
emot
e tr
ibal
dis
-tr
icts
. Onc
e, th
ese
wer
e is
olat
ed c
ases
, lik
e th
e le
gend
ary
asce
tics,
per
form
ing
aust
eriti
es to
re-
equi
libra
te th
e or
der
ofth
ings
. Tod
ay, t
hey
too
can
be s
een
as p
art o
f a
vast
info
rmal
netw
ork,
a m
ovem
ent,
who
se d
isco
rds
and
diff
eren
ces
of a
p-pr
oach
are
sym
ptom
atic
of
its v
italit
y.A
ll th
is w
ill n
o do
ubt l
ook
scra
ggly
and
sou
nd s
hrill
fro
mth
e va
ntag
e po
int o
f T
ara'
s go
rgeo
us li
ving
roo
m. T
hick
drap
es o
f pa
le s
ilk b
roca
de c
an b
e dr
awn
to b
lock
the
view
.B
ut m
ovem
ent t
here
is: i
ts v
icto
ries
are
mod
est b
ut d
efin
itive
;its
mot
to, i
n th
e w
ords
of
one
activ
ist,
"to
keep
on
keep
ing
2A
-7-
.
m.
4
rl
164
Dha
rma'
s D
augh
ters
on."
And
it is
suf
fici
ently
vis
ible
and
num
erou
s fo
r at
leas
ttw
o am
bitio
us "
refo
rmis
t" p
oliti
cian
s to
hav
e be
gun
payi
ng it
cour
t.' P
erha
ps th
ese
men
hav
e pe
rcei
ved
the
link
betw
een
trad
ition
al n
otio
ns o
f w
oman
pow
erth
e re
ady
refe
renc
e to
shak
ti, to
god
dess
and
cont
empo
rary
act
ivis
m: w
omen
's e
f-fe
ctiv
e po
wer
.
25
15
A F
OU
R-T
HO
USA
ND
-YE
AR
-OL
D H
IST
OR
Y
Stre
ngth
ened
by
my
thou
ghts
of
you,
trav
el a
n un
thre
aten
ed p
ath:
for
if a
thin
gm
ust b
e, g
ood
wom
en a
re n
ot ti
mor
ous.
Kun
ti to
Dra
upad
i, M
ahab
hara
ta
We
are
sitti
ng in
the
pitc
h da
rk, o
n th
e la
wn
of a
mod
est
bung
alow
nea
r D
elhi
Uni
vers
ity. T
here
is a
pow
erbl
acko
ut, a
s th
ere
has
been
eve
ry d
ay, s
ecto
r by
sec
tor,
thro
ugho
ut th
e ci
ty. S
ome
say
that
New
Del
hi is
vol
unta
rily
cutti
ng it
s co
nsum
ptio
n to
div
ert e
lect
ric
pow
er to
the
irri
ga-
tion
pum
ps in
the
vast
par
ched
far
mbe
lt to
the
nort
h. O
ther
sm
aint
ain
that
pol
itica
l bos
ses
in th
e dr
ough
t-af
flic
ted
stat
esha
ve b
lock
ed th
e fl
ow f
rom
the
hydr
oele
ctri
c pl
ants
fur
ther
nort
h to
em
barr
ass
the
gove
rnm
ent a
nd p
ut p
ress
ure
on a
capi
tal w
hose
nig
hts
are
alre
ady
tens
e w
ith te
rror
ist s
hoot
ing
spre
es.
The
thre
e of
us
are
tran
quil
in th
e da
rkne
ss, r
efre
shed
by
the
cool
ing
nigh
t air
aft
er a
hec
tic d
ay. T
houg
h w
e m
eet
rare
ly, o
ur f
rien
dshi
p go
es b
ack
to th
e 19
6os
in C
ambr
idge
,M
assa
chus
etts
. Deb
en is
a B
enga
li in
telle
ctua
l of
the
old
scho
ol, i
ndif
fere
nt to
wor
ldly
goo
ds (
othe
r th
an b
ooks
), a
de-
man
ding
thin
ker
but a
mia
ble
in c
ompa
ny, n
ever
doc
trin
aire
.H
is w
ife
Rup
a is
roo
ted
in th
e sa
me
trad
ition
and
pos
sess
edof
sim
ilar
inte
grity
and
res
trai
nt. F
or th
irty
yea
rs, s
he h
as 26
Elis
abet
h B
umill
er
May
You
Be
the
Mot
her
ofa
Hun
dred
Son
s
AJo
urne
y A
mon
g th
eW
omen
of
Indi
a
PEN
GU
IN B
OO
KS
'
27
Pen
guin
Boo
ks In
dia
(P1
Ltd.
, 210
, Chi
ranj
iv T
ower
s, 4
3,N
ehru
Pla
ce, N
ew D
elhi
-110
019,
Indi
aP
cngu
in B
ooks
Ltd
. Har
mon
dsw
orth
, Mid
dlcs
cx, E
ngla
nd.
Vik
ing
Pcn
guin
Inc.
375
Hud
son
St.
N.Y
. 11X
014.
US
AP
cngu
in B
ooks
Aus
tral
ia L
td. R
ingw
ood,
Vic
toria
. Aus
tral
ia.
Pcn
guin
Boo
ks C
anan
da L
td. 1
0 A
lcor
n A
vcnu
c, S
uitc
3(X
). T
oron
to. O
ntar
io M
4V3B
2, C
anad
a.P
cngu
in B
ooks
(NZ
) Lt
d, 1
82-1
90 W
aira
u R
oad,
Auc
klan
d 10
. Ncw
Zea
land
Pub
lishe
d in
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
by R
ando
m H
ouse
. Inc
.. N
cw Y
ork.
and
sim
ulta
neou
sly
in C
anad
a by
Ran
dom
Hou
se o
f Can
ana
Ltd.
Tor
onto
. 199
(1
Firs
t pub
lishe
d in
Indi
a by
Pcn
guin
Boo
ks In
dia
(P)L
td. 1
991
10 Cop
yrig
ht 0
Elis
ahct
h B
umill
er 1
990
All
right
s re
serv
ed
Mad
e an
d pr
inte
d in
Indi
a by
Ana
nda
Offs
et P
rivat
e Lt
d., C
alcu
tta
Thi
s ho
ok is
sol
d su
bjec
t to
the
cond
ition
that
it s
hall
not,
by w
ay o
f tra
de o
rot
herw
ise,
he
lent
, res
old,
hire
d ou
t, or
oth
erw
ise
circ
ulat
ed w
ithou
t the
pub
lishe
r'spr
ior
writ
ten
cons
ent i
n an
y fo
rm o
f bin
ding
or
cove
r ot
her
than
that
in w
hich
it is
publ
ishe
d an
d w
ithou
t a s
imila
r co
nditi
on in
clud
ing
this
con
ditio
n hc
ing
impo
sed
onth
e su
bseq
uent
pur
chas
er a
nd w
ithou
t lim
iting
the
right
s un
der
copy
right
res
erve
dab
ove,
no
part
of t
his
publ
icat
ion
may
be
rcpo
rodu
ccd.
sto
red
in o
r in
trod
uced
into
arc
tric
val s
yste
m, o
r tr
ansm
itted
in a
ny fo
rm o
r by
any
mea
ns (
elec
tron
ic, m
echa
nica
l.ph
otoc
opyi
ng, r
ecor
ding
or
othe
rwis
e), w
ithou
t prio
r w
ritte
n pe
rmis
sion
of b
oth
the
copy
right
ow
ner
and
the
abov
e m
entio
ned
publ
ishe
r of
this
hoo
k.
23
xA
ckno
wle
dgm
ents
how
to tr
avel
; his
film
s, f
rom
By
Jeep
Aro
und
the
Wor
ld to
Ete
rnal
Ind
ia,
have
gui
ded
and
infl
uenc
ed m
uch
of m
yw
ork.
I a
m a
lso
inde
bted
to
my
insp
irat
iona
lgra
ndm
othe
r, E
lizab
eth
Bum
iller
, who
at t
he a
geof
eigh
ty-e
ight
cam
e to
vis
ithe
r gr
andd
augh
ter
one
insu
ffer
ably
hot
sum
mer
inIn
dia.
I a
lso
owe
muc
h to
my
equa
lly in
trep
id a
ndre
mar
k-
able
in-l
aws,
Jos
eph
and
Etta
Wei
sman
,an
d m
y si
ster
s an
d 's
tep-
brot
hers
Tri
ne, K
aren
and
Jenn
ifer
Elk
enB
umill
er, a
nd S
teph
en,
Mic
hael
and
Dav
id R
ose.
The
last
per
son
I w
ould
like
to th
ank
is th
e m
ostim
port
ant.
I th
ink
it is
fai
r to
say
that
this
boo
k co
uld
not
have
bee
n w
ritte
nw
ithou
t
my
husb
and,
Stev
e, w
ho r
ead
the
entir
e m
anus
crip
t man
ytim
es, b
e-
lieve
d in
it w
hen
I di
d no
t,an
d w
hose
sup
port
,patie
nce
and
love
wer
e
the
sour
ce o
f m
yst
reng
th. T
his
book
is a
sm
uch
his
as m
ine.
29
EL
ISA
BE
TH
BU
MIL
LE
R
Tok
yoSe
ptem
ber
1989
CO
NT
EN
TS
IA
rriv
al a
nd I
ntro
duct
ion
3
2W
eddi
ng F
irst
, Lov
e L
ater
: Arr
ange
d M
arri
age
Am
ong
the
Edu
cate
d C
lass
es24
3Fl
ames
: A B
ride
Bur
ning
and
a S
ati
44
4B
eyon
d th
e V
eil:
The
Wom
en o
f th
e V
illag
e of
Kha
juro
ti
5N
o M
ore
Litt
le G
irls
: Fem
ale
Infa
ntic
ide
Am
ong
the
Poor
of
Tam
il N
adu
and
Sex-
Sele
ctiv
eA
bort
ion
Am
ong
the
Ric
h of
Bom
bay
tot
6T
owar
ds E
qual
ity: T
he I
ndia
n W
omen
's M
ovem
ent
125
7"I
ndir
a Is
Ind
ia, a
nd I
ndia
Is
Indi
ra":
Mrs
. Gan
dhi
and
Her
Leg
acy
for
Indi
an W
omen
in P
oliti
cs14
7
8R
ekha
, Dim
ple,
Sri
devi
and
Fri
ends
:T
he A
ctre
sses
of
Bom
bay
179
9Po
ets
and
Rev
olut
iona
ries
: Thr
ee W
omen
of
Cal
cutta
201
JOH
er O
wn
Plac
e in
the
Sun:
A P
rofe
ssio
nal
Wom
an a
nd a
Hou
sew
ife
230
"Sm
all F
amily
, Hap
py F
amily
": T
he L
esso
nsof
Pop
ulat
ion
Con
trol
257
12D
epar
ture
and
Con
clus
ion
282
Bib
liogr
aphy
291
Inde
x29
7
II
3075
7`17
-
.11:
We'
vit
WE
DD
ING
FIR
ST/
LO
VE
LA
TE
R
Arr
ange
d M
arri
age
Am
ong
the
Edu
cate
) C
lass
es
DU
RIN
G W
ED
DIN
G S
EA
SON
IN
NE
W D
EL
HI,
IT
IS
POSS
IBL
E T
O S
EE
TH
RE
E,
four
, som
etim
es e
ven
five
ner
vous
bri
degr
oom
s ri
ding
thro
ugh
the
stre
ets
on w
hite
hor
ses
tow
ard
wom
en th
ey b
arel
y kn
ow b
ut w
illm
arry
that
eve
ning
. The
littl
e w
eddi
ng p
artie
s ar
e ha
rd to
mis
s: th
egr
oom
, wea
ring
an
elab
orat
e br
ocad
ed s
uit a
nd a
hea
dpie
ce w
ithst
ream
ers
cove
ring
the
emba
rras
smen
t on
his
face
, is
esco
rted
on
his
ride
by a
pha
lanx
of
rela
tives
and
a r
agta
g, im
prob
ably
nam
ed "
disc
o ba
nd"
play
ing
tinny
, off
-key
mar
chin
g m
usic
. The
Hin
du p
ries
ts h
ave
deem
ed it
an
ausp
icio
us n
ight
, and
it is
eas
y, a
fter
sto
ppin
g in
traf
fic
to le
t a f
ew o
f th
ese
proc
essi
ons
pass
, to
beco
me
carr
ied
away
and
imag
ine
the
thic
k D
elhi
air
red
olen
t with
hop
e an
d fe
rtili
ty. E
ach
proc
essi
on c
an ta
ke h
alf
the
even
ing
to r
each
the
site
of
the
wed
ding
,us
ually
a h
ome
or, i
f th
e fa
mily
has
rec
ently
com
e in
tom
oney
, a b
igla
wn
at o
ne o
f th
e ne
w lu
xury
hot
els.
The
gro
om is
oft
en s
ever
al h
ours
late
, whi
ch g
reat
ly a
nnoy
s th
e br
ide'
s fa
mily
but
is n
ota
cata
stro
phe.
The
bri
de, m
eanw
hile
, has
bee
n cl
oset
ed w
ith h
er m
othe
r, a
unts
and
31'
May
You
Be
the
Mot
her
of a
Hun
dred
Son
s25
clos
e fr
iend
s, m
onos
ylla
bic
and
near
ly im
mob
ile u
nder
a g
audy
red
silk
sari
so
extr
avag
antly
trim
med
with
gol
d th
at it
can
wei
gh f
ifty
pou
nds.
Thi
s is
just
as
wel
l, be
caus
e sh
e is
mea
nt to
be
a pa
ssiv
e pr
esen
ce a
t her
own
wed
ding
, with
her
eye
s de
mur
ely
cast
dow
n, li
ke a
sile
nt m
aide
nfr
om a
n In
dian
min
iatu
re p
aint
ing.
Her
pre
para
tions
hav
e ta
ken
all d
ayan
d ar
e a
ritu
al in
them
selv
es. F
low
ers
have
bee
n w
oven
into
her
hai
r,sm
all j
ewel
s ap
plie
d ov
er h
er e
yebr
ows
and
an in
tric
ate
lace
like
desi
gnpa
inte
d in
hen
na a
ll ov
er h
er h
ands
and
fee
t. A
fter
war
d, s
he u
sual
lysa
ys s
he c
an r
emem
ber
very
littl
e of
wha
t hap
pene
d th
at d
ay.
One
of
my
past
imes
in I
ndia
was
goi
ng to
wed
ding
s. P
eopl
e w
ere
alw
ays
invi
ting
me,
thin
king
that
an
Am
eric
an w
oman
wou
ld e
njoy
the
spec
tacl
e. I
n th
ree
and
a ha
lf y
ears
, I th
ink
I w
ent t
o ni
ne a
s an
offi
cial
gue
st. O
ther
tim
es I
wou
ld s
tum
ble
into
a w
eddi
ng a
t one
of
the
big
hote
ls, a
nd if
I p
eere
d in
long
eno
ugh,
the
pare
nts
wou
ld u
sher
me
in to
con
grat
ulat
e th
e br
ide
and
groo
m. I
n In
dia,
a w
eddi
ng is
ach
aotic
pag
eant
that
can
last
unt
il si
x in
the
mor
ning
, and
mor
e an
dm
ore
has
beco
me
a pu
blic
val
idat
ion
of a
fam
ily's
sta
tus
and
wea
lth.
If a
fam
ily is
ric
h, it
is n
ot u
nusu
al to
hav
e a
thou
sand
gue
sts.
Eve
na
wor
king
-cla
ss f
amily
will
put
on
a fe
ast f
or tw
o hu
ndre
d, e
nsur
ing
crip
plin
g de
bt f
or th
e ne
xt d
e'ca
de. (
At a
wed
ding
in th
e al
ley
behi
ndou
r ho
use,
the
fath
er o
f th
e br
ide,
who
mad
e S8
00 a
yea
r dr
ivin
g fo
rth
e V
ietn
ames
e em
bass
y, p
aid
S3,2
00 f
or th
e lu
nch
part
y an
d do
wry
.)I
wen
t to
Hin
du w
eddi
ngs,
Sik
h w
eddi
ngs,
and
a M
uslim
wed
ding
.T
wo
of th
e w
eddi
ngs
wer
e gi
ven
by n
oble
fam
ilies
of
the
form
erpr
ince
ly s
tate
s; a
t one
the
groo
m a
rriv
ed in
a s
ilver
hor
se-d
raw
n ch
ario
tan
d at
the
othe
r by
ele
phan
t. A
t som
e of
them
, par
ticul
arly
one
in a
lush
, pla
nt-f
illed
cou
rtya
rd a
t mid
nigh
t dur
ing
a br
eak
in th
e su
mm
erm
onso
on, I
was
tran
sfix
ed b
y th
e sw
eatin
g fa
ces
of th
e br
ide
and
groo
m, w
ho s
at c
ross
-leg
ged
in f
ront
of
a sa
cred
fir
e w
hile
tl-e
pri
est
chan
ted
Sans
krit
pray
ers
and
pour
ed s
anda
lwoo
d po
wde
r in
to th
efl
ames
. The
re is
a s
ensu
ousn
ess
to I
ndia
n w
eddi
ngs
abse
nt f
rom
the
cool
chur
ches
of
the
Wes
t. O
ther
s w
ere
gaud
y ce
lebr
atio
ns a
t Del
hi's
fir
st-
clas
s ho
tels
, par
t of
wha
t Ind
ira
Gan
dhi o
nce
deri
ded
as "
five
-sta
rcu
lture
," a
nd w
ere
dist
ingu
ishe
d by
mel
ting
ice
scul
ptur
es a
nd th
evi
deo
cam
era
reco
rdin
g an
eve
nt th
at w
ould
kee
p D
elhi
's o
ld f
amili
esfu
ssin
g fo
r w
eeks
abo
ut a
ll th
e ne
w m
oney
in to
wn.
The
re w
as o
neth
ing,
thou
gh, t
hat m
arke
d al
mos
t eve
ry w
eddi
ng I
atte
nded
: the
look
of d
azed
terr
or o
n th
e br
ide'
s fa
ce a
s sh
e be
gan
the
rest
of
her
life
with
a m
an w
ho w
as li
ttle
mor
e th
an a
str
ange
r to
her
.In
Ind
ia, a
n es
timat
ed 9
5 pe
rcen
t of
mar
riag
es a
re s
till a
rran
ged, 32
4r
"
11'3
26E
lisab
eth
Bum
iller
May
You
Be
the
Mot
her
of a
Hun
dred
Son
s27
incl
udin
g th
e m
ajor
ity o
f th
ose
amon
g th
e ed
ucat
ed m
iddl
e cl
ass.
As
with
so
man
y ot
her
stat
istic
s in
Ind
ia, n
o on
e is
cer
tain
of
the
accu
racy
of th
is e
stim
ate,
and
in f
act m
any
soci
olog
ists
and
muc
h of
the
gene
ral
publ
ic b
elie
ve th
e pe
rcen
tage
of
arra
nged
mar
riag
es to
be
even
hig
her.
Whe
n I
firs
t cam
e to
Ind
ia, t
his
asto
nish
ed m
e. I
kne
w a
rran
ged
mar
riag
e w
as s
tand
ard
amon
g vi
llage
rs a
nd th
e ru
ral p
oori
n ot
her
wor
ds, m
ost o
f th
e co
untr
ybut
I d
id n
ot e
xpec
t tha
t an
Indi
an m
anw
ho h
ad li
ved
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
wou
ld c
ome
hom
e af
ter
year
s of
datin
g A
mer
ican
wom
en to
mar
ry s
omeo
ne h
e ha
d m
et o
nly
thre
etim
es. I
did
not
exp
ect c
olle
ge w
omen
in th
e bi
g ci
ties
to g
ladl
y gi
veth
eir
pare
nts
the
task
of
find
ing
them
goo
d hu
sban
ds. I
was
mor
eam
azed
whe
n so
me
wou
ld s
ay y
es to
a p
rosp
ectiv
e gr
oom
aft
era
half
-hou
r m
eetin
g. "
I co
uld
deci
de m
aybe
in a
day
," a
twen
ty-
year
-ol
dN
ew D
elhi
com
mer
cial
-art
s st
uden
t tol
d m
e. T
hen
she
thou
ght a
min
ute.
"W
ell,
may
be th
at's
a b
it ru
shed
. May
be in
a w
eek.
"M
arri
age
for
love
exi
sts,
onl
y am
ong
a ve
ry s
mal
l slic
e of
Ind
ia's
urba
n el
ite. R
ajiv
Gan
dhi h
as a
love
mar
riag
e, a
s do
mos
t of
thos
e in
the
youn
ger
gene
ratio
n of
Del
hi's
fas
hion
able
cir
cles
. Alm
ost a
ll of
our
frie
nds
had
love
mar
riag
es, a
lthou
gh I
use
d to
sus
pect
that
a fe
w h
adbe
en m
ore
arra
nged
than
the
coup
le le
t on.
(O
ften
if tw
o pe
ople
sta
rted
datin
g se
riou
sly,
whi
ch c
ould
hav
e hu
rt th
e re
puta
tion
of th
e gi
rl a
ndpr
even
ted
her
from
fin
ding
a g
ood
husb
and
late
r, th
e pa
rent
s qu
ickl
ym
oved
in a
nd m
obili
zed
for
a w
eddi
ng to
sav
e th
emse
lves
fro
mne
ighb
orho
od g
ossi
p.)
Out
side
the
big
urba
n ce
nter
s, a
ttitu
des
are
chan
ging
as
wel
l. In
a 1
973
surv
ey o
f co
llege
men
and
wom
en in
the
sout
h In
dian
city
of
Hyd
erab
ad, t
wo
soci
olog
ists
, Pra
kasa
and
Nan
dini
Rao
, fou
nd th
at "
an o
verw
helm
ing
maj
ority
of
the
stud
ents
wan
ted
mor
e fr
eedo
m in
sel
ectin
g a
futu
re s
pous
e" a
nd c
oncl
uded
that
"th
efo
rces
pf
mod
erni
zatio
n ar
e re
sulti
ng in
libe
ral a
ttitu
des
tow
ard
mat
ese
lect
ion
amon
g th
e co
llege
stu
dent
s."
But
in th
atsa
me
stud
y, m
ore
than
a th
ird
of th
e st
uden
ts s
aid
they
did
not
thin
k it
was
nec
essa
ryto
kno
w a
spo
use
befo
re m
arri
age.
Arr
ange
d m
arri
age
is n
ot u
niqu
e to
Ind
ia a
nd h
as in
fac
t exi
sted
inso
me
form
in m
ost s
ocie
ties
thro
ugho
ut th
e w
orld
. In
the
Wes
t, on
lyin
the
last
thre
e hu
ndre
d ye
ars
has
love
com
e to
be
seen
as a
par
t of
mar
riag
e at
alla
dev
elop
men
t tha
t aca
dem
ics
theo
rize
evo
lved
fro
mth
e co
ncep
t of
cour
tly lo
ve in
the
Mid
dle
Age
s an
d al
so f
rom
the
impa
ct o
f C
hris
tiani
ty, w
hich
is th
ough
t to
have
dee
pene
d th
e bo
ndbe
twee
n hu
sban
d an
d w
ife
by li
keni
ng it
to th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
nm
an a
nd G
od. M
uch
late
r ca
me
indu
stri
aliz
atio
n, w
hich
incr
ease
d
33
soci
al m
obili
ty a
nd b
roke
dow
n th
e ex
tend
ed f
amily
, a c
hang
e th
at is
just
beg
inni
ng in
Ind
ia.
Arr
ange
d m
arri
age
surv
ives
am
ong
the
Indi
an m
iddl
e cl
ass
part
lybe
caus
e a
new
kin
d of
sys
tem
has
em
erge
d. (
The
term
mid
dle
clas
s,as
it is
use
d in
Ind
ia, r
efer
s no
t to
thos
e in
the
mid
dle
econ
omic
gro
upbu
t to
the
peop
le in
the
top
io p
erce
nt, w
ho c
an a
ffor
d to
buy
cons
umer
pro
duct
s an
d liv
e w
hat t
he W
est w
ould
con
side
r a
sem
blan
ceof
a m
iddl
e-cl
ass
life.
) A
gen
erat
ion
ago,
a b
ride
and
gro
om r
arel
ysp
oke
to e
ach
othe
r be
fore
the
wed
ding
. In
man
y ca
ses
they
had
nev
erev
en la
id e
yes
on e
ach
othe
r. T
hey
had
no v
eto
pow
er o
ver
thei
rpa
rent
s' c
hoic
e, a
nd if
the
mar
riag
e w
as m
iser
able
, so
be it
. Eve
n no
w,
for
the
maj
ority
of
Indi
ans,
mar
riag
e st
ill w
orks
this
way
.B
ut th
ese
days
mid
dle-
clas
s co
uple
s ar
e al
low
ed to
mee
t sev
eral
times
bef
ore
mak
ing
a de
cisi
on, a
nd a
few
can
go
out o
nce
or tw
ice
alon
e. A
lthou
gh m
ost m
arri
ages
are
stil
l arr
ange
d am
ong
mem
bers
of
the
sam
e ca
ste,
eng
agem
ents
may
last
six
mon
ths
and
mor
e, a
nd w
omen
may
rej
ect t
he c
hoic
e of
thei
r pa
rent
s. T
his
is c
onsi
dere
d a
subs
tant
ial
brea
kthr
ough
, and
som
e fa
mili
es in
sist
the
resu
lt is
not
an
arra
nged
mar
riag
e at
all.
Lei
la S
eth,
a s
ocia
lly p
rogr
essi
ve m
othe
r w
ho is
one
of o
nly
ten
wom
en a
mon
g th
e fo
ur h
undr
ed H
igh
Cou
rt ju
dges
inIn
dia,
told
me,
"Fr
ankl
y, I
don
't th
ink
it's
such
a b
ad s
yste
m."
The
prev
ailin
g op
inio
n am
ong
the
mid
dle
clas
s is
that
not
onl
y do
thes
em
arri
ages
wor
k, b
ut th
ey a
re m
ore
succ
essf
ul th
an th
ose
in th
e W
est.
In th
e su
mm
er o
f 59
85 I
set
out
to w
rite
a s
tory
on
arra
nged
mar
riag
es in
the
mid
dle
clas
s. T
here
had
bee
n a
num
ber
of a
rtic
les
onth
e su
bjec
t by
Wes
tern
cor
resp
onde
nts,
but
mos
t had
foc
used
on
the
ente
rtai
ning
pag
es o
f m
atri
mon
ial a
ds in
the
Sund
ay n
ewsp
aper
s. T
hey
do m
ake
for
good
rea
ding
. Fro
mT
he H
indu
stan
Tim
es:
"Alli
ance
solic
ited
from
indu
stri
alis
t bus
ines
sman
of
Del
hi f
or g
radu
ate,
21,
slim
,fa
ir, b
eaut
iful
dau
ghte
r of
Del
hi-b
ased
Bra
hmin
indu
stri
alis
ts. W
rite
Post
Box
No.
572
9."
From
The
Tim
es o
f Ind
ia:
"Int
ellig
ent,
wel
l-re
ad,
beau
tiful
, hom
e-lo
ving
, Eng
lish-
spea
king
gir
l pre
fera
bly
from
libe
ral-
min
ded
Chr
istia
n fa
mily
for
ext
rem
ely
wel
l-pl
aced
sen
ior
gove
rnm
ent
exec
utiv
e, g
ood-
look
ing,
late
for
ties,
mus
t be
will
ing
to s
ettle
in N
orth
Am
eric
a, r
elig
ion
and
cast
e no
bar
." B
ut I
was
mor
e in
tere
sted
indi
scov
erin
g if
ther
e w
as s
omet
hing
in a
rran
ged
mar
riag
e th
at r
eally
did
"wor
k."
The
se w
ere
my
earl
y da
ys in
Ind
ia, w
hen
I w
as f
illed
with
a ne
wco
mer
's e
nthu
sias
m a
nd a
det
erm
inat
ion
to b
reak
aw
ay f
rom
.my
Wes
tern
judg
men
ts. I
n re
tros
pect
, I r
ealiz
e th
ere
was
som
ethi
ng e
lse
goin
g on
. My
own
pare
nts
had
been
div
orce
d, a
s ha
d so
me
of m
y
34
28E
lisab
eth
But
nille
r
frie
nds.
I th
ink
I w
as s
earc
hing
for
som
e ki
nd o
f a
"sec
ret"
to m
arri
age
that
the
Indi
ans
had
and
Am
eric
ans
did
not.
Aru
n an
d M
anju
Bha
rat R
amw
ere
reco
mm
ende
d to
me
as th
e id
eal
coup
le, a
n ex
ampl
e, th
eir
frie
nds
said
, of
how
arr
ange
d m
arri
age
func
tions
at i
ts b
est.
It tu
rned
out t
hey
wer
e ne
ither
typi
cal n
orm
iddl
e-cl
ass:
Aru
n B
hara
t Ram
,a
prep
-sch
ool c
lass
mat
e of
Raj
ivG
andh
i, w
as h
eir
to o
ne o
f th
e la
rges
t ind
ustr
ial
fort
unes
in I
ndia
.In
dira
Gan
dhi a
nd f
ifte
en h
undr
ed o
ther
s ha
dco
me
to h
is w
eddi
ng.
May
be th
e "s
ecre
t" to
the
succ
ess
of th
e m
arri
age
was
sim
ply
mon
eyan
d co
nnec
tions
. On
the
othe
r ha
nd, t
heir
fam
ilies
wer
e pr
ime
exam
-pl
es o
f th
e hi
ghly
Wes
tern
ized
indu
stri
also
ciet
y in
whi
ch p
aren
ts s
till
see
mar
riag
e, a
t lea
st f
or s
ome
of th
eir
child
ren,
as a
bus
ines
s al
lianc
e.T
here
wer
e al
so lo
ve m
arri
ages
in A
run'
s fa
mily
,an
d he
him
self
had
date
d A
mer
ican
wom
en. w
hile
stu
dyin
gin
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es. I
n th
een
d, I
fou
nd n
o on
e w
ho b
ette
r ill
ustr
ated
how
Indi
ans
coul
d tu
rn w
hat
I th
ough
t was
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
mar
riag
e an
d lo
ve u
psid
edo
wn.
The
Bha
rat R
am h
ouse
was
an
expa
nse
of m
arbl
e, w
ith m
oder
nIn
dian
art
and
sec
urity
gua
rds,
set b
ehin
d ga
tes
in o
ne o
f D
elhi
's le
afie
rne
ighb
orho
ods.
It w
as A
ugus
t and
insu
ffer
ably
hot
,bu
t in
the
Bha
rat
Ram
's V
CR
-dom
inat
ed s
tudy
, I s
ank
into
the
leat
her
sofa
and
fro
zeha
ppily
in th
e bl
asts
of
the
best
air
con
ditio
ner
I ev
er e
ncou
nter
ed in
Indi
a. I
sat
ther
e on
ce to
talk
to M
anju
, the
n re
turn
ed, f
eelin
g pe
r-ve
rsel
y lik
e a
mar
riag
e co
unse
lor,
to p
ut th
e sa
me
ques
tions
to A
run.
He
was
for
ty-f
ive,
slig
ht, a
nd h
ada
hand
som
e, d
elic
ate
face
; dre
ssed
in a
spo
rt s
hirt
and
sla
cks,
he
look
edas
if h
e ha
d ju
st s
pent
a p
leas
ant
mor
ning
on
the
golf
cou
rse.
He
had
the
soci
alea
se a
nd u
pper
-cla
ssdi
stan
ce th
at m
arke
d a
lot o
f R
ajiv
Gan
dhi's
sch
ool
chum
s. M
anju
was
trad
ition
al a
nd m
ore
acce
ssib
le. S
he h
ada
pret
ty, w
arm
fac
e an
d w
ore
an e
xpen
sive
silk
sar
i. H
er h
air
was
in a
long
bra
id d
own
her
back
.T
hey
firs
t met
in 1
967,
the
year
Aru
n ha
d co
me
hom
e to
New
Del
hiaf
ter
grad
uate
sch
ool a
t the
Uni
vers
ity o
f M
ichi
gan.
He
was
twen
ty-s
ixan
d ab
out t
o st
art w
ork
in th
e fa
mily
's te
xtile
busi
ness
high
tim
e, h
ism
othe
r sa
id, t
hat h
e fo
und
him
self
a w
ife.
See
ing
no m
ovem
ent o
n th
epa
rt o
f he
r so
n, s
he to
ok m
atte
rs in
to h
erow
n ha
nds
and
bega
n an
all-
poin
ts s
earc
h. B
ut A
nn A
rbor
had
cha
nged
Aru
n. A
lthoU
gh h
e st
illfe
lt "t
ruly
ver
y In
dian
," h
e al
so f
elt "
aco
ntra
dict
ion,
com
ing
back
from
the
Wes
t, th
at I
sho
uldn
't be
getti
ng in
to a
n ar
rang
ed m
arri
age.
"Fi
nally
, he
agre
ed to
see
a pr
ospe
ctiv
e br
ide,
"w
ith n
o st
ring
s at
tach
ed,"
just
so
his
mot
her
wou
ldst
op p
este
ring
him
.
35
May
You
Be
the
Mot
her
ofa
Hun
dred
Son
s29
Tha
t was
Man
ju,
a tw
enty
-tw
o-ye
ar-o
ld g
radu
ate
ofa
hom
e ec
o-no
mic
s co
llege
and
the
prod
uct o
fa
cons
erva
tive
mid
dle-
clas
s bu
sine
ss.f
amily
that
nev
er d
ream
ed th
eir
daug
hter
mig
htm
arry
a B
hara
tR
amev
en th
ough
trad
ition
ally
the
brid
e's
fam
ily m
arri
es a
bove
itsel
f on
the
econ
omic
sca
le.
(Soc
iolo
gist
s sa
y th
at m
arri
age
with
abr
ide
of lo
wer
sta
tus
assu
res
the
groo
m's
fam
ily th
at th
eir
new
dau
gh-
ter-
in-l
aw w
ill b
e su
ffic
ient
ly d
epen
dent
on th
em.)
Bot
h M
anju
and
Aru
n be
long
ed to
the
pros
pero
us B
ania
sub
cast
e, w
hich
fal
ls w
ithin
the
larg
er V
aisy
a, o
r m
erch
ant,
cast
e. I
n In
dia,
arr
ange
d m
arri
ages
bot
hre
flec
t and
rei
nfor
ce th
eca
ste
syst
em, w
hich
rem
ains
esp
ecia
lly r
igid
amon
g th
e ru
ral p
oor.
But
uni
ons
like
that
of
Aru
nan
d M
anju
pro
veth
at c
aste
is s
till i
mpo
rtan
tam
ong
at le
ast s
ome
sect
ions
of
the
uppe
rcl
ass. A m
arri
age
brok
er h
ired
by
Man
ju's
pare
nts
had
intr
oduc
ed th
e tw
ofa
mili
es, b
ut M
anju
was
no
less
rel
ucta
nt th
an A
run
was
to ta
ke th
ene
xt s
tep.
Eve
n th
ough
she
had
alw
ays
know
n th
athe
r m
arri
age
wou
ldbe
arr
ange
d, s
he s
hudd
ered
whe
nsh
e re
mem
bere
d ho
wa
rela
tive
had
been
mad
e to
par
ade
befo
re h
erfu
ture
in-l
aws
and
then
quot
e fr
omSh
akes
pear
e. "
The
y di
scus
sed
her
colo
ring
as
if s
he w
eren
't th
ere,
"M
anju
rem
embe
red.
"It
rea
llyw
as li
ke a
gir
l bei
ng s
old.
"A
run
and
Man
ju's
fir
st m
eetin
gw
as o
ver
tea
with
thei
r pa
rent
s at
a lu
xury
hot
el. M
anju
was
so
scar
ed th
at s
he d
ropp
edhe
r cu
p, b
utev
eryo
ne q
uick
ly a
ssur
ed h
er th
isw
as a
sig
n of
goo
d lu
ck. A
run,
mea
nwhi
le, s
till h
ad s
tiff
legs
fro
msi
tting
cro
ss-l
egge
d du
ring
his
sita
rle
sson
that
day
, but
all
Man
ju k
new
abou
t his
lim
pw
as th
at s
he w
asab
out t
o be
mar
ried
off
to a
man
who
mig
ht n
ot b
e "n
orm
al."
The
only
impr
essi
on s
he m
ade
on A
run
was
that
she
was
"a
pret
ty g
irl"
and
"ver
y qu
iet."
Aft
er th
e m
eetin
g,A
run
told
his
mot
her,
"I'v
e do
neyo
u yo
ur f
avor
; now
leav
e m
e al
one.
" B
ut h
ism
othe
r pe
rsis
ted,
and
Aru
n ag
reed
to s
ee M
anju
aga
in.
Thi
s tim
e th
ey w
ent t
o di
nner
toge
ther
and
left
the
pare
nts
behi
nd.
"Tha
t was
whe
n I
talk
edto
her
for
the
firs
t tim
e,"
Aru
n re
mem
bere
d,"a
nd I
fel
t she
was
qui
te in
tere
stin
g."
Man
ju d
ecid
ed th
esa
me
thin
g."W
e ha
d a
lot o
f th
ings
in c
omm
on,"
she
said
. "H
ew
as a
lway
sso
ft-s
poke
n. H
e ne
ver
trie
dto
sho
w o
ff h
is f
amily
and
his
bac
kgro
und.
He
alw
ays
mad
e m
e fe
el li
kean
indi
vidu
al."
The
y sa
w e
ach
othe
rtw
o m
ore
times
, but
with
cha
pero
nes.
At t
his
poin
t, th
e co
urts
hip
had
gone
on
long
eno
ugh
and
a de
cisi
on h
adto
be m
ade.
Man
ju h
ad a
lrea
dyto
ld h
er p
aren
ts s
he w
ould
mar
ry A
run
if th
at w
as w
hat h
is f
amily
wis
heds
he h
ad n
o m
ajor
obj
ectio
ns,
she
3G
3oE
lisab
eth
Bum
iller
liked
him
, and
that
was
eno
ugh.
Afe
w d
ays
late
r, A
run'
s m
othe
r ca
me
to th
e ho
use.
"W
e w
ant
her,
" sh
e sa
id. I
mm
edia
tely
the
mas
sive
wed
-
ding
pre
para
tions
got
und
er w
ay.
"Obv
ious
ly, I
was
n't i
n lo
ve w
ithhe
r,"
Aru
n to
ld m
e m
atte
r-of
-
fact
ly a
bout
the
days
aft
er th
e en
gage
men
t was
anno
unce
d. "
But
whe
neve
r w
e m
et, w
e w
ere
com
fort
able
. Acc
ordi
ng to
our
trad
ition
,
that
wou
ld le
ad to
love
. I w
asw
illin
g to
acc
ept t
hat."
Man
jufe
lt th
e
sam
e. "
At t
he ti
me,
Idi
dn't
love
him
," s
he s
aid,
"bu
t it w
as v
ery
exci
ting
for
me.
Sud
denl
y, I
was
ver
yim
port
ant.
All
of m
y pa
rent
s'
frie
nds
wer
e a
little
env
ious
abo
utth
e fa
mily
I w
as m
arry
ing
into
."
The
wed
ding
took
pla
ce s
ixm
onth
s la
ter,
fol
low
ed b
y a
hone
ymoo
n
in s
outh
ern
Indi
a, w
here
the
two
spen
tth
eir
firs
t ext
ende
d tim
e al
one.
"We
had
alw
ays
had
peop
lear
ound
us,
" M
anju
sai
d. "
Thi
s w
asaw
k-
war
d an
d di
ffic
ult.
One
did
n't k
now
how
muc
h to
giv
e."
She
mis
sed
her
pare
nts
and
calle
d th
em e
very
day.
Aft
erw
ard,
she
beg
an a
slo
w a
djus
tmen
t to
life
with
in a
fam
ily th
at
was
muc
h m
ore
soph
istic
ated
than
her
ow
n. "
The
se p
eopl
e w
ere
mor
e
awar
e of
thin
gsha
ppen
ing
arou
nd th
e w
orld
,"sh
e sa
id. "
At t
imes
, I
felt
as if
I w
ere
stup
id. B
ut I
lear
ned
how
to c
ope
with
it. M
yhu
sban
d
help
ed."
Whe
n th
ey m
oved
to th
eir
own
hous
e fi
ve y
ears
late
r, th
ere
was
ano
ther
adj
ustm
ent.
"It w
as a
fri
ghte
ning
exp
erie
nce,
livin
g by
ours
elve
s,"
Man
ju r
emem
bere
d. "
The
re w
ere
times
whe
n w
e di
dn't
know
wha
t to
do w
ith e
ach
othe
r."
She
kept
rem
indi
ng h
erse
lfth
at
her
mot
her
alw
ays
said
a w
oman
has
to c
ompr
omis
e a
lot.
"She
also
used
to s
ay, '
If y
ou're
unh
appy
, unl
ess
it's
real
ly b
ad, d
on't
tell
me.
' "
By
the
time
I m
et th
em, n
earl
y tw
ode
cade
s an
d th
ree
child
ren
late
r,
the
Bha
rat R
ams
had
long
sin
cead
just
ed to
mar
ried
life
. It i
s al
way
s
impo
ssib
le to
kno
w w
hat i
s re
ally
goi
ng o
nin
som
eone
els
e's
mar
riag
e,
of c
ours
e, b
ut th
e B
hara
t Ram
ssa
id th
ey w
ere
happ
y, a
nd I
belie
ved
them
. "I'v
e ne
ver
thou
ght o
fan
othe
r m
an s
ince
I m
et h
im,"
Man
juto
ld m
e. "
And
I a
lso
know
I w
ould
not
be a
ble
to li
ve w
ithou
t him
.
I do
n't t
hink
I'v
e re
gret
ted
my
mar
riag
e, e
ver.
" A
run
echo
edhi
s w
ife.
"It w
asn'
t som
ethi
ng th
at h
appe
ned
over
nigh
t," h
e sa
id. "
It g
rew
and
beca
me
a tr
emen
dous
bon
d. I
t'sam
azin
g, b
ut in
arr
ange
d m
arri
ages
,pe
ople
act
ually
mak
e th
e ef
fort
tofa
ll in
love
with
eac
h ot
her.
"
It w
as a
cur
ious
love
sto
ry. A
sfa
r as
I c
ould
tell,
they
had
ital
l
back
war
d. I
had
bee
n ra
ised
on
one
of th
e fa
vori
te th
emes
of
Wes
tern
liter
atur
e, th
at o
f st
ar-c
ross
edlo
vers
like
Rom
eo a
nd J
ulie
t who
selo
ve
is a
for
ce th
at e
xist
s on
its
own,
am
agic
that
def
ies
the
cons
trai
nts
of
soci
ety.
But
her
e th
e B
hara
t Ram
s w
ere
telli
ng m
e th
at lo
ve c
an b
e
37
May
You
Be
the
Mot
her
of a
Hun
dred
Son
s31
conc
octe
d si
mpl
y by
arr
angi
ng a
mar
riag
e be
twee
n pe
ople
of
com
mon
back
grou
nd a
nd in
tere
sts.
In
mid
dle-
clas
s In
dia,
whe
re th
e fa
mily
is s
till
mor
e im
port
ant t
han
any
of it
s in
divi
dual
mem
bers
, lov
e is
bel
ieve
dto
flo
w o
ut o
f so
cial
arr
ange
men
ts a
nd is
act
ually
sub
serv
ient
to th
em.
"Tru
e lo
ve"
is p
ossi
ble
only
aft
er m
arri
age,
not
bef
ore.
Mid
dle-
clas
s In
dia
defi
nes
love
as
long
-ter
m c
omm
itmen
t and
dev
o-tio
n to
fam
ily, w
hich
can
be
deve
lope
d on
ly w
ith m
uch
patie
nce
and
time.
In
thei
r vi
ew, A
mer
ican
s in
stea
d de
fine
love
as
pass
ionw
hich
inev
itabl
y le
ads
to d
isap
poin
tmen
t in
mar
riag
e af
ter
the
glow
of
thos
efi
rst r
oman
tic y
ears
wea
rs o
ff. T
his
reas
onin
g al
way
s se
emed
to m
ea
stri
king
exa
mpl
e of
the
Indi
an b
elie
f in
thei
r m
oral
sup
erio
rity
over
wha
t man
y of
them
see
as
the
deca
dent
Wes
t, w
ith it
s di
smal
rec
ord
of d
ivor
ce. A
mer
ican
s ju
st g
ive
up, I
ndia
ns b
elie
ve, w
hen
the
mar
riag
ehi
ts th
e ro
ugh
spot
s an
d fa
lls s
hort
of
an u
natta
inab
le id
eal.
Sudh
irK
akar
, one
of
Indi
a's
fore
mos
t psy
choa
naly
sts,
put
it th
is w
ay: "
Am
eri-
cans
hav
e to
o gr
eat a
n in
vest
men
t in
mar
riag
e. T
he p
ecul
iar
part
is th
atyo
u th
ink
any
hum
an in
stitu
tion
shou
ld s
atis
fy s
o m
any
diff
eren
t nee
ds.
Am
eric
ans
say
ther
e sh
ould
be
rom
ance
, a m
othe
r fo
r th
e ch
ildre
n,in
telle
ctua
l stim
ulat
ion
also
. For
two
peop
le to
be
all t
hat t
o ea
ch o
ther
is a
bit
muc
h."
Man
y of
the
youn
g w
omen
I m
et d
ism
isse
d "f
allin
g in
love
" as
som
ethi
ng f
or te
enag
ers
and
bad
Indi
an f
ilms.
A f
ew s
aid
they
had
expe
rien
ced
"pup
py lo
ve"
with
a b
oy a
t sch
ool b
ut a
ssur
ed m
e th
eyw
ere
too
grow
n-up
for
that
now
. One
of
thes
e w
omen
was
Mee
taSa
whn
ey, t
he tw
enty
-yea
r-ol
d D
elhi
Uni
vers
ity e
cono
mic
s st
uden
tw
ho h
ad c
onvi
nced
me
that
wom
en w
ould
be
my
win
dow
into
the
Indi
an in
teri
or w
orld
. As
she
had
expl
aine
d to
me:
"W
hen
my
frie
nds
who
are
in lo
ve ta
lk to
me,
I th
ink
they
sou
nd s
illy.
" Sh
e ha
d be
com
een
gage
d th
at s
umm
er to
a c
hild
hood
fri
end
her
pare
nts
had
chos
en f
orhe
r. W
e ha
d be
en ta
lkin
g fo
r an
hou
r in
her
bed
room
whe
n I
fina
llyas
ked
if s
he lo
ved
him
. "T
hat's
a v
ery
diff
icul
t que
stio
n,"
she
said
. "I
don'
t kno
w. T
his
who
le c
once
pt o
f lo
ve is
ver
y al
ien
to u
s. W
e're
mor
epr
actic
al. I
don
't se
e st
ars,
I d
on't
hear
littl
e be
lls. B
ut h
e's
a ve
ry n
ice
guy,
and
I th
ink
I'm g
oing
to, e
njoy
spe
ndin
g m
y lif
e w
ith h
im. I
s th
atlo
ve?"
She
shr
ugge
d, in
dica
ting
no w
orri
es a
bout
her
fut
ure.
"I
know
this
is g
oing
to w
ork.
I k
now
eve
ryth
ing
abou
t him
. I k
now
his
fam
ily.
On
the
othe
r ha
nd, i
f I
wer
e in
love
with
this
guy
, I w
ould
be
wor
ried
beca
use
then
I'd
be
goin
g in
to it
blin
dly.
"I
thou
ght t
his
was
mad
ness
, or
a go
od jo
b of
bra
inw
ashi
ng, b
ut la
ter
deci
ded
Mee
ta S
awhn
ey w
as s
impl
y ra
tiona
lizin
g w
hat s
he h
ad b
een 38
tc.
32E
lisab
eth
Bum
iller
deal
t in
her
life.
Wha
t cho
ice
did
she
have
? O
nly
wom
en f
rom
the
mos
t Wes
tern
ized
fam
ilies
hav
e th
e lu
xury
of f
allin
g in
love
bef
ore
mar
riag
e, a
nd e
ven
they
had
bes
t do
it on
ly o
nce.
In
Am
eric
a, a
you
ngw
oman
can
mov
e on
aft
er h
er f
irst
, int
ense
love
aff
air
fizz
les,
but
an
Indi
an w
oman
ris
ks g
ossi
p th
at m
ight
rui
n he
r ch
ance
s of
ago
odhu
sban
d la
ter.
One
ver
y W
este
rniz
ed c
oupl
e I
knew
had
dat
ed q
uiet
lyfo
r a
year
and
a h
alf.
At t
hat p
oint
, the
man
's m
othe
r to
ok h
imas
ide
and
told
him
that
sin
ce th
e w
oman
was
fro
m a
goo
d fa
mily
, he
coul
d
no lo
nger
ris
k he
r re
puta
tion
by s
trin
ging
her
alo
ng. H
e ha
d on
e of
two
choi
ces:
eith
er c
ut o
ff th
e re
latio
nshi
p or
mak
e he
r hi
s w
ife.
He
did
the
hono
rabl
e th
ing
and
mar
ried
her
.M
ost t
eena
gers
are
stil
l not
allo
wed
to d
ate,
so
pare
nts
thin
kth
eir
child
ren
will
hav
e no
exp
erie
nce
on w
hich
to m
ake
an in
telli
gent
deci
sion
abo
ut a
life
long
mat
e. O
ne o
f a
mot
her's
big
gest
fea
rs is
that
her
care
fully
pen
ned-
in d
augh
ter
will
mak
e a
geta
way
one
day
and
fall
for
the
firs
t rog
ue w
ho c
omes
alo
ng. I
rem
embe
r th
e ru
ckus
in o
neIn
dian
fam
ily I
kne
w w
hen
thei
r be
autif
ul n
iece
fel
l for
aha
ndso
me
Mex
ican
exc
hang
e st
uden
t. I
was
roo
ting
for
her,
but
ala
s, o
neof
the
inte
rlop
er's
old
gir
lfri
ends
turn
ed u
p an
d w
hisk
ed h
im o
ff to
sout
hIn
dia,
bre
akin
g th
e ni
ece'
s he
art b
ut a
vert
ing
a fa
mily
cri
sis.
Mos
tgir
ls
are
mor
e do
cile
and
hav
e co
me
tobe
lieve
wha
t the
y ha
ve b
een
told
from
chi
ldho
od: t
hat t
hey
will
love
the
husb
and
thei
r pa
rent
s se
lect
."F
rom
the
begi
nnin
g, m
y m
ind
was
set
that
my
pare
nts
wer
e go
ing
to c
hoos
e th
e ri
ght p
erso
n fo
r m
e,"
expl
aine
d R
ama
Raj
akum
ar, a
thir
ty-f
our-
year
-old
Bra
hmin
fro
m th
e so
uth
Indi
an s
tate
of
Tam
ilN
adu.
Bra
hmin
s ar
e th
e hi
ghes
t cas
te in
Ind
ia. I
spo
ke to
her
in D
elhi
,w
here
she
was
vis
iting
on
a br
eak
from
her
job
as a
sup
ervi
sor
atth
e
Wor
ld B
ank
in W
ashi
ngto
n. S
he h
ad b
een
livin
g in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
esfo
r si
xtee
n ye
ars.
One
eve
ning
in 1
971,
whe
n sh
e w
as ju
st s
tart
ing
out
in W
ashi
ngto
n as
a W
orld
Ban
k ty
pist
, she
had
gon
e to
a f
rien
d's
hous
ean
d m
et a
man
a T
amil
Bra
hmin
, as
it tu
rned
out
who
was
stu
dy-
ing
at th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Tex
as. H
e se
emed
like
"ju
st a
noth
er g
uy"
tohe
r. S
he h
eard
not
hing
fro
m h
im u
ntil
two
year
s la
ter,
whe
n he
sen
ta
lette
r to
the
frie
nd s
ayin
g he
wan
ted
to m
arry
Ram
a. S
he w
as n
otas
thun
ders
truc
k as
mig
ht b
e im
agin
ed. I
t was
impo
rtan
t to
Ram
a th
atsh
e m
arry
a m
an o
f he
r ow
n ca
ste,
and
it w
as p
roba
bly
no le
ssim
port
ant t
o th
e gr
oom
. Tam
il B
rahm
ins
are
hard
to c
ome
by in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, s
o it
was
not
ext
raor
dina
ry th
at a
n el
igib
le o
ne w
ould
be in
tere
sted
in R
ama.
The
fri
end
quic
kly
took
on
the
role
of
mar
riag
ebr
oker
and
wro
te to
bot
h se
ts o
f pa
rent
s in
Ind
ia.
39
May
You
Be
the
Mot
her
of a
Hun
dred
Son
s33
Firs
t, th
e ho
rosc
opes
of
the
pros
pect
ive
coup
le w
ere
exch
ange
d."T
hey
mat
ched
per
fect
ly,"
Ram
a to
ld m
e. T
he p
aren
ts e
xcha
nged
furt
her
deta
ils o
n fa
mily
bac
kgro
und
and
educ
atio
n. T
hen
phot
os w
ere
mai
led.
A f
ew m
onth
s la
ter,
Ram
a's
pare
nts
decl
ared
them
selv
espl
ease
d. R
ama,
who
was
twen
ty-t
wo
and
had
not h
ad a
dat
e w
ithan
yone
in th
e fo
ur y
ears
she
'd li
ved
in A
mer
ica,
told
them
she
'd m
arry
the
man
. "I
didn
't kn
ow h
im a
t all,
" sh
e sa
id. S
he h
ad n
ot s
een
him
sinc
e th
e m
eetin
g tw
o ye
ars
befo
re, b
ut s
he w
as c
erta
in th
at h
er p
aren
tskn
ew b
est.
The
wed
ding
took
pla
ce in
597
3 in
Ind
ia. W
hen
I as
ked
Ram
a if
she
had
wor
ried
bef
oreh
and
that
she
mig
ht n
ot f
all i
n lo
ve w
ith th
em
an, s
he g
ave
me
a pu
zzle
d lo
ok. "
No,
" sh
e sa
id. "
I ju
st th
ough
t, H
eis
my
husb
and,
and
I lo
ve h
im. H
e is
goi
ng to
be
ever
ythi
ng to
me
from
now
on.
" A
ppar
ently
he
had
been
. Aft
er tw
elve
yea
rs o
f "v
ery
happ
y" m
arri
age,
she
sai
d, "
I st
ill th
ink
he's
a b
ette
r hu
sban
d th
anan
ybod
y I
coul
d ha
ve a
sked
for
."I
rem
embe
r co
min
g ho
me
stun
ned
from
inte
rvie
ws
like
this
, mys
ti-fi
ed b
y w
hat w
as g
oing
on
in th
e m
inds
of
thes
e w
omen
. The
y ha
dse
emed
so
muc
h lik
e m
e at
fir
st. W
hat I
did
not
und
erst
and
at th
e tim
ew
as th
e po
wer
ful s
ense
of
fata
lism
that
Ind
ian
wom
en h
ave.
Str
ict
Hin
dus
belie
ve th
at th
eir
pres
ent l
ives
hav
e be
en p
rede
term
ined
by
thei
r ka
rma,
the
accu
mul
ated
sum
of
all g
ood
and
bad
actio
ns f
rom
thei
r pr
evio
us li
ves.
The
se b
elie
fs a
re s
o ce
ntra
l to
the
relig
ion
that
they
infl
uenc
e ev
en th
e ca
sual
Hin
du to
day.
Wom
en r
outin
ely
told
me
that
they
had
dec
ided
to m
arry
a m
an h
alf
an h
our
afte
r th
e fi
rst m
eetin
gbe
caus
e th
ey f
elt i
t was
"m
eant
" to
be.
"It
's th
e bi
gges
t gam
ble
of o
ne's
life,
" sa
id R
itu N
anda
, the
thir
ty-s
even
-yea
r-ol
d di
rect
or o
f on
e of
Indi
a's
mos
t suc
cess
ful h
ome
appl
ianc
e co
mpa
nies
. "So
why
not
just
leav
e it
to d
estin
y?"
A tr
aditi
onal
wom
an b
elie
ves
that
she
was
mar
ried
to h
er h
usba
nd in
her
pre
viou
s lif
e an
d w
ill r
emai
n m
arri
ed to
him
in th
e ne
xt. T
he w
omen
I in
terv
iew
ed w
ere
too
soph
istic
ated
toen
dors
e th
at v
iew
, but
nob
ody
dism
isse
d it
as n
onse
nse,
eith
er.
Thi
s br
ings
me
to M
eena
, who
se n
ame
I ha
ve c
hang
ed f
or r
easo
nsth
at w
ill b
e ob
viou
s. S
he, t
oo, f
elt t
hat h
er m
arri
age
was
pre
dete
r-m
ined
but I
'm g
ettin
g ah
ead
of th
e st
ory.
I f
irst
met
her
one
sum
mer
,at
the
hom
e of
a f
rien
d. S
he w
as tw
enty
-fiv
e, p
retty
and
sty
lish,
pro
udof
bei
ng a
"m
oder
n" g
irl w
ho w
orke
d in
her
fat
her's
labo
rato
ry s
uppl
ybu
sine
ss. S
he w
as f
rom
a m
iddl
e-cl
ass
fam
ily, w
as a
mbi
tious
and
ass
er-
tive,
and
spo
ke r
apid
, idi
omat
ic E
nglis
h. S
he a
nd h
er p
aren
ts h
ad b
een
enga
ged
in a
n ac
tive
sear
ch to
fin
d he
r a
husb
and.
"M
y pa
rent
s ar
e
40
ME
lisab
eth
Bum
iller
goin
g ab
out i
t in
a ve
ry s
cien
tific
way
," s
he s
aid.
Tha
t mea
nt th
ey w
ere
chec
king
the
mat
rim
onia
l ads
and
ale
rtin
g re
lativ
es a
nd m
utua
l fri
ends
to b
e on
the
look
out f
or p
rosp
ects
. "I
have
alr
eady
bee
n sh
own
seve
ral
boys
," s
he to
ld m
e. (
In a
rran
ged
mar
riag
e pa
rlan
ce, m
en a
nd w
omen
are
"boy
s" a
nd "
girl
s."
Dur
ing
the
intr
oduc
tory
fam
ily g
et-t
oget
hers
,bo
ys a
nd g
irls
are
not
sai
d to
mee
t but
rat
her
are
"sho
wn"
to e
ach
othe
r. T
his
is in
fac
t the
mos
t acc
urat
e te
rm f
or th
e ex
cruc
iatin
g ev
ent.)
Non
e of
the
boys
had
bee
n up
to M
eena
's s
tand
ards
, and
she
had
reje
cted
them
all.
"O
ne o
f th
em d
idn'
t eve
n ha
ve th
e gu
ts to
fin
ish
his
own
past
ry,"
she
sai
d. "
-He
had
to a
sk h
is m
othe
r fi
rst.
So I
sai
d,'G
ood-
bye.
'" S
he h
ad a
sked
the
boys
who
wer
e bu
sine
ssm
en d
etai
led
ques
tions
abo
ut th
eir
acco
unts
, bec
ause
"be
ing
in b
usin
ess
mys
elf;
Iw
ant t
o kn
ow."
She
see
med
to b
e in
the
mar
ket f
or a
chi
ef e
xecu
tive
offi
cer
rath
er th
an a
hus
band
. I d
idn'
t hav
e m
uch
hope
that
she
'dei
ther
one
.I
was
wro
ng. S
even
mon
ths
late
r, I
got
an
invi
tatio
n to
her
wed
ding
.Sh
e ha
d fo
und
hers
elf
a yo
ung
doct
or, h
er s
iste
r-in
-law
's b
roth
er-i
n-la
w, a
plu
mp
twen
ty-e
ight
-yea
r-ol
d w
ith a
sof
t, sw
eet f
ace.
She
had
firs
t met
him
at h
er h
ouse
, whe
re b
oth
sets
of
pare
nts
mad
e aw
kwar
dco
nver
satio
n ov
er te
a. T
hen
she
and
the
boy
wen
t to
her
room
alo
nefo
r tw
enty
-fiv
e m
inut
es. S
he f
ound
him
"ve
ry n
ice
to ta
lk to
" an
d w
as"i
ndif
fere
nt"
to h
is lo
oks;
he
was
a b
ig im
prov
emen
t ove
r he
r pr
evio
uspr
ospe
cts.
"T
here
wer
e on
e or
two
case
sw
here
the
guys
phy
sica
llyre
puls
ed m
e,"
she
said
. Tha
t eve
ning
his
par
ents
cal
led
and
said
the
boy
wan
ted
to s
ee h
er a
gain
, so
the
two
met
alo
ne f
or c
offe
e th
e ne
xt d
ay.
Aft
er th
at th
ere
was
a m
onth
of
sile
nce.
The
n on
e da
y th
e bo
y's
mot
her
calle
d M
eena
's m
othe
r, a
nd th
e tw
o w
omen
got
dow
n to
bus
ines
s.bo
y's
mot
her
wan
ted
to k
now
if M
eena
had
bec
ome
enga
ged
toan
yone
els
e,an
d w
hen
Mee
na's
mot
her
said
no,
the
boy'
s m
othe
r sa
idth
e fa
mily
wou
ld li
ke to
ask
for
Mee
na's
han
d. M
eena
's m
othe
r sa
idsh
e w
ould
che
ck to
see
if h
er d
augh
ter
was
stil
l int
eres
ted
and
call
back
.M
eena
thou
ght a
bout
it f
or a
mom
ent,
then
sai
d ye
s. "
I w
as v
ery
indi
ffer
ent,
fran
kly,
" sh
e ex
plai
ned
to m
e la
ter.
"I
used
to a
lway
s ju
dge
any
prop
osal
that
cam
em
y w
ay o
nth
e sp
ecif
ic m
erits
." S
ince
the
boy
had
good
cre
dent
ials
and
she
had
no
maj
or o
bjec
tions
to' h
im, s
hein
stin
ctiv
ely
felt
that
the
mar
riag
e w
ould
be
righ
t. Sh
e kn
ew h
is f
amily
was
mor
e co
nser
vativ
e th
an h
ers,
but
she
did
not
exp
ect t
hat t
oa
prob
lem
. "I
was
ver
y fa
talis
tic,"
she
sai
d.T
he tw
o w
ent o
n th
ree
date
s be
fore
the
wed
ding
once
, sho
ppin
g,fo
llow
ed b
y lu
nch
at P
izza
Kin
g; a
noth
er ti
me
to a
mov
ie; a
nd th
en
4
May
You
Be
the
Mot
her
of a
Hun
dred
Son
s35
to a
n ex
pens
ive
dinn
er a
t the
Taj
Mah
al H
otel
. Aft
erw
ard
they
sat
inth
e lo
bby
and
wat
ched
the
fore
ign
tour
ists
go
by. I
t was
all
very
glam
orou
s. M
eena
had
bee
n sp
endi
ng h
er d
ays
shop
ping
for
sar
is a
ndlin
ens,
hel
ping
with
the
gues
t lis
t, an
d di
scus
sing
the
new
Mar
uti c
arhe
r pa
rent
s w
ere
goin
g to
giv
e he
r as
a w
eddi
ng p
rese
nt a
s th
e m
ajor
part
of
the
dow
ryhe
r pa
rent
s ha
d pr
omis
ed h
er in
-law
s du
ring
the
prew
eddi
ng n
egot
iatio
ns. F
ortu
nate
ly, M
eena
was
dis
cove
ring
that
she
liked
the
boy
"tre
men
dous
ly."
The
idea
of
a hu
sban
d th
rille
d he
r. "
Iw
as e
xcite
d ab
out h
avin
g a
man
aro
und,
livi
ngw
ith h
im, a
nd h
avin
gal
l the
fri
lls a
nd f
anci
es,"
she
sai
d.H
er w
eddi
ng s
tart
ed "
on ti
me,
" a
mer
e tw
o ho
urs
behi
nd s
ched
ule.
I ar
rive
d on
ly a
hal
f ho
ur la
te, t
hink
ing
this
wou
ld b
e so
cial
ly c
orre
ct,
and
foun
d m
ysel
f al
one
with
the
cate
rer.
Thi
s ga
ve m
e a
chan
ce to
look
arou
nd. T
he w
eddi
ng w
as to
be
held
in a
larg
e gr
assy
are
a, o
pen
toth
e sk
y bu
t enc
lose
d on
fou
r si
des
by c
ircu
s -s
tyle
can
vas
fenc
ing.
Ins
ide,
row
s of
met
al c
hair
s sa
t fac
ing
a ce
nter
pla
tfor
m w
ith tw
ore
d pl
ush-
cove
red
thro
nes
for
the
brid
e an
d gr
oom
. Wai
ters
wer
e st
ill s
ettin
g up
a bu
ffet
of
heav
y ch
icke
n an
d la
mb
curr
ies
in a
tent
lit b
y fl
uore
scen
tlig
hts.
Ski
nny
men
wer
e ha
ngin
g st
rand
s of
mar
igol
ds f
rom
the
cano
pyun
der
whi
ch th
e re
ligio
us c
erem
ony
wou
ld ta
ke p
lace
. It a
ll ha
d th
efe
el o
f a
smal
l-to
wn
fair
. As
I w
atch
ed th
e pr
epar
atio
ns, t
he h
otaf
tern
oon
gave
way
to a
pre
tty o
rang
e sk
y an
d th
en a
coo
l Mar
chev
enin
g. T
he g
rass
sm
elle
d fr
esh,
and
Del
hi's
traf
fic
rum
bled
in th
e
back
grou
nd.
Mee
na f
inal
ly a
rriv
ed, l
ooki
ng p
redi
ctab
ly d
azed
, and
was
imm
edi-
atel
y us
here
d to
a r
oom
in a
littl
e bu
ildin
g ne
ar th
e w
eddi
ng e
nclo
sure
.T
he w
omen
of
the
fam
ily s
urro
unde
d he
r, o
ffer
ing
bits
of
advi
ce. H
erw
eddi
ng d
ress
was
a h
eavy
silk
in h
ot p
ink,
and
her
nos
e ri
ng, s
imila
rin
sty
le to
an
enor
mou
s je
wel
ed h
oop
earr
ing,
hun
g fr
om o
ne n
ostr
ilal
l the
way
dow
n to
her
lips
. Thi
s m
ade
talk
ing
diff
icul
t, al
thou
gh s
hegi
ggle
d a
lot.
I ga
ve h
er a
bou
quet
of
swee
t pea
s an
d w
ishe
d he
r go
odlu
ck.
At l
ast t
he g
room
pul
led
up o
n hi
s w
hite
hor
se a
nd th
ings
got
und
erw
ay, i
n a
man
ner
of s
peak
ing.
The
re is
a c
erta
in a
imle
ssne
ss to
Ind
ian
wed
ding
s th
at is
con
fusi
ng a
t fir
st. M
ost o
f th
e gu
ests
igno
red
the
relig
ious
cer
emon
y, ta
lkin
g am
ong
them
selv
es a
nd w
ande
ring
aro
und
whi
le c
hild
ren
chas
ed e
ach
othe
r th
roug
h th
e gr
ass.
A r
igid
row
of
aunt
s ha
d al
read
y po
sitio
ned
them
selv
es n
ear
the
food
. Non
e of
this
was
con
side
red
impo
lite.
Wed
ding
cer
emon
ies
usua
lly d
rag
onfo
rho
urs
and
only
imm
edia
te r
elat
ives
are
exp
ecte
d to
end
ure
wat
chin
g
42
36E
lisab
eth
Bum
iller
them
with
out i
nter
rupt
ion.
But
I lo
ved
muc
h of
wha
t I s
aw. A
s a
prie
stch
ante
d Sa
nskr
it pr
ayer
s, M
eena
and
the
groo
m s
at u
nder
the
cano
pyin
fro
nt o
f th
e sa
cred
fir
e fo
r se
vera
l hou
rs, t
he g
low
fro
m th
e fl
ames
refl
ecte
d in
thei
r fa
ces.
Tow
ard
the
end,
aft
er M
eena
's la
ther
had
slip
ped
the
prie
st s
ome
rupe
es to
hur
ry th
ings
up,
as
fath
ers
of I
ndia
nbr
ides
oft
en d
o, M
eena
and
the
groo
m r
ose
to c
ircl
e th
e fi
re, t
he g
room
lead
ing
Mee
na s
low
ly in
a c
lock
wis
e di
rect
ion.
The
cou
ple
took
sev
en
step
s, e
ach
one
repr
esen
ting
a bl
essi
ng: f
ood,
str
engt
h, w
ealth
, hap
pi-
ness
, pro
geny
, cat
tle a
nd d
evot
ion.
Aft
er th
e se
vent
h st
ep, t
he m
arri
age
was
irre
voca
ble.
The
pri
est s
prin
kled
hol
y w
ater
on
the
coup
le, a
ndso
on th
ey to
ok th
eir
seat
s on
the
two
thro
nes
as th
e fl
ashe
s fr
om th
egu
ests
' cam
eras
exp
lode
d in
thei
r fa
ces.
Mee
na s
aid
afte
rwar
d th
at h
erm
ind
was
a b
lank
.W
hen
it w
as a
ll ov
er a
roun
d m
idni
ght,
she
said
goo
d-by
e to
her
fam
ily a
nd, l
ike
mos
t Ind
ian
brid
es, b
roke
dow
n in
tear
s. I
had
long
sinc
e le
ft, b
ut I
had
see
n th
ese
mel
odra
mas
bef
ore.
The
y ar
c th
e cr
ucia
lhy
ster
ical
con
clus
ion
to a
ny I
ndia
n w
eddi
ng. F
rom
that
nig
ht o
n, th
ebr
ide
is n
o lo
nger
con
side
red
a da
ught
er in
her
par
ents
' hom
e. I
nste
adsh
e w
ill m
ove
in w
ith h
er h
usba
nd a
nd in
-law
s an
d be
gin
a ne
w li
feam
ong
aho
useh
old
of s
tran
gers
. Ind
ian
brid
es h
andl
e th
ese
part
ings
with
gre
at th
eatr
ics,
oft
en w
ailin
g un
cont
rolla
bly,
whi
ch I
eve
ntua
llyde
cide
d w
as th
e on
ly r
atio
nal r
espo
nse,
giv
en w
hat w
as in
sto
re f
orm
any
of th
em. T
he b
ride
's m
othe
r an
d si
ster
s w
ail a
long
with
her
, and
so d
oes
her
fath
er, a
s sh
e is
slo
wly
pus
hed
thro
ugh
the
crow
d an
d in
toth
e ca
r th
at w
ill ta
ke h
er a
way
. The
fir
st ti
me
I sa
w th
is I
did
n't e
ven
know
the
fam
ily, b
ut I
fou
nd it
so
wre
nchi
ng th
at I
cri
ed to
o.M
eena
spe
nt h
er w
eddi
ng n
ight
toss
ing
nerv
ousl
y in
a b
edro
omw
ith h
er m
othe
r-in
-law
and
sev
eral
oth
er w
omen
she
did
not
kno
w.
In c
onse
rvat
ive
Indi
an f
amili
es, t
his
is tr
aditi
onal
; the
new
hus
band
and
the
men
sle
ep e
lsew
here
. It w
as n
ot u
ntil
the
next
nig
ht th
at M
eena
was
allo
wed
to s
leep
with
her
hus
band
, and
then
was
rel
ieve
d w
hen
he d
idn'
t wan
t to
mak
e lo
ve. "
Tha
t was
rat
her
nice
of
him
," s
he s
aid.
"Nor
mal
ly, a
boy
just
pou
nces
on
the
girl
." B
oth
she
and
her
husb
and
wer
e vi
rgin
s. T
he m
arri
age
was
fin
ally
con
sum
mat
ed th
e fo
llow
ing
nigh
t, an
exp
erie
nce
Mee
na d
escr
ibed
to m
e as
qui
ck a
nd p
hysi
cally
{{ve
ry p
ainf
ul."
Nei
ther
hus
band
nor
wif
e ta
lked
muc
h ab
out w
hat w
as-
occu
rrin
g be
twee
n th
em, a
lthou
gh th
e ne
xt m
orni
ng M
eena
not
iced
that
her
hus
band
see
med
gla
d th
at "
he h
ad g
ot th
roug
h itn
o di
sast
erha
d ha
ppen
ed."
At f
irst
I h
eard
fro
m f
rien
ds th
at M
eena
was
ecs
tatic
abo
ut h
er n
ew
43
May
You
Be
the
Mot
her
of a
Hun
dred
Son
s37
life.
The
n I
bega
n he
arin
g th
at s
he w
as f
ight
ing
with
her
mot
her-
in-
law
. Tha
t see
med
rou
tine,
so
I di
dn't
give
it m
uch
thou
ght.
But
then
,no
t qui
te a
yea
r la
ter,
I w
as to
ld s
he h
ad m
oved
bac
k w
ith h
er p
aren
tsan
d th
at th
e m
arri
age
was
ove
r. I
was
sur
pris
edno
t by
am
arri
age
that
had
turn
ed o
ut b
adly
, but
by
Mee
na's
ret
urn
hom
e. T
enye
ars
ago
that
wou
ld h
ave
been
impo
ssib
le f
or h
er; h
erpa
rent
s co
uld
not h
ave
endu
red
the
scan
dal a
nd s
he w
ould
hav
e ha
d to
stic
k w
ith a
mis
erab
lem
arri
age
for
the
rest
of
her
life.
So
I gu
ess
this
was
cha
nge.
I w
ent t
ose
e M
eena
a f
ew d
ays
afte
r he
r fi
rst w
eddi
ng a
nniv
ersa
ry, o
n a
depr
ess-
ing,
alr
eady
hot
Mar
ch a
fter
noon
. I s
at w
ith h
er f
or tw
o ho
urs,
in a
dark
ened
ups
tair
s fl
at w
ith a
vie
w th
roug
h th
e ch
ick
blin
ds o
f ch
ildre
npl
ayin
g in
the
dust
of
a dr
ied-
out p
ark.
She
was
thin
ner
and
look
edba
dly
shak
en, a
nd s
he c
ried
as
she
told
me
she
wou
ld p
roba
bly
get a
divo
rce.
It w
as a
wfu
l for
her
. No
mat
ter
wha
t all
the
Indi
an m
agaz
ines
said
abo
ut th
e in
crea
sing
div
orce
rat
eam
ong
the
mid
dle
clas
s, th
e tr
uth
was
that
for
wom
en it
was
stil
l con
side
red
sham
eful
. Mee
na w
ould
have
trou
ble
mar
ryin
g ag
ain.
Her
hus
band
wou
ld n
ot.
At f
irst
the
mar
riag
e ha
d be
en "
okay
," M
eena
sai
d. A
t her
in-l
aws'
requ
est,
she
had
give
n up
her
job
and
was
hel
ping
aro
und
the
hous
e,cl
eani
ng a
nd c
ooki
ng, p
rim
arily
. She
cla
imed
she
had
no
trou
ble
filli
nghe
r da
ys, e
ven
thou
gh s
he c
ould
no
long
ergo
out
and
see
fri
ends
as
free
ly a
s be
fore
. "W
hen
you
have
tim
e on
you
r ha
nds,
" sh
e sa
id, "
you
mak
e th
ings
in th
e ki
tche
n th
at d
on't
need
to b
e m
ade,
or
eat t
hing
syo
u do
n't n
eed
to e
at."
But
she
was
eag
er to
be
a go
od I
ndia
n w
ife
and
so w
as w
illin
g to
com
prom
ise.
Tha
t esp
ecia
lly a
pplie
d to
sex,
whi
ch h
ad n
ot im
prov
ed s
ince
the
firs
t nig
ht. H
er h
usba
nd w
as o
ften
impo
tent
, and
on
the
nigh
ts w
hen
he w
asn'
t she
fou
nd s
he s
till d
idn'
ten
joy
"the
act
itse
lf."
Her
mot
her-
in-l
aw, m
eanw
hile
, had
bee
n ke
ep-
ing
a cl
ose
wat
ch o
n th
e tim
e th
e ne
wly
wed
s sp
ent i
n th
eir
room
alo
ne.
.A
fter
the
firs
t mon
th, M
eena
fel
t her
hus
band
was
with
draw
ing
from
her
. The
n he
sto
pped
talk
ing
to h
er a
ltoge
ther
. Tw
o si
lent
mon
ths
late
r he
fin
ally
adm
itted
that
he
had
mad
e a
mis
take
and
that
his
mot
her
had
pres
sure
d hi
m to
mar
ry h
er. H
e no
long
er c
ame
to th
eir
room
, sle
epin
g on
the
terr
ace
inst
ead.
"It
was
hor
ribl
e,"
Mee
na s
aid.
"I w
as s
hatte
red.
" Sh
e de
cide
d th
at h
e m
ust h
ave
"hom
osex
ual t
ende
n-ci
es"
or o
ther
"ph
ysic
al p
robl
ems.
" H
er m
othe
r-in
-law
, she
bel
ieve
d,w
as "
filli
ng h
is e
ars
with
lies
" ab
out h
er. A
noth
er p
robl
em w
as th
eM
arut
i; th
e ca
r de
liver
y ha
d be
en h
eld
up b
y th
e co
mpa
ny, y
et M
eena
'sm
othe
r-in
-law
was
dem
andi
ng to
kno
w w
here
it w
as. B
y m
idsu
mm
erM
eena
had
mov
ed b
ack
with
her
par
ents
"I w
ould
hav
e co
mm
itted
44
1
38E
lisab
eth
Bum
iller
suic
ide
if I
had
n't c
ome
hom
e"an
d w
as ta
king
dai
ly tr
anqu
ilize
rsan
d
slee
ping
pill
s pr
escr
ibed
by
a ps
ychi
atri
st.Sh
e ha
d se
en th
e do
ctor
onl
y
once
bec
ause
he
wou
ld n
ot tr
eat h
er u
nles
s sh
e an
d he
r hu
sban
d ca
me
in a
s a
coup
le. T
hen,
that
fal
l, he
r m
othe
r-in
-law
sud
denl
yca
lled
to
ask
her
back
. By
this
tim
e, M
eena
had
fou
nd a
goo
d jo
bin
adv
ertis
ing,
and
her
pare
nts,
mor
e co
ncer
ned
abou
t the
ir d
augh
ter's
hap
pine
ssth
an
wha
t the
nei
ghbo
rs m
ight
say
, tol
d he
r no
t to
go. B
utof
f sh
e w
ent,
dete
rmin
ed to
giv
e it
one
last
try.
The
rec
onci
liatio
nla
sted
a w
eek,
and
afte
r a
figh
t with
her
in-l
aws,
Mee
na w
asba
ck h
ome.
Who
kno
ws
wha
t the
oth
er s
ide
of th
e st
ory
was
. Idi
dn't
have
it
in m
e to
trac
k do
wn
Mee
na's
hus
band
and
pre
sent
him
with
her
cha
rges
just
as
the
fam
ily w
as b
egin
ning
divo
rce
proc
eedi
ngs.
May
be M
eena
was
impo
ssib
le to
live
with
. May
be s
he h
ad b
een
too
"mod
ern"
and
aggr
essi
ve a
nd h
ad m
ade
her
husb
and
feel
inad
equa
te in
bed
. I g
uess
edhe
had
bee
n te
lling
the
trut
h w
hen
he s
aid
heha
d be
en p
ress
ured
into
mar
ryin
g he
r. H
e pr
obab
ly w
as n
ot s
oaw
ful,
alth
ough
I s
uspe
cted
her
mot
her-
in-l
aw w
as. T
he p
oint
is th
at M
eena
's e
xper
ienc
e,fr
om th
e
brid
e's
poin
t of
view
, was
not
at a
ll un
usua
l. C
erta
inly
her
sexu
al
prob
lem
s w
ere
not.
In th
eory
, dur
ing
the
firs
t pha
se o
f an
arr
ange
d m
arri
age,
abr
ide
has
trem
endo
us s
educ
tive
pow
er o
ver
her
husb
and.
The
fir
st f
ew y
ears
are
mea
nt to
be
spen
t in
sexu
al p
assi
on, b
ut w
hen
thin
gs c
ool o
ff, a
s
expe
cted
, the
n pa
rent
s be
lieve
itis
for
tuna
te th
at th
ey h
ad th
e fo
resi
ght
to m
atch
up
two
com
patib
le p
eopl
ew
ho c
an s
ettle
dow
n to
the
ever
yday
bus
ines
s of
life
. "L
ove
is f
ine,
" U
sha
Seth
, a f
orty
-one
-yea
r-ol
d N
ew D
elhi
hou
sew
ife,
told
me.
"B
ut a
fter
the
firs
t few
yea
rs, t
hat's
whe
n yo
u re
aliz
e ho
w im
port
ant i
t is
that
a p
erso
n is
cons
ider
ate
and
kind
." P
aren
ts a
re a
lso
awar
e of
the
all-
cons
umin
g lu
stth
at c
an r
age
betw
een
a yo
ung
man
and
wom
an w
ho h
ave
neve
rhad
sex
bef
ore.
Thi
s
is s
omet
imes
cite
d as
one
rea
son
that
the
brid
e sp
ends
tim
e aw
ay f
rom
her
husb
and
duri
ng th
e fi
rst y
ear
of m
arri
age,
usu
ally
in lo
ng v
isits
to
her
fam
ily. M
ahat
ma
Gan
dhi s
ays
in h
is a
utob
iogr
aphy
that
it w
as th
is
cust
om th
at h
elpe
d ke
ep h
imfr
om d
row
ning
in s
exua
l obs
essi
on
duri
ng th
e fi
rst y
ear
of h
is a
rran
ged
mar
riag
e,w
hen
he a
nd h
is w
ife
wer
e th
irte
en. E
very
few
mon
ths,
his
brid
e's
pare
nts
wou
ld s
umm
onhe
r ho
me.
"Su
ch c
alls
wer
e ve
ry u
nwel
com
e in
thos
e da
ys,"
Gan
dhi
wro
te, "
but t
hey
save
d us
both
." (
The
Gan
dhi b
iogr
aphe
r an
d ps
ycho
-an
alys
t Eri
k E
riks
on, h
owev
er, s
ees
som
ethi
ng m
ore
sign
ific
ant i
nG
andh
i's a
dmis
sion
of
adol
esce
nt lu
st. "
How
'pas
sion
ate'
such
a b
oy
or m
an r
eally
is b
ecom
es a
moo
t que
stio
n,fo
r w
e ca
n on
ly k
now
of
May
You
Be
the
Mot
her
of a
Hun
dred
Son
s39
the
quan
titat
ive
thre
at w
hich
he
feel
s th
e ne
ed o
f co
nfes
sing
," E
riks
onw
rite
s. "
But
one
thin
g is
dev
asta
tingl
y ce
rtai
n: n
owhe
re is
ther
ean
ysu
gges
tion
of jo
yful
intim
acy.
" E
riks
on a
rgue
s th
at G
andh
i in
fact
harb
ored
"so
me
vind
ictiv
enes
s, e
spec
ially
tow
ard
wom
an a
s th
ete
mp-
tres
s,"
whi
ch in
his
late
r ye
ars
mad
e hi
m a
ttem
pt, a
t fir
st w
ith m
ixed
succ
ess,
a li
fe o
f ce
libac
y.)
Wha
teve
rm
ay b
e tr
ue o
f G
andh
i, th
e co
mm
on r
ealit
y ap
pear
s to
be c
lose
r to
wha
t Mee
na e
xper
ienc
ed. T
he p
sych
oana
lyst
Sud
hir
Kak
ar,
in a
198
7 le
ctur
e de
liver
ed a
t the
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
alif
orni
a at
Ber
kele
y,sp
oke
of th
e "w
ides
prea
d se
xual
mis
ery"
am
ong
all c
lass
es in
Ind
ia.
"Eve
n di
scou
ntin
g th
e se
xual
woe
s of
a v
ast n
umbe
r of
mid
dle-
and
uppe
r-m
iddl
e-cl
ass
wom
en w
ho c
ome
for
psyc
hoth
erap
y as
an
unre
-pr
esen
tativ
e ex
ampl
e,"
he s
aid,
"th
ere
are
othe
r, d
irec
t ind
icat
ions
that
sexu
al m
iser
y is
equ
ally
wid
espr
ead
in th
e lo
wes
t cas
tes.
" T
he s
tand
ard
notio
n in
Ind
ia h
as a
lway
s be
en th
atve
ry p
oor
and
very
ric
h w
omen
enjo
y se
x be
caus
e th
ey li
ve f
ree
of r
epre
ssiv
e m
iddl
e-cl
ass
mor
ality
. But
Kak
ar c
ited
inte
rvie
ws
with
Har
ijan,
or
"Unt
ouch
able
," w
omen
inD
elhi
mem
bers
of
the
low
est o
f ca
stes
who
des
crib
ed s
exua
l int
er-
cour
se a
s "p
ainf
ul o
r di
stas
tefu
l or
both
," p
ortr
ayin
g it
"as
a fu
rtiv
eac
t in
a cr
ampe
d an
d cr
owde
d ro
om, l
astin
g ba
rely
a f
ew m
inut
es a
ndw
ith a
mar
ked
abse
nce
of p
hysi
cal o
r em
otio
nal c
ares
sing
."T
his
does
not
sur
pris
e th
e co
untr
y's
grow
ing
band
of
"sex
olog
ists
,"as
sex
ther
apis
ts in
Ind
ia a
re c
alle
d. A
for
eign
trav
eler
can
not h
elp
but
notic
e th
e ad
vert
isem
ents
for
aph
rodi
siac
s, s
ex "
cure
s" a
nd s
peci
alm
edic
ines
on
billb
oard
s ac
ross
Ind
ia. "
Mos
t Ind
ian
men
, whe
ther
ric
h,po
or o
r m
iddl
e-cl
ass,
use
thei
r w
ives
as
slee
ping
pill
s,"
Prak
ash
Kot
hari
told
me.
"T
hey
do n
ot k
now
that
for
epla
y an
d af
terp
lay
are
impo
rtan
tin
gred
ient
s in
the
sex
act."
Kot
hari
, the
cou
ntry
's b
est-
know
n an
d m
ost
publ
icity
-con
scio
us s
exol
ogis
t, a
prof
essi
onal
who
sho
uld
not b
e co
n-fu
sed
with
the
"doc
tors
" w
ho a
dver
tise
on b
illbo
ards
, run
s a
thri
ving
high
-pri
ced
prac
tice
amon
g th
e m
iddl
e cl
ass
of B
omba
y. H
e ha
s do
neso
me
seri
ous
rese
arch
, yet
has
an
unfo
rtun
ate
styl
e th
at g
ets
in h
is w
ay.
He
auto
grap
hed
aco
pyof
an
Am
eric
an p
orno
grap
hy m
agaz
ine
and
gave
it to
an
Indi
an w
oman
jour
nalis
t I k
new
; for
me
he b
roug
ht o
uthi
s co
llect
ion
of s
even
teen
th-c
entu
ry m
inia
ture
ivor
ype
nise
s an
dbr
east
s fr
om R
ajas
than
. Les
s fl
ambo
yant
is R
. H. D
astu
r, a
noth
erB
omba
y se
xolo
gist
and
aut
hor
of th
e be
st-s
ellin
g Se
x Po
wer
, a h
ow-t
obo
ok n
ow in
its
sixt
h pr
intin
g. I
n in
terv
iew
s th
at D
astu
r's r
esea
rche
rsco
nduc
ted
with
695
mid
dle-
clas
s w
omen
fro
m 1
983
to 1
986
in B
om-
bay,
Das
tur
foun
d th
at o
nly
so to
15
perc
ent s
aid
they
rea
ched
orga
sm
4G
;
--t
40E
lisab
eth
Bum
iller
duri
ng in
terc
ours
e. T
he r
est,
Das
tur
said
, "m
erel
y su
bmitt
edto
sex
and
wen
t thr
ough
it m
echa
nica
lly w
ith th
e id
ea th
at it
was
thei
r du
ty in
orde
r to
hav
e a
mal
e ch
ild."
Sig
nifi
cant
ly, t
here
is s
aid
to b
e no
wor
din
any
Ind
ian
lang
uage
spe
cifi
cally
for
"or
gasm
." N
on-E
nglis
h-sp
eak-
ing
wom
en u
se w
ords
loos
ely
tran
slat
ed a
s "h
appi
ness
"or
"pe
rfec
tsa
tisfa
ctio
n."
Das
tur
is a
n in
tern
ist w
ho f
ell i
nto
sex
ther
apy
as a
sid
elin
e af
ter
his
patie
nts
bega
n br
ingi
ng th
eir
prob
lem
s to
him
. Mos
tw
ere
youn
gm
en c
onsu
med
by
guilt
ove
r m
astu
rbat
ion
or c
onvi
nced
that
it w
ould
lead
to in
sani
ty. O
ther
men
wer
eun
sure
abo
ut h
ow to
per
form
inte
r-co
urse
. Bef
ore
mar
riag
e, s
aid
Das
tur,
"th
e la
rge
maj
ority
of
the
mid
dle
clas
s ha
s ha
d no
sex
ual e
xper
ienc
e w
hats
oeve
r."
The
mos
t com
mon
prob
lem
am
ong
the
mar
ried
cou
ples
Das
tur
trea
ts is
pre
mat
ure
ejac
ula-
tion
or im
pote
nce,
whi
ch D
astu
r sa
ys th
e hu
sban
d of
ten
blam
eson
his
wif
e. I
n on
e ca
se, t
he im
pote
nce
had
last
ed f
orse
ven
year
s fr
om th
eda
y of
the
wed
ding
. Kot
hari
cla
imed
he
knew
of
case
s of
impo
tenc
eth
at la
sted
twen
ty y
ears
. Sud
hir
Kak
argo
es a
big
ste
p fu
rthe
r in
The
Inne
r W
orld
, his
psy
choa
naly
tic s
tudy
of
Indi
an c
hild
hood
, whe
n he
wri
tes
of th
e "u
biqu
ity"
of m
ale
impo
tenc
e in
Ind
ia, b
lam
ing
iton
a"v
icio
us c
ircl
e th
at s
pira
ls in
war
d in
the
Indi
an u
ncon
scio
us."
Kak
ar's
theo
ry is
that
wom
en a
re s
exua
lly th
reat
enin
g to
Ind
ian
men
, whi
chca
uses
"av
oida
nce
beha
vior
" in
sex
ual r
elat
ions
, whi
ch th
en c
ause
sfr
ustr
ated
, lon
ely
wom
en to
"ex
tend
a p
rovo
cativ
e se
xual
pres
ence
tow
ard
thei
r so
ns."
Cer
tain
ly, I
ndia
n m
othe
rs m
ake
a hu
ge e
mot
iona
lin
vest
men
t in
thei
r so
ns. K
akar
bel
ieve
s th
is is
a h
uman
rea
ctio
nto
the
dist
ance
fro
m h
er h
usba
nd th
at a
wom
an f
eels
in a
typi
cal a
rran
ged
mar
riag
e. H
er s
on m
ay w
ell b
e th
e fi
rst m
ale
with
who
m s
he h
as h
adan
y so
rt o
f de
ep a
nd s
atis
fyin
g re
latio
nshi
p. T
his
ultim
atel
y pr
oduc
esad
ult m
ales
, Kak
ar b
elie
ves,
who
are
afr
aid
of b
eing
ove
rwhe
lmed
or"d
evou
red"
by
thei
r m
othe
rs. T
hus,
to c
ompl
ete
the
cycl
e, th
ey f
ear
the
sexu
ality
of
mat
ure
wom
en. M
ama'
s bo
ys a
nd th
e O
edip
usco
m-
plex
are
of
cour
se n
ot u
niqu
e to
Ind
ia, b
ut th
e in
tens
ity a
nd p
erva
sive
-ne
ss o
f th
e cy
cle
may
be.
In I
ndia
, it i
s co
mm
on f
or b
oys
to s
leep
with
thei
r m
othe
rs u
ntil
they
are
fiv
e ye
ars
old.
In
Cal
cutta
, I k
new
of a
wom
an w
ho s
till s
lept
with
her
sev
ente
en-y
ear-
old
son.
A p
sych
oana
lyst
ther
e to
ldm
e th
atw
as n
ot u
nusu
al. I
n 19
61, a
stu
dy o
f a
com
mun
ity o
f bu
sine
ss f
amili
esne
ar D
elhi
fou
nd th
at m
ore
than
hal
f th
e m
en d
escr
ibed
them
selv
es a
sbe
ing
clos
er to
thei
r m
othe
rs th
an to
thei
r w
ives
. Ano
ther
wom
an I
inte
rvie
wed
, a g
over
nmen
t res
earc
her
who
se a
rran
ged
mar
riag
e ha
d
47
May
You
Be
the
Mot
her
ofa
Hun
dred
Son
s41
split
up,
told
me
the
rela
tions
hip
mig
ht h
ave
wor
ked
if s
he h
adde
man
ded
that
she
and
her
hus
band
not l
ive
with
his
fam
ily. "
But
it's
too
muc
h to
ask
of
a bo
y,"
she
said
. "If
he
leav
eshi
s fa
mily
and
join
shi
s w
ife,
it's
sor
t of a
cri
me.
He'
s kn
own
them
all
his
life
and
he's
onl
ykn
own
me
for
thre
e ye
ars.
"So
cial
his
tori
ans
say
that
pro
crea
tion
and
duty
wer
e tr
aditi
onal
lym
ore
impo
rtan
t in
Indi
an m
arri
age
than
sex
ual
satis
fact
ion.
Hus
band
and
wif
e ha
ve n
ever
bee
n re
gard
edas
equ
als.
Tw
o th
ousa
nd y
ears
ago
,th
e up
per-
cast
e la
w c
odif
ier
Man
u w
rote
that
a h
usba
nd, "
thou
ghde
stitu
te o
f vi
rtue
,or
see
king
ple
asur
e el
sew
here
, or
devo
id o
f go
odqu
aliti
es,"
mus
t be
"con
stan
tly w
orsh
ippe
das
a g
od b
y a
faith
ful w
ife.
"O
nly
the
low
er c
aste
s m
arri
ed f
orse
xual
ple
asur
e, a
ccor
ding
to M
anu.
Khu
shw
ant S
ingh
, a h
isto
rian
, jou
rnal
ist a
nd s
ocia
l obs
erve
r, is
onl
yha
lf jo
king
whe
n he
say
s th
at "
all o
f the
vio
lenc
e in
this
cou
ntry
com
esfr
om r
epre
ssed
sex
ualit
y."
The
se v
iew
s ar
e ha
rdto
rec
onci
le w
ith th
e ex
trao
rdin
arily
ric
htr
aditi
on o
f lo
ve a
nd p
assi
on th
atis
Ind
ia's
her
itage
. The
Kam
a-su
tra
is p
roba
bly
the
mos
t fam
ous
poem
eve
r w
ritte
n on
the
fine
r po
ints
of
love
mak
ing,
and
the
erot
ic te
mpl
esc
ulpt
ures
at K
haju
raho
stil
l sta
rtle
Wes
tern
ers.
The
Ind
ian
gods
cop
ulat
e bl
issf
ully
acro
ss th
e pa
ges
of th
egr
eat e
pics
, and
eve
ry s
choo
lchi
ld k
now
s th
e lo
vest
ory
of th
e go
dK
rish
na a
nd th
e be
autif
ul m
ilkm
aid
Rad
ha. S
he w
as n
o w
orsh
ipin
gdo
orm
at b
ut r
athe
ra
prou
d, p
assi
onat
e w
oman
who
cri
edou
t to
Kri
shna
that
"m
y be
autif
ul lo
ins
are
a de
ep c
aver
n to
take
the
thru
sts
of lo
ve."
Tho
se w
ords
wer
e w
ritte
n in
the
twel
fth
cent
ury,
inan
ero
tic,
lyri
cal l
ove
poem
cal
led
the
Gita
govi
nda
that
is s
till p
erfo
rmed
and
sung
thro
ugho
ut I
ndia
.T
oday
, the
lege
nd o
f K
rish
na a
ndR
adha
rem
ains
one
key
to u
nder
-st
andi
ng th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
nm
arri
age
and
love
in I
ndia
. The
Gita
govi
nda
mad
e th
em th
em
ost p
opul
ar c
oupl
e in
the
Indi
anpa
n-th
eon,
coi
ncid
ing
with
the
Bha
kti
mov
emen
t in
Hin
duis
m, w
hich
emph
asiz
ed a
n in
tens
e pe
rson
al d
evot
ion
to a
god
, alm
ost l
ike
that
of
a lo
ver
and
belo
ved.
Tod
ay, r
ural
wom
en in
par
ticul
ar w
orsh
ipK
rish
na a
lmos
t lik
ea
mov
ie id
ol. A
nyon
e w
ho d
oubt
s th
at n
eed
only
see
the
fren
zy th
at o
ccur
s on
his
bir
thda
y in
Bri
ndab
an, a
vill
age
inth
e no
rth
Indi
an p
lain
s w
here
thir
ty-f
ive
hund
red
year
s ag
o he
is s
aid
to h
ave
sedu
ced
Rad
ha a
nd a
bev
y of
equ
ally
infl
amed
milk
mai
ds.
Eve
ry y
ear,
tens
of
thou
sand
s of
vill
ager
san
d pi
lgri
ms
mob
the
tem
ples
for
the
ritu
al d
arsh
an,
or v
iew
ing,
of
the
Kri
shna
idol
, typ
ical
lya
life-
size
d pl
astic
dol
l hid
den
at th
e ba
ck o
f th
e te
mpl
e be
hiid
moo
den
8
42E
lisab
eth
BuM
iller
door
s. O
ne S
epte
mbe
r I
wat
ched
the
stea
dily
ris
ing
ferv
orof
the
crow
d
in th
e sw
elte
ring
, hou
r-lo
ng b
uild
upbe
fore
the
door
s w
ere
open
ed.
Dru
ms
wer
e be
atin
g, a
ndde
votio
nal m
usic
was
slo
wly
bui
ldin
gin
inte
nsity
. Fin
ally
,w
hen
Kri
shna
was
rev
eale
d,th
e w
omen
moa
ned
and
crie
d ou
t, th
row
ing
mon
ey,In
dian
sw
eets
and
str
ings
of
jasm
ine
flow
-
ers
at th
e id
ol.T
he w
rite
r R
uth
Praw
er J
habv
ala
deve
lops
this
des
ire
beau
tiful
ly in
her
sho
rt s
tory
abou
t a w
idow
, Dur
ga, w
ho w
asM
arri
ed
off
at a
you
ng a
ge to
an
impo
tent
old
man
. He
has
left
her
with
mon
ey
but a
lso
with
the
vagu
e se
nse
that
"so
meh
ow, s
omew
here
,she
had
bee
n
shor
tcha
nged
." O
ne d
ay a
nol
d au
nt, B
huaj
i, be
gins
tote
ll D
urga
the
stor
ies
from
the
Kri
shna
lege
nd,a
nd s
oon
Dur
ga's
life
cha
nges
:"So
me-
times
whe
n sh
e w
as a
lone
at n
ight
or
lay
onhe
r be
d in
the
hot,
sile
nt
afte
rnoo
ns, h
er th
ough
ts d
wel
ling
onK
rish
nash
e fe
lt st
rang
e ne
w
stir
ring
s w
ithin
her
that
wer
e al
mos
t lik
e ill
ness
,with
a tu
ggin
g in
the
bow
els
and
a m
eltin
g in
the
thig
hs.
And
she
trem
bled
and
won
dere
d
whe
ther
this
was
Kri
shna
des
cend
ing
onhe
r, a
s B
huaj
i pro
mis
edhe
wou
ld."
The
poi
nt is
that
the
Kri
shna
love
sto
ry is
abo
ut a
n ad
ulte
rous
affa
ir,
not m
arri
age.
Rad
ha h
ad a
hus
band
, who
msh
e re
turn
ed to
. Kri
shna
him
self
'is
said
to h
ave
had
i6,io
8w
ives
, one
of
the
mor
e am
usin
g
stat
istic
s I
cam
e ac
ross
inIn
dia.
But
not
one
of
thos
ew
ives
eve
r
mea
sure
d up
to R
adha
. As
for
the
Kam
a-su
tra,
it w
as a
n en
cycl
oped
ia
of e
rotic
edu
catio
n m
eant
larg
ely
for
the
aris
tocr
acy.
The
Kha
jura
ho
tem
ples
are
mor
e pu
zzlin
g; n
oon
e ha
s ev
erbe
en s
ure
why
they
wer
e
built
, but
they
app
ear
toha
ve b
een
enjo
yed
chie
fly
byth
e ki
ng a
nd
his
cour
t. Fo
r th
e la
rge
maj
ority
of I
ndia
ns, l
ove
and
pass
ionh
ave
neve
r
been
syn
onym
ous
with
mar
riag
e.In
that
sen
se, t
he "
new
"In
dian
arr
ange
d m
arri
age
is s
omet
hing
of
a br
eakt
hrou
ghaf
ter
all.
The
mid
dle
clas
s ha
s es
sent
ially
crea
ted
an o
dd
hybr
id b
y gr
aftin
gth
e W
este
rn id
eal o
f ro
man
ticlo
ve o
nto
the
trad
i-
tions
of
Hin
du s
ocie
tyye
tano
ther
exa
mpl
e, p
erha
ps, o
fth
e In
dian
tale
nt f
or a
ssim
ilatin
g th
ecu
lture
of
a fo
reig
n in
vade
r,m
uch
as th
e
coun
try
abso
rbed
Per
sian
and
Mog
hul a
rt,
arch
itect
ure
and
lang
uage
.
In th
e en
d, th
e re
sult
is s
omet
hing
com
plet
ely
and
pecu
liarl
yIn
dian
,
incl
udin
g th
e no
tion
that
it "
wor
ks."
It i
s of
cou
rse
poss
ible
to m
atch
.. up
two
peop
le o
f co
mm
on b
ackg
roun
dsan
d in
tere
sts
and
then
wat
ch
as th
ey f
all i
nlo
ve. W
hat a
re th
e A
mer
ican
per
sona
lad
s an
d da
ting
serv
ices
, :A
ter
all?
The
Ind
ian
idea
that
you
can
mak
e tw
o pe
ople
fal
l in
love
, mos
tly
beca
use
they
thin
k th
ey a
re g
oing
to, a
tfirs
t see
med
to m
e in
tere
stin
g
May
You
Be
the
Mot
her
of a
Hun
dred
Son
s43
and
in it
s ow
nw
ay r
oman
tic. I
t was
par
t of
the
"sec
ret"
I w
as lo
okin
gfo
r, I
sup
pose
that
com
prom
ise
and
pers
ever
ance
can
be
as im
port
ant
to a
suc
cess
ful m
arri
age
as lo
ve. C
erta
inly
no
mar
riag
e in
the
Wes
tre
mai
ns th
e sa
me
as it
was
on
the
wed
ding
day
. In
the
end,
I c
ame
tose
e th
at I
ndia
ns d
o ha
ve im
port
ant i
nsig
hts
into
mar
riag
e an
d lo
ve. A
ndye
t, I
saw
too
man
y hu
sban
ds a
nd w
ives
in I
ndia
who
see
med
unc
on-
nect
ed to
eac
h ot
her,
as
if th
e in
visi
ble
thre
ad th
at y
ou c
an s
ense
betw
een
a ha
ppy
coup
le h
ad n
ever
exi
sted
for
them
. The
y ha
d no
thin
gin
com
mon
but
the
soci
al c
lass
into
whi
ch th
ey w
ere
born
. Mos
t of
the
mar
riag
es I
kne
w w
ere
not d
isas
ters
, but
man
y of
the
coup
les
didn
'tse
em to
be
frie
nds.
The
re s
eem
ed to
be
an in
timac
y m
issi
ng in
Ind
ian
mid
dle-
clas
s m
arri
ed li
fe, p
artly
bec
ause
few
peo
ple
expe
ct it
.A
nd th
en th
ere
was
Mee
na. "
You
kno
w,"
she
ass
ured
me,
aft
erte
arfu
lly f
inis
hing
the
stor
y of
her
wed
ding
and
impe
ndin
g di
vorc
e,"a
rran
ged
mar
riag
es d
o w
ork.
"
50
-a.
....I
.
tr.;
atti
i
7'fr
14;4
:104
r
Litt
le, B
row
n an
d C
ompa
nygO
STO
EW
YO
RK
TO
RO
NT
O. L
ON
DO
N'
!!4-
34".
..
,
;Doc
umen
tary
Ref
eren
ce:1
60,
.
'::1,
1ilg
rimag
e T
ours
: ,16
1.
The
sev
en s
acre
d
citie
s,
161
The
Gan
ges
tour
162
'The
sout
hern
Shi
va
tour
164
7. 'J
ain
and
Bud
dhis
t
tirt
166
:14
6.M
edita
tion
168
.'. U
nder
stan
ding
a
,yan
tra
. 168
.
'S
alut
ing
the
sun
170
`;-.
Glo
ssar
y,;;;
;-:
74
?Ind
ex '
:175
Pic
ture
cre
dits
183
54
it=
15;-W-Wie4 nr-r
'44E *-1.TrIr.PP
48 T
HE
FO
RM
S O
F V
ISH
NU
The
trim
urti
The
bew
ilder
ing
arra
y of
dei
ties
and
dem
ons
trad
ition
ally
330
mill
ion
inth
e m
oder
n H
indu
pan
theo
n ha
s its
root
s bo
th in
the
Ved
ic g
ods
and
inth
ein
telle
ctua
lsp
ecul
atio
n of
the
Upa
nish
ads
and
"for
est p
hilo
soph
ies"
.B
ut f
rom
the
4th
to th
e 12
th c
entu
ries
AD
, the
gro
wth
of
a m
ore
popu
lar
reli-
gion
, bas
ed a
roun
d th
e Pu
rana
s, p
lace
dat
its h
eart
the
trim
urti
of B
rahm
a,V
ishn
u an
d Sh
iva.
Bra
hma
is th
e pe
rson
ifie
d cr
eato
r of
the
univ
erse
. He
is th
e m
ost a
bstr
act o
fth
e th
ree
deiti
es, a
nd is
oft
en c
onsi
dere
da
fusi
on o
f Pr
ajap
ati,
the
crea
tor
god
ofth
e V
edas
, and
the
utte
rly
impe
rson
alco
ncep
t of
bral
unan
(go
dhea
d). B
rahm
ais
als
o he
who
"br
ings
div
ersi
ty in
toun
ity",
a m
edia
tor
betw
een
Vis
hnu
and
Shiv
a, w
ho r
epre
sent
opp
osite
s.V
ishn
u (t
he P
rese
rver
) is
the
prot
ec-
tor
of d
harm
a (r
ight
eous
ness
) an
d th
egu
ardi
an o
f hu
man
ity. H
e is
a s
olar
deity
who
fig
hts
on th
e si
de o
f go
od a
ndco
mes
dow
nto
eart
hto
help
hum
anki
nd. H
is m
ost f
amou
s in
carn
a-tio
ns, o
r av
atar
s, a
re K
rish
na a
ndR
ama,
the
hero
es o
f th
e ep
ics
the
Mah
abha
ra la
(se
c pp
.56-
7) a
nd th
eR
amay
ana
(see
pp.
52-3
).T
he la
st o
f th
e tr
imur
tiis
Shi
va (
the
Aus
pici
ous
One
),si
mul
tane
-ou
sly
dest
roye
r
Vis
hnu
appe
ars
inm
any
form
s, th
em
ost p
opul
ar b
eing
the
ten
avat
ars.
The
first
avat
aris
the
fish,
or M
atsy
a. r
epre
sent
edin
this
mod
ern
plas
ter
stat
ue fr
om T
onsi
lN
adu.
and
crea
tor.
Shi
va is
the
Lor
d of
Yog
a,w
orsh
ippe
d as
the
lingo
(se
e pp
.66-
7),
who
se d
ance
, to
the
beat
of
his
own
drum
, is
said
to b
e th
e rh
ythm
of
the
univ
erse
. He
is th
e m
ost a
mbi
vale
nt o
fth
e th
ree
gods
of
the
trim
urti
beca
use
ofhi
s de
stru
ctiv
e as
pect
.Ju
st a
s th
e at
man
(so
ul)
was
thou
ght
to m
irro
r br
ahm
an, s
o th
e fa
st-e
volv
ing
Hin
du p
anth
eon
was
see
n to
em
body
the
man
y fo
rms
that
bra
hman
mus
tas
sum
e to
mak
e its
elf
know
able
in th
em
ater
ial w
orld
. The
Hin
du g
ods
thus
repr
esen
t the
vis
ible
and
man
ifes
tas
pect
s of
god
head
. Unl
ike
brah
man
,th
ey a
ct w
ithin
this
wor
ld, a
nsw
erin
gpr
ayer
s, f
ight
ing
evil
or d
estr
oyin
gill
u-si
on (
niay
a). E
ach
Hin
du g
od is
sim
ply
an a
spec
t of
bulim
ia'',
and
a d
evot
eem
ay c
hoos
e an
y on
e of
them
as
the
mai
n ob
ject
of
his
or h
er v
ener
atio
n.A
dev
otee
's is
hta
(per
sona
l dei
ty)
isw
orsh
ippe
d as
a r
epre
sent
ativ
e of
the
tota
l god
head
, and
alth
ough
eve
ry g
odan
d go
ddes
s be
ars
part
icul
ar a
ttrib
utes
and
pow
ers,
they
are
not
com
plet
ely
dist
inct
but
sha
re m
any
of th
e sa
me
char
acte
rist
ics.
To
a H
indu
, the
re is
noth
ing
here
tical
or
para
dox-
ical
in p
rocl
aim
ing
any
one
of a
num
ber
ofde
ities
as
the
Lor
dof
the
Uni
vers
e.
57
The
thre
e go
ds o
f the
trim
urti
are
alw
ays
acco
mpa
nied
by
godd
esse
s. S
aras
vati,
show
n in
this
12t
h-ce
ntur
y sc
ulpt
ure
from
Raj
asth
an, i
sth
e co
nsor
t of
Bra
hma.
BR
AH
MA
Bra
hma,
the
crea
tor,
is a
sign
ific
ant H
indu
god
,de
spite
the
fact
that
he
has
few
dev
otee
s or
tem
ples
dedi
cate
d to
his
wor
ship
.E
ven
in m
edie
val I
ndia
itse
ems
likel
y th
at h
ispo
pula
rity
was
lim
ited.
He
is s
aid
to h
ave
crea
ted
the
univ
erse
and
then
with
draw
n,le
avin
g its
mai
nten
ance
toV
ishn
u, th
e Pr
eser
ver.
Thi
spe
rhap
s ex
plai
ns h
is la
ck o
fap
peal
. Bra
hma
is o
ften
depi
cted
with
fou
r fa
ces
turn
ed to
war
ds th
e fo
urpo
ints
of
the
com
pass
, his
four
han
ds h
oldi
ng th
e fo
urbo
oks
of th
eV
edas
.H
ishe
ads
are
usua
lly c
row
ned
and
his
face
s be
arde
d, g
ivin
ghi
m th
e ap
pear
ance
of
a w
ise,
com
pass
iona
te o
ld m
an. H
eis
som
etim
es d
epic
ted
on a
lotu
s th
at e
mer
ges
from
Vis
hnu'
s na
vel,
a re
fere
nce
tohi
s be
ing
"bor
n of
a lo
tus"
.
Bra
hma
is d
epic
ted
in th
is12
th-c
entu
ry te
mpl
e at
Hal
ebid
in K
arna
taka
, with
thre
e of
his
four
hea
ds v
isib
le.
s,
TH
E T
RIM
UR
TI
49
,
TH
E P
UR
AN
AS
The
Pur
anas
, or
Ant
iqui
ties,
rank
with
the
Ved
as a
s sa
cred
Hin
du te
xts.
The
y w
ere
com
-pi
led
betw
een
the
4th
and
12th
cen
turi
es A
D, b
ut th
eir
orig
ins
are
far
olde
r.A
ttrib
uted
to th
e sa
ge V
yasa
,th
e su
ppos
ed a
utho
r of
the
Mah
ablz
arat
a(s
ee p
p.5-
6-7)
,th
e Pu
rana
s co
ntai
n a
mas
-si
ve b
ulk
of m
ytho
logi
cal
mat
eria
l fro
m w
hich
muc
h of
the
dazz
ling
pant
heon
s an
dep
ics
of la
ter
Hin
duis
m w
ere
draw
n. T
hey
list e
ntir
e dy
nas-
ties,
des
cend
ed b
oth
from
Man
u, m
ythi
cal a
nces
tor
ofth
e hu
man
rac
e, a
nd f
rom
the
deiti
es a
nd h
eroe
s of
the
Mah
abha
rata
,w
hile
thei
rpr
ophe
cies
pre
dict
fut
ure
roya
l dyn
astie
s.T
heP
uran
asar
e w
ritte
nin
sim
ple
lang
uage
and
are
seld
om h
ighl
y m
ystic
al o
rha
rd to
und
erst
and
orin
terp
ret.
The
y lis
t sac
red
site
s an
d pi
lgri
mag
es, s
peci
fyca
ste
rela
tions
and
giv
e .
inst
ruct
ions
for
the
port
raya
lof
div
ine
imag
es.
Muc
h of
thei
r im
port
ance
lies
in th
e fa
ct th
at th
ela
ngua
ge in
whi
ch th
ey a
re
wri
tten
is a
cces
sibl
e to
wom
en a
nd to
thos
e of
low
cast
e w
ho w
ere
prev
ente
dfr
om r
eadi
ng th
e m
ore
esot
eric
Ved
a te
xts,
whi
chw
ere
rese
rved
for
men
of
the
brah
min
cast
e.T
he e
ight
een
prin
cipa
lP
uran
asar
e de
dica
ted
to th
etr
imur
ti.T
hey
prov
ide
not
only
the
myt
holo
gica
lba
ckgr
ound
fro
m w
hich
man
y of
the
tale
s of
the
gods
wer
e fa
shio
ned,
but
als
o th
eor
igin
s of
mor
e ab
stra
ctth
eolo
gica
l con
cept
s su
chas
dhar
ma,
kar
ma
and
the
natu
re o
fatm
an.
firi
-:!{
3D
A-
-"vr
grw
ci
50 T
HE
I.O
RM
S O
F V
ISH
NU 11
t'11
0(11
48t:4
(11
iitur
;Ir.
S o
n:y
raie
ly, a
, lit'
'.
;'.-
ner
rtf t
he g
roat
r.Y
.1!li
lt, ;.
mos
t
fanl
usit
",hy
mns
. \as
ie-,
.."in
e:no
i,aq.
sens
eto
ela
n,. i
tfo
ric
on)
the
dent
o.it:
gs.
The
inyt
h1.
1
orni
iinec
ence
ti h
ew
ere
deve
lo,d
iet a
nds
inn(
' t1
i.ove
r pr
e :''
.11
111;
i's, s
od 1
1:a!
the
Ved
i:go
,ls w
as e
vent
ually
u as
kfo
rhe
lp.
Jas
1.0f
il of
t1,e
t Ink
eise
and
, tor
of
1 1
tur.
-;1
.'n
e (1
,isk
(clu
ikra
),th
e '
.:110
1 (s
' :.
(gn,
!,.),
t;;Is
;ita
iltm
.iij
gt
j.11k
ShI
ni. t
he/1
C;1
.'./1
3.
(les
s or
%vt
:i.fi
t,w
ho s
itsor
a lo
tus
flow
er.
Vis
hnu
isbe
st1.
how
ever
,
11:"
"r0
tivar
ws,
the
inco
ai;o
osth
at h
r ac
'",
ass
ist l
ie.''
stag
an,
t'sa
s cr
edite
d sv
itli a
s m
any
as t:
v-"t
,w
,..11
0, V
as th
eiti
curt
; di:
eairs
.'`l'.
' the
Pi;
ntw
y A
D h
ew
as w
i lv
ieeo
p.i.;
,:cd
as h
avin
g te
n.T
he .f
irst
,n'o
rm's
(fs
tdi
..a,,
a fis
h,1;
tit m
a, a
,o.:c
lise,
and
a bo
ar)
ale
myt
holo
gica
lco
niog
unic
. acc
oun
itOt1
01 :S
pec:
,' -
Tis
lutti
Ice
lit::
orig
inal
0f
Il t
n tit
aca
iar,
Nil;
.olh
a, is
a m
an-li
no w
ho r
escu
es-,
oild
''.;n
n a
terr
ible
rlt
p..1
i;10
tile
fifth
, Vo
rota
,is
ac4
.,..-
-;n1
v17
has
c_co
vciin
gl''
ii:ta
le'it
itjt
V.1
c,..
.
(hal
v.
.is
ri
cue
axe"
. who
11
..,..-
,.;
ite,1
1San
ddo
ts.
i
i',0
'I m
ay r
efle
ct.1
"J'..
tetiv
e.r.
it
..1
(117
41i/i
S*r"
C.'
as c
acti
1.,tv
Tan
dlla
ma
anti
.ti.
e
sev
and
eigh
th (
iris
: .3
.th
e re
sple
u(le
nthe
roes
of
1) ,,
,stm
t;:'
7`.
the
Afir
b.,b
/htii
ii:t (
see
pri.f
-sli
?lit
"Iit
is
aft t
lt nl
tht i
i :ba
t Vis
hnu
deri
ves
his
repu
tatio
n as
loth
'cud
1)c
tiipi
l !It
o-rt
r,.
111)
1)1;
1'61
y.)
'tjt
,:;'o
r IS
1110
of;
.."
;:.to
11,
.:
lic'a
nion
is
14.1
1111
test
amen
t«.
)
it1c
I,v
atIs
t):1
,!1,i
".11
13:'
.1,
!.r"
..se
itI
IS
;'..
1,.)
Will
:1.1
* th
e en
d of
to:,
age
to.v
irke
d,11
i01,
1S
.111
::1
'til
e un
iver
se to
bid
:ano
n.
GA
R,
tIsr,
1 is
Iiv
C..,
:tni
a..o
kc;!
,ft 1
14
agai
nst d
emon
s. G
ar ti
dn's
Itrr
gi;:
to In
nnan
i.i,:,
tile
nect
ar o
f im
mor
talit
y th
at h
e st
ole
from
the
gods
.
' ',tr
yG
aryd
.,-h
r,/b
urna
nsw
ith a
rnic
a .
. :W
AS
,! a
c
593E
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
ji4
14bI
ge4.
10V
IMT
074
-
4 0.
Ava
akva
The
pan
elle
d 'b
lots
to th
e S
wam
inar
ayan
a le
nwir
in G
ujar
at a
re p
aint
ed w
ith V
ishn
u's
Ica
I'ra
re th
emis
'tish
na, w
ith Id
id,m
she
lm'h
isfe
et, .
1Ian
ked
by c
ows,
a m
onke
y an
d an
ang
el.
, -..=
1261
0121
11=
1W-
52 T
I I E
FO
RM
S O
F V
ISH
NU
The
Ram
ayan
aT
he R
amay
ana,
one
of
the
grea
tSa
nskr
it ep
ic p
oem
s, h
elpe
d to
dev
elop
a m
ore
popu
lar,
dev
otio
nal r
elig
ion.
Apr
oduc
t of
the
less
exc
lusi
ve w
orld
of
the
ksha
triy
a et
hic,
it is
not
so
heav
ilydo
min
ated
by
the
brah
min
-con
trol
led
sacr
ific
ial
and
ritu
alel
emen
ts o
fH
indu
ism
. It r
emai
ns a
pop
ular
sou
rce
of r
elig
ious
teac
hing
, thr
ough
pub
licre
adin
gs a
nd d
ram
atiz
atio
ns.
The
cor
e of
the
epic
poe
m w
as f
irst
com
pose
d in
the
4th
cent
ury
Bc
as a
secu
lar
tale
rec
ited
by b
ards
who
wer
eat
tend
ant o
n th
e ro
yal c
ourt
s. H
owev
er,
as th
e ce
ntur
ies
pass
ed, t
he r
elig
ious
elem
ents
of
the
stor
yw
ere
expa
nded
upo
n,an
d R
ama,
its
hero
,be
cam
e tr
ansf
orm
ed
TH
E R
AM
ALI
LA
The
fest
ival
of D
asah
race
lebr
ates
Ram
a's
vict
ory
over
Rav
anas
and
his
dem
on a
rmy.
Dur
ing
nine
days
of f
astin
g, th
e ep
ic ta
leof
Ram
a an
dS
ita is
nar
rate
d th
roug
hout
Indi
a, a
nd in
the
Ram
alila
it is
acte
d ou
t with
mus
ic, d
ance
and
elab
orat
e co
stum
es.
Cel
ebra
tions
clim
ax w
ith S
ita's
resc
ue, a
nd h
uge
effig
ies
of
----
-,,
Rav
ana,
his
bro
ther
Kum
bhak
arna
and
son
Mag
hana
da, a
re p
arad
edk
thro
ugh
the
stre
ets
-/ s
tuffe
d w
ith fi
rew
orks
, the
y
111
expl
ode
in c
olou
r w
hen
set
alig
ht b
y an
effi
gy o
fR
ama.
from
a w
arri
or k
ing
into
a w
arri
orde
ity. B
y th
e 4t
h ce
ntur
y A
D, R
ama
was
wid
ely
iden
tifie
d as
the
seve
nth
inca
rna-
tion
of th
e H
indu
god
, Vis
hnu.
The
Ram
ayan
a's
links
with
Ved
icre
ligio
nar
e,ho
wev
er,
still
stro
ng.
Bra
hmin
pri
ests
are
wid
ely
hono
ured
inits
ver
ses,
and
the
hors
e sa
crif
ice
(see
p.17
) pl
ays
a cr
ucia
l par
t in
the
narr
a-tiv
e. L
ike
the
Ved
as (
see
pp.1
6-17
) an
dth
e M
ahab
hara
ta (
see
pp.5
6-7)
, the
Ram
ayan
a is
bel
ieve
d to
hav
e be
endi
vine
ly r
evea
led:
the
stor
y is
sup
pose
dto
hav
e co
me
to it
s co
mpo
ser,
Val
mik
i,w
hile
hew
asm
edita
ting
upon
the
man
tra
"Ram
".V
alm
iki's
own
life
assu
mes
myt
hic
pro-
port
ions
in th
e in
tro-
duct
ion
to th
e m
ain
text
, in
whi
ch h
e pl
ays
an a
ctiv
e ro
le. L
egen
dha
s it
that
he
retir
edto
the
fore
st w
here
,du
ring
1,0
00 y
ears
of
med
itatio
n, h
e ke
pt s
om
otio
nles
sth
athi
sbo
dy b
ecam
e co
vere
dby
a v
alm
ika
(ant
hill)
henc
e hi
s na
me,
mea
ning
"so
n of
the
anth
ill".
Des
pite
the
secu
lar
natu
re o
f th
epo
em in
its
orig
inal
for
m,
the
narr
ativ
esc
hem
e of
the
Ram
ayan
a cl
earl
y sh
ows
the
infl
uenc
e of
ess
entia
lly V
edic
ele
-m
ents
. In
its e
arly
pag
es, f
or e
xam
ple,
Ram
a is
fre
quen
tly li
nked
with
the
glo-
riou
s V
edic
sun
god
Ind
ra a
nd w
ith th
eba
ttle
agai
nst e
vil.
Lik
e In
dra,
Ram
a is
an id
eal w
arri
or, a
ndun
like
the
con-
fuse
d A
rjun
a of
the
Mah
abha
rata
hene
ver
hesi
tate
s to
rai
se h
is b
ow, a
ndcl
earl
y dr
aws
the
battl
e lin
es b
etw
een
good
and
evi
l.
Cro
wds
gat
her
itV
aran
asi,
dur
perf
orm
ance
A p
aint
ed p
aper
effi
gy, f
rom
Del
hi, o
f the
dem
on k
ing
Rav
ana,
Rat
a's
grea
t ene
my
61,
Ram
naga
r ne
arin
g th
e te
n-da
yof
the
Ram
alila
.
r
RA
MA
AN
D S
ITA
Ram
a's
actio
ns in
the
Ram
ayan
a ep
ic a
re g
over
ned
by d
harm
a, th
e irr
efut
able
law
that
is th
e fo
unda
tion
of b
oth
the
cosm
ic a
nd th
e so
cial
orde
rs. A
lthou
gh th
eR
amay
ana
is a
talc
of m
artia
lgl
ory,
it is
als
o a
corp
us o
fm
oral
and
eth
ical
pre
cept
s,pr
ovid
ing
a gu
ide
tost
ates
man
ship
, hum
anco
nduc
t and
rel
atio
nshi
ps.
Ram
a is
an
idea
lized
figu
re,
a pe
rfec
t kin
g, w
arrio
r an
dhu
sban
d. T
he e
pic
trac
es h
islif
e, b
egin
ning
with
his
birt
has
the
elde
st s
on o
f the
goo
dki
ng D
asha
rath
a. I
le w
ins
-S
ita -
the
epito
me
of p
urity
-
for
his
wife
. But
on
the
eve
of th
eir
acce
ssio
n, th
ey a
rede
nied
the
thro
ne, a
nd s
ent
into
exi
le fo
r fo
urte
en y
ears
by R
ama'
s fa
ther
. Typ
ical
ly,
Ram
a ac
ts w
ith h
onou
r: in
acco
rdan
ce w
ith th
e ru
le o
fdh
arm
a, h
e ob
eys
his
fath
er,
who
then
die
s of
sor
row
.R
ama
does
not
ret
urn
until
he h
as s
erve
d th
e fu
ll te
rm o
fhi
s ex
ile. H
e ro
ams
the
wild
erne
ss w
ith S
ita, f
ulfil
ling
his
cast
e du
ty b
y pr
otec
ting
brah
min
her
mits
from
loca
lde
mon
s. T
he g
reat
est d
emon
,R
avan
a, k
idna
ps S
ita a
ndta
kes
her
to L
anka
(S
riLa
nka)
. Ram
a's
devo
tion
lead
s hi
m to
spe
nd m
any
year
s in
sea
rch
of h
er.
TIIE
RA
MA
YA
NA
53
The
nar
rativ
e cl
imax
esw
ith S
ita's
eve
ntua
l res
cue,
as
Ram
a an
d hi
s m
onke
y al
ly
.Han
uman
(se
e pp
.54-
5)ob
liter
ate
the
capi
tal o
f the
dem
on k
ingd
om. T
he lo
vers
are
final
ly r
euni
ted
but s
till
Ram
a pu
ts d
harm
a ab
ove
his
own
inte
rest
s, a
nd in
a tr
agic
deno
uem
ent h
e ba
nish
es S
ita.
Alth
ough
he
know
s he
r to
he
pure
, the
dha
rma
of a
kin
gde
cree
s th
at h
er ti
me
spen
t in
the
com
pany
of a
noth
er m
anbr
ings
him
dis
hono
ur. S
till
loya
l to
her
husb
and,
Sita
pray
s to
the
eart
h to
sw
allo
whe
r up
, and
Ram
a is
left
tom
ourn
her
loss
unt
il he
too
offe
rs h
imse
lf to
the
god
of d
eath
.
Sce
nes
fron
t the
Ram
ayan
aar
e a
favo
urite
topi
c in
Indi
anm
inia
ture
pai
ntin
g:R
ama
and
Sita
sea
ted
in e
xile
. with
Hal
lman
kne
elin
g at
thei
rfe
et (
abov
e); a
n en
eige
tiede
pict
ion
of th
e si
ege
ofLa
nka
(left)
, fro
m a
n ea
rlyI 7
th-c
entu
ry A
lugh
al p
aint
ing
on p
aper
, now
in th
e N
atio
nal
Mus
eum
of N
ew D
elhi
. 62
."f
in'_
.cr
....i
..440
10-
54 T
HE
FO
RM
S O
F V
ISH
NU
Han
uman
Han
uman
, the
Ram
ayan
a's
mon
key
hero
, is
Ram
a's
mos
t loy
al d
evot
ee.
He
is th
e em
bodi
men
t of b
hakt
i (de
votio
n),
who
gla
dly
offe
rs h
is o
wn
life
in th
e se
r-vi
ce o
f his
god
. He
is th
e so
n of
Vay
u,V
edic
god
of t
he w
ind,
from
who
m h
ein
herit
ed th
e st
reng
th o
f hur
rican
es a
ndth
e po
wer
to fl
y. T
he s
wift
est o
f the
epi
cw
arrio
r-he
roes
, Han
uman
als
o po
sses
s-es
the
abili
ty to
met
amor
phos
ein
tow
hate
ver
form
he
choo
ses.
The
Ram
ayan
a re
late
s th
at a
fter
his
divi
ne b
irth,
Han
uman
gre
w s
tron
ger
and
wis
er w
ith e
very
pas
sing
yea
r,de
stro
ying
loca
l dem
ons,
sla
ying
rog
ueel
epha
nts,
and
eve
n fly
ing
up to
gra
spth
e ris
ing
sun,
whi
ch h
e m
isto
okfo
r an
appl
e. O
ne d
ay w
hile
Han
uman
and
his
mas
ter,
the
exile
d m
onke
yki
ng,
Sug
riva,
wer
e hi
ding
in a
fore
st, t
hey
met
Ram
a an
d hi
s br
othe
rLa
kshm
ana.
Ram
a re
late
d th
e st
ory
of th
eki
dnap
-pi
ng o
f his
wife
, Sita
, by
the
dem
on R
avan
a, a
ndhi
s se
arch
for
the
plac
ew
here
the
dem
on k
ing
had
take
n he
r. D
eepl
ym
oved
, Han
uman
rea
l-iz
ed th
at h
is d
estin
y w
asto
ser
ve a
t Ram
a's
side
,an
d he
ral
lied
an a
rmy
for
that
pur
pose
.W
hen
the
mon
key
arm
yfa
iled
tofin
dR
avan
a an
d hi
s ho
stag
e,it
was
Han
uman
who
disc
over
ed th
e de
mon
'shi
deou
t in
Lank
a. H
eas
sum
ed th
e fo
rm o
f an
ordi
nary
mon
key
to
esca
pe le
gion
s of
pow
er-
ful d
emon
s, s
o th
at h
eco
uld
ente
rR
avan
a's
mag
nific
ent p
alac
e.H
anum
an fo
und
Sita
sitti
ng d
ejec
tedl
yin
a
gard
en, s
urro
unde
d by
dem
ones
ses.
He
emer
ged
froM
his
hid
ing
plac
e to
A m
aske
d pl
ayer
ena
cts
the
expl
oits
of H
artm
an in
ape
rfor
man
ce o
f sto
ries
from
the
Ram
ayan
a.
com
fort
her
. See
ing
a ta
lkin
g m
onke
y,sh
e sw
oone
d, b
ut w
as r
eass
ured
by
the
ring
that
Han
uman
had
bro
ught
from
Ram
a. H
e to
ld h
is s
tory
and
sw
ore
that
Ram
a w
as d
estit
ute
with
out h
er. T
hem
onke
y of
fere
d S
ita th
e ch
ance
toes
cape
by
flyin
g on
his
bac
k, b
ut S
itare
fuse
d ou
t of r
espe
ct fo
r he
r hu
sban
d,w
hose
hon
our
wou
ld b
e ta
inte
d if
she
wer
e re
scue
d by
any
one
but h
im.
To
prep
are
the
way
. for
the
battl
e th
atla
yah
ead,
Han
uman
taun
ted
the
dem
on k
ing,
sm
ashi
ng th
e ci
ty w
alls
and
anni
hila
ting
thou
sand
s of
dem
ongu
ards
. In
reve
nge,
the
king
set
fire
toH
anum
an's
tail.
Gro
win
g to
an
enor
-m
ous
size
, the
mon
key
ran
thro
ugh
the
city
with
his
bur
ning
tail,
set
ting
build
-in
gs a
blaz
e, b
efor
e re
turn
ing
to R
ama
with
the
mes
sage
from
his
wife
, Sita
.H
anum
an a
nd th
e m
onke
y ar
mie
sde
stro
yed
Lank
a an
d its
dem
on k
ing,
and
Sita
was
reu
nite
d w
ith h
er lo
rd.
Whe
n th
e gu
ru R
aman
anda
bro
ught
devo
tiona
lism
(bh
akti)
from
sou
ther
nIn
dia
to th
e no
rth
in th
e 14
th c
entu
ry
Thi
s 18
th-c
entu
ry e
ngra
ving
dep
icts
the
battl
ebe
twee
n R
ama
and
the
mul
ti-he
aded
dem
onR
avan
a, a
nd s
how
s H
anum
an p
oise
d fo
r ac
tion.
HA
NU
MA
N 5
5
AD
, Han
uman
bec
ame
one
of it
s pr
inci
-pa
l dei
ties.
Ram
anan
da's
follo
wer
s w
or-
ship
Ram
a as
the
supr
eme
deity
, and
hono
ur H
anum
an a
s R
ama'
s gr
eate
stde
vote
e. D
ue to
his
sha
pe-s
hifti
ng s
kills
,H
anum
an is
als
o re
vere
d by
the
bhak
tim
ovem
ent a
s a
pow
erfu
l mag
icia
n an
dsi
ddha
(po
sses
sor
of o
ccul
t pow
ers)
.
HA
NU
MA
N'S
HE
AR
T
In th
e co
nclu
ding
cha
pter
of
the
Ram
ayan
a, H
anum
an's
devo
tion
to R
ama
is fu
rthe
rel
abor
ated
. The
mon
key
arm
ies
final
ly fi
nish
ed th
eir
cele
brat
ions
afte
r th
etr
ium
phal
vic
tory
ove
r La
nka
and
prep
s ed
to r
etur
n ho
me
Pqm
Ra
a's
pala
ce. O
nly
Ilanu
man
was
left,
but
he
decl
ared
tat
he
mus
t sta
y to
serv
e R
am a
nd h
is q
ueen
,S
ita. S
ugriv
the
mon
key
king
, ask
ed fo
r pr
oof o
f JEST
CO
PYA
VA
ILA
BL
E
Han
uman
's d
evot
ion,
at
whi
ch th
e m
ost l
oyal
of a
llde
vote
es to
re o
pen
his
own
ches
t to
reve
al im
ages
of
Ram
a an
d S
ita w
ithin
.
A m
oder
n pl
aste
r st
atue
of
Han
uman
sho
ws
him
tear
ing
open
his
che
st to
rev
eal
Ram
a an
d S
ita in
side
it.
64
56 T
HE
FO
RM
S O
F V
ISH
NU
The
Mah
abha
rata
The
Mah
abha
rata
("G
reat
Epi
c of
the
Bha
rata
Dyn
asty
") w
asor
igin
ally
entit
led
Jaya
("V
icto
ry")
. With
ove
r10
0,00
0 st
anza
s it
is p
erha
ps th
e lo
nges
tpo
em e
ver
com
pose
d. I
t sta
nds,
with
the
Ram
ayan
a (s
ee p
p.52
-3),
as
one
ofth
e tw
o gr
eat S
ansk
rit e
pics
.It
was
prob
ably
beg
un in
the
4th
or 3
rd c
en-
turi
esB
C,
but m
any
amen
dmen
ts w
ere
mad
e an
d it
was
not
com
plet
ed u
ntil
the
end
of th
e G
upta
dyn
asty
in th
e 4t
hce
ntur
yA
D.
Muc
h of
the
mat
eria
l is
far
olde
r, h
owev
er, d
atin
g ba
ck to
the
Ved
icpe
riod
; som
e of
the
stor
ies
wou
ld h
ave
been
fam
iliar
to a
udie
nces
as
earl
y as
1000
sc. I
ndra
, the
Ved
ic s
un g
od, i
sm
entio
ned
seve
ral t
imes
in e
arlie
r pa
rts
of th
e te
xt, f
or e
xam
ple,
alth
ough
by
the
4th
cent
ury
BC
he w
as s
carc
ely
mor
eth
an a
fig
ure
from
fol
klor
e.
65
Thi
s m
oder
n pa
intin
g de
pict
s th
eC
onte
st o
f the
Prin
ces,
an e
piso
de in
the
Mah
abha
rata
.
Kri
shna
(se
e pp
.62-
3) a
ppea
rs in
the
epic
, as
the
lead
er o
f hi
s pe
ople
and
an
ally
of
the
Pand
avas
. He
still
app
ears
mor
e a
supe
rhum
an w
arri
or th
an a
god
in h
is b
attle
s al
ongs
ide
the
Pand
avas
,bu
t he
grow
s in
sta
ture
to e
mer
ge f
inal
lyas
the
divi
ne te
ache
r of
hum
anity
.A
ccor
ding
to le
gend
,th
e en
tire
Mah
abha
rata
was
dic
tate
d by
Vya
sa to
the
elep
hant
-hea
ded
god
Gan
esha
(se
epp
.72-
3), w
ho m
ade
one
cond
ition
: he
wou
ld o
nly
agre
e to
wri
te it
dow
n if
itw
ere
told
with
out a
pau
se. H
owev
erfa
st it
was
dic
tate
d, G
anes
ha k
ept p
ace.
At o
ne ti
me
he b
roke
off
a tu
sk to
use
inpl
ace
of a
dam
aged
sty
lus
so a
s no
t to
inte
rrup
t the
flo
w o
f sa
cred
wor
ds. T
hede
nser
, mor
e sp
ecul
ativ
e pa
ssag
es w
ere
appa
rent
ly a
ttem
pts
to s
low
the
deity
dow
n, f
orci
ng h
im to
sto
p an
d th
ink
whe
neve
r th
e m
eani
ng b
ecam
e un
clea
r.T
he c
entr
al p
lot o
f th
e M
ahab
hara
taco
ncer
ns tw
o dy
nast
ies,
the
Pand
avas
and
Kau
rava
s. T
he r
ival
fam
ilies
are
cous
ins,
the
sons
of
Vya
sa's
two
sons
:th
e bl
ind
Dhr
itara
shtr
a an
d th
e pi
ous
Pand
u. D
hrita
rash
tra
is th
e el
dest
, but
,be
caus
e he
is b
lind,
Pan
du is
mad
eki
ng. P
andu
has
fiv
e so
ns: t
he e
ldes
tan
d ri
ghte
ous
Yud
hish
thir
a; B
him
a of
fero
ciou
s st
reng
th; A
rjun
a th
e sk
illed
war
rior
; and
the
twin
s N
akul
a t.a
dSa
hade
va. D
hrita
rash
tra,
on
the
othe
rha
nd, h
as 1
00 s
ons,
the
elde
st o
f w
hom
is th
e sc
hem
ing
Dur
yodh
ana.
Whe
n Pa
ndu
dies
, his
blin
d bu
t wel
l-in
tent
ione
dbr
othe
r,D
hrita
rash
tra,
take
s Pa
ndav
a's
sons
into
his
ow
npa
lace
. In
time
Dhr
itara
shtr
a di
vide
sth
e ki
ngdo
m, g
ivin
g ha
lf o
f it
to
Yud
hish
thir
a an
d ha
lf to
Dur
yodh
ana.
How
ever
, Dur
yodh
ana
beco
mes
jeal
ous
of th
e af
fect
ion
his
fath
er f
eels
for
his
cous
in, a
nd e
ven
mor
e so
of
the
land
sth
at th
e Pa
ndav
as h
ave
inhe
rite
d.T
hrou
gh tr
icke
ry a
nd c
unni
ng, t
hePa
ndav
as a
re f
orce
d in
to e
xile
, and
hav
e
TH
E M
AH
AB
HA
RA
TA
57
to w
ait t
hirt
een
year
s be
fore
they
hav
e a
chan
ce to
rec
laim
thei
r ki
ngdo
m. T
his
is th
e ca
use
of th
e te
rrib
le w
ar th
at f
ol-
low
s, r
esul
ting
in th
e de
stru
ctio
n of
the
entir
e ra
ce e
xcep
t for
one
sur
vivo
r, w
hoco
ntin
ues
the
dyna
sty.
Thi
s w
ar f
orm
sth
e ba
ckdr
op to
the
Bha
gara
d G
ila.
VY
AS
A
The
lege
ndar
y au
thor
of t
heM
ahab
hara
ta, t
he s
age
Vya
sa(w
hose
nam
e in
San
skrit
mea
ns "
Com
pile
r"),
boa
sted
that
"th
at w
hich
can
not b
efo
und
here
exi
sts
now
here
".V
yasa
was
rep
uted
ly th
e so
nof
the
asce
tic P
aras
ara
and
the
Das
a pr
ince
ss S
atya
vati.
Cal
led
"the
Hom
er o
f the
Eas
t" (
alth
ough
far
mor
e ha
sbe
en a
scrib
ed to
him
than
toth
e G
reek
poe
t), V
yasa
is s
aid
to h
ave
com
pose
d th
e en
tire
Mah
abha
rata
and
all e
ight
een
Pura
nas
(see
p.4
9), b
esid
esco
mpi
ling
the
four
boo
ks o
fth
eV
edas
(see
pp.
I6-1
7). H
ew
as a
lso
a pr
iest
and
teac
her.
Man
y w
riter
s no
w c
onsi
der
Vya
sa to
be
a co
mpo
site
nam
e fo
r th
e m
any
hrah
min
sw
ho w
orke
d on
the
text
ove
rth
e ce
ntur
ies,
but
he
also
has
a vi
tal p
lace
in th
e na
rrat
ive.
He
is th
e fa
ther
of s
ome
ofth
e pr
inci
pal c
hara
cter
s in
the
epic
the
oppo
sed
dyna
stie
s of
the
Son
s of
Dar
knes
s an
d th
e S
ons
ofLi
ght
and
he h
imse
lf of
ten
appe
ars
in th
e st
ory
to a
dvis
ech
arac
ters
in n
eed
or to
soot
he th
e di
stre
ssed
.
Thi
s 18
th-c
entu
ry m
anus
crip
tde
pict
s V
yasa
as
a se
ated
bear
ded
sage
, dic
tatin
g th
eM
ahab
hara
tato
the
elep
hant
-he
aded
Gan
esha
, with
Dur
ga(t
hose
and
Bra
hma
helm
,:
66
58 T
HE
FO
RM
S O
F V
ISH
NU
Bha
kti
Kris
hna'
s lo
ve fo
r R
adha
sym
boliz
esbh
akti
devo
tion
in th
is 1
9th-
cent
ury
pain
ting,
Bha
kti (
in la
ter
San
skrit
, "re
vere
ntde
votio
n")
was
a m
ovem
ent w
hich
stre
ssed
the
emot
iona
l atta
chm
ent a
ndlo
ve o
f a d
evot
ee fo
r hi
s or
her
per
sona
lgo
d.It
ther
efor
e im
plie
d a
dual
istic
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
wor
ship
per
and
god.
Alth
ough
all
maj
or d
eitie
s in
the
Hin
du p
anth
eon
had
devo
tiona
l cul
ts,
bhak
ti ha
s be
en e
spec
ially
com
mon
inth
e w
orsh
ip o
f Kris
hna,
an
avat
ar o
fV
ishn
u. In
the
Bha
gava
d G
ita, (
see
pp.6
0-61
), K
rishn
a ta
ught
bha
kti y
oga
("th
e w
ay o
f dev
otio
n"),
pla
cing
itab
ove
othe
r pa
ths
to s
alva
tion
thro
ugh
karm
a (r
itual
act
ivity
) an
d jn
ana
(spi
ri-tu
al k
now
ledg
e). H
e de
clar
ed to
his
devo
tees
: "W
orsh
ippi
ng m
e w
ith lo
ve, I
best
ow th
eru
le o
f und
erst
andi
ng,
whe
reby
they
com
e to
me"
.T
he b
hakt
i mov
emen
t rea
ched
its
heig
ht fr
om c
.AD
500
toC
.AD
1500
,st
art-
ing
in s
outh
ern
Indi
a be
fore
spr
eadi
ng
67
nort
h. It
s ch
ief c
hara
cter
istic
was
an
inte
nsel
y em
otio
nal w
orsh
ip, e
xpre
ssed
in te
rms
of p
erso
nal l
ove,
yea
rnin
g,co
urts
hip
and
ecst
asy.
Bha
kti c
ults
reac
ted
agai
nst t
he r
igid
exc
lusi
vity
of
the
bral
tmin
prie
sts,
with
thei
r el
abor
ate
ritua
ls th
at r
equi
red
a kn
owle
dge
ofS
ansk
rit. T
hey
ofte
n re
ject
ed th
e ro
le o
fth
e pr
iest
as
an in
term
edia
ry b
etw
een
devo
tee
and
deity
, tea
chin
g in
stea
d th
atdi
vine
gra
ce w
as a
vaila
ble
to a
ll, ir
re-
spec
tive
of c
aste
or
sex.
Whi
le b
hakt
isc
hola
rs fi
lled
the
tem
ples
of s
outh
ern
Indi
a, b
ands
of d
evot
ees
trav
elle
d th
eco
untr
ysid
e, v
isiti
ng s
hrin
es, s
ingi
ngde
votio
nal h
ymns
and
eng
agin
g lo
cal
holy
men
in d
ebat
e.A
ll bh
akti
sect
s sh
ared
the
basi
c do
c-tr
ine
of d
ivin
e gr
ace
and
ecst
atic
love
.B
hakt
i poe
ts w
rote
of a
n in
tens
ity o
fgu
ilt a
nd a
yea
rnin
g fo
r re
dem
ptio
nfa
mili
ar to
Chr
istia
n th
eolo
gy. L
ike
the
New
Tes
tam
ent,
the
bhak
ti se
cts
taug
htth
at d
ivin
e lo
ve c
ould
als
o be
exp
ress
edth
roug
h lo
ve o
f one
's n
eigh
bour
s, w
hat-
ever
thei
r so
cial
sta
tus.
But
unl
ike
Chr
istia
n ch
urch
es, b
hakt
i sec
ts w
el-
com
ed w
omen
into
thei
r pr
iest
hood
.B
hakt
i adh
eren
ts w
ere
oppo
nent
s of
Bud
dhis
m a
nd J
aini
sm, a
nd th
ey h
adha
sten
ed th
e de
clin
e of
bot
h in
sou
th-
ern
Indi
a by
the
10th
cen
tury
. The
arriv
al o
f the
Mus
lims
in th
e G
ange
sba
sin
from
the
12th
cen
tury
onw
ard
para
doxi
cally
als
o he
lped
the
bhak
tim
ovem
ent,
for
bral
zmin
s w
ith th
eir
ritu-
aliz
ed H
indu
ism
foun
d it
hard
er to
sur
-vi
ve w
ithou
t roy
al s
uppo
rt th
an b
hakt
ide
vote
es. B
hakt
i dev
otio
nalis
m e
ven
affe
cted
Isla
m: t
here
are
Mus
lim p
oem
sw
hich
sta
rt w
ith th
e st
anda
rd in
voca
-tio
n of
Alla
h, b
ut g
o on
to c
laim
that
Kris
hna
is o
ne o
f the
Mus
lim p
roph
ets.
TH
E L
1NG
AY
AT
S
The
Lin
gaya
t sec
t was
foun
ded
in th
e 12
th c
entu
ryby
Bas
ava,
a S
haiv
itebr
ahm
inw
ho a
t the
age
of
sixt
een
thre
w a
way
the
sacr
ed th
read
mar
king
his
pri
estly
cas
te to
prop
agat
e a
mes
sage
of
soci
aleq
ualit
y, r
ejec
ting
orth
odox
Hin
duis
m. S
eein
g no
nee
d fo
ra
prie
st to
med
iate
bet
wee
nSh
iva
and
his
devo
tees
,B
asav
a in
stru
cted
his
Rea
ding
sac
red
text
s is
apo
pula
r ac
t of b
hakt
i.
Dev
otee
s of
Shi
va b
elon
ging
to th
e Li
nga.
vat s
ect n
ear
silv
erco
ntai
ners
hol
ding
min
iatu
relin
gas
arou
nd th
eir
neck
s.
follo
wer
s to
wea
r a
smal
llin
go(s
ee p
p.66
-7)
abou
tth
eir
neck
s an
d w
orsh
ipSh
iva
dire
ctly
. Thi
s ex
plai
nsth
eir
nam
e, th
e L
inga
yats
.B
asav
a re
ject
ed th
e au
thor
ityof
the
Ved
asan
d th
ebr
ahm
inca
ste,
dec
lari
ng th
at s
acre
dte
xts
wer
e us
eles
s if
they
did
not l
ead
to a
per
sona
lex
peri
ence
of
God
. Bas
ava
mar
ried
two
unto
ucha
ble
wom
en, a
nd e
ncou
rage
deq
ual r
ight
s fo
r w
omen
and
the
dem
oliti
on o
f al
l cas
teba
rrie
rs. W
hen
mar
riag
ebe
twee
n a
brah
mitz
's d
augh
ter
and
an u
ntou
chab
le le
d a
loca
l kin
g to
per
secu
teB
asav
a's
follo
wer
s, th
ey r
ose
in r
ebel
lion
and
Bas
ava
him
self
was
kill
ed.
TH
E A
LV
AR
S
Tw
elve
Alv
ars
(Vai
shna
vite
sain
ts)
are
reco
gniz
ed a
sfo
unde
rs o
f V
aish
navi
tebh
ak-
tiin
sou
ther
n In
dia.
The
irhy
mns
to V
ishn
u an
d hi
sav
atar
sw
ere
inte
nsel
y em
o-tio
nal.
Of
over
4,0
00 h
ymns
,m
ost w
ere
com
pose
d by
the
Alv
ars
Tir
uman
gai a
nd
Nam
mal
var.
One
Alv
ar k
ing,
Kul
ashe
khar
a, s
o lo
ved
Ram
a th
at h
e ra
ised
an
arm
yto
res
cue
Sita
, the
dei
ty's
cons
ort,
from
dem
ons.
Pra
ying
to te
mpl
e de
ities
isth
e us
ual f
irm o
f bha
kti.
Thi
sw
orsh
ippe
r ha
s of
fere
d hi
s ha
iras
a to
ken
of d
evot
ion
atT
irupa
ti in
And
hra
Pra
desh
.
MA
DH
VA
The
13t
h-ce
ntur
y ph
iloso
pher
Mad
hya
was
one
of th
e m
ost s
trik
ing
and
extr
eme
dual
ist
teac
hers
. His
pro
digi
ous
outp
ut in
clud
ed c
om-
men
tari
es o
n th
eB
rahm
asta
raan
dB
haga
vad
Gita
,as
wel
l as
thir
ty-f
ive
othe
r w
orks
. Mos
t
unus
ually
for
a H
indu
, he
reje
cted
the
theo
ryof
map
, (se
e pp
.130
-31
) sa
ying
the
mat
eria
lw
orld
, alth
ough
tran
sito
ry, w
as r
eal.
Mad
hya
also
bel
ieve
d in
ete
rnal
dam
natio
n an
d sa
lva-
tion.
He
was
per
haps
infl
uenc
ed b
y N
esto
rian
Chr
istia
ns, f
or h
is li
fe h
as m
any
para
llels
with
that
of
Chr
ist,
mos
t not
ably
his
mir
acle
s.
68
60 T
HE
FO
RM
S O
F V
ISH
NU
The
Bha
gava
d G
ita
A m
oder
n pr
inte
d ve
rsio
n of
the
Bha
gava
d G
ita,
show
ing
the
war
rior
Arj
una
to w
hom
Kri
shna
deliv
ered
his
gre
at s
erm
on.
The
Bha
gava
d G
ita (
"Son
g of
the
Lor
d")
is o
ne o
f th
e m
ost i
mpo
rtan
t and
pop
u-la
r of
Ind
ian
relig
ious
text
s, a
lthou
gh it
is n
ot s
tric
tly s
peak
ing
a sh
ruta
(a
divi
nely
rev
eale
d te
xt s
uch
as th
eV
edas
). I
tis
a c
ompa
rativ
ely
brie
fep
isod
e w
ithin
the
Mah
abha
rata
con
-si
stin
g of
700
ver
ses
in e
ight
een
chap
-te
rs w
ritte
n in
a s
emi-
dial
ogue
for
m.
It o
pens
with
two
vast
arm
ies
faci
ngea
ch o
ther
on
the
"fie
ld o
f dh
anna
". O
nea
ch s
ide
are
tens
of
thou
sand
s of
fea
r-so
me
war
rior
s, a
s w
ell a
s go
ds, d
emon
san
d gi
ants
with
sup
erna
tura
l wea
pons
.T
hese
wer
e th
e ar
mie
s of
the
Pand
avas
and
Kau
rava
s, c
ousi
ns a
nd r
ival
s fo
r a
sing
le th
rone
. The
mos
t glo
riou
s w
ar-
rior
of
all w
as A
rjun
a, s
o sk
illed
in th
ear
ts o
f ba
ttle
that
he
was
thou
ght i
nvin
-ci
ble.
His
cha
riot
eer
was
Kri
shna
, Lor
dof
the
Uni
vers
e (s
ee p
p.62
-3),
and
behi
nd A
rjun
a st
ood
legi
ons
of m
ight
yal
lies
read
y to
do
battl
e in
his
nam
e.A
t tha
t mom
ent,
as th
e fi
nal t
rum
-pe
ts s
ound
ed a
nd th
e ai
r fi
lled
with
drea
d, A
rjun
a lo
oked
at t
he a
rmy
oppo
sing
him
and
wea
knes
s ov
erca
me
him
. "Fa
cing
us
in th
e fi
eld
of b
attle
are
teac
hers
, fat
hers
and
son
s ...
I d
o no
t
69
wis
h to
kill
thes
e pe
ople
, eve
n if
I m
ysel
fam
kill
ed. N
ot e
ven
for
the
king
dom
of
the
thre
e w
orld
s: h
ow m
uch
less
for
aki
ngdo
m o
f th
is e
arth
!" s
aid
the
war
rior
to K
rish
na. "
Wha
t hap
pine
ss c
ould
we
have
if w
e ki
lled
our
own
kins
men
? ...
Iw
ill n
ot f
ight
," h
e sa
id, a
nd th
en f
ell
sile
nt. K
rish
na s
mile
d an
d sp
oke
the
vers
es w
hich
for
m th
e B
haga
vad
Gita
.K
rish
na f
irst
app
eale
d to
Arj
una'
sho
nour
and
dha
rmic
dut
y as
a k
shat
riya
(see
p.2
5). "
The
re is
no
grea
ter
good
for
a w
arri
or th
an to
fig
ht in
a r
ight
eous
war
," h
e sa
id, a
ddin
g th
at th
ere
was
no
need
to b
e so
rrow
ful a
bout
wha
t was
inev
itabl
e. "
Arj
una,
you
gri
eve
beca
use
you
thin
k th
at y
ou a
re th
e do
er o
f yo
urac
tions
," h
e co
ntin
ued.
"T
hink
inst
ead
of G
od a
s th
e do
er. Y
ou a
re b
ut a
nin
stru
men
t in
his
hand
s. Y
ou a
re o
nly
TH
E T
HR
EE
PA
TH
S
The
dis
cipl
ine
or p
ath
of a
ctio
n (k
arm
a yo
ga)
whi
ch K
rish
na o
utlin
ed to
Arj
una
as h
ehe
sita
ted
befo
re th
e ba
ttle
is n
ot th
e on
ly w
ayto
bra
hman
whi
ch th
e B
haga
vad
Gita
ackn
owle
dged
, alth
ough
it h
as p
rove
d ve
rypo
pula
r w
ith th
ose
who
mus
t liv
e an
d st
rugg
lein
the
wor
ld. M
ahat
ma
Gan
dhi w
as o
nly
one
of m
any
peop
le in
the
20th
cen
tury
insp
ired
by th
is p
assa
ge. T
he o
ther
two
path
s ar
e th
edi
scip
line
of k
now
ledg
e (j
ntin
a yo
ga),
in w
hich
rele
ase
is s
ough
t thr
ough
asc
etic
ism
and
cont
empl
ativ
e re
trea
t fro
m th
e w
orld
in a
way
com
para
ble
to B
uddh
ism
, and
dev
otio
n to
God
(bh
akti
yoga
). T
his
is c
onsi
dere
d th
ehi
ghes
t for
m o
f yo
ga, a
nd in
it th
e se
lf h
umbl
yw
orsh
ips
God
, hop
ing
less
for
a r
elea
se f
rom
rein
carn
atio
n th
an f
or a
n ec
stat
ic d
ivin
e vi
sion
.In
ret
urn
for
such
wor
ship
, God
ext
ends
his
favo
ur to
his
dev
otee
s, th
ereb
y en
able
s th
em to
tran
scen
d th
eir
eart
hly
bond
s. A
ll th
ree
of th
epa
ths
shar
e th
e be
lief
that
God
is m
anif
est i
nev
ery
sing
le a
spec
t of
life,
incl
udin
g na
ture
and
soci
ety.
carr
ying
out
his
will
."B
ut A
rjun
aw
asst
ill u
ncer
tain
. "H
ow c
an I
kill
my
kins
-m
en?"
he
aske
d, a
nd s
ank
agai
n in
tode
spon
denc
y, h
is g
reat
bow
lyin
gus
e-le
ss o
n hi
s kn
ees.
Kri
shna
ans
wer
ed in
one
of th
e be
st-k
now
n pa
ssag
es o
f th
eB
haga
vad
Gita
. "D
eath
is n
ot f
inal
," h
eto
ld A
rjun
a. "
If a
ny m
an th
inks
that
he
slay
s, a
nd if
ano
ther
thin
ks th
at h
e is
slai
n,-
neith
er k
now
s th
e tr
uth.
The
Ete
rnal
in m
an c
anno
t kill
: the
Ete
rnal
in m
an c
anno
t die
. The
sou
l in
man
isne
ither
bor
n no
r do
es it
die
. Wea
pons
cann
ot c
ut it
; fir
e ca
nnot
bur
n it
...W
hat m
akes
you
thin
k th
atyo
u ca
nde
stro
y th
e so
ul?"
Kri
shna
, hav
ing
defi
ned
the
atm
an(s
ee p
p.24
-5)
in e
very
per
son,
rev
eale
da
new
way
of
rele
asin
g th
e so
ul f
rom
the
cycl
es o
f re
inca
rnat
ion:
the
disc
iplin
e of
actio
n, k
arm
a yo
ga (
see
p.86
). A
sop
pose
d to
the
Bud
dhis
t and
Jai
n pa
ths
of a
scet
icis
m a
nd r
enun
ciat
ion,
this
isa
TH
E B
HA
GA
VA
D G
ITA
61
yoga
of
posi
tive
actio
n, a
way
to b
rah-
man
(go
dhea
d) th
at c
an b
e fo
llow
ed b
yan
yone
, how
ever
imm
erse
d in
wor
ldly
affa
irs.
Kri
shna
arg
ued
that
itis
not
acts
in th
emse
lves
whi
ch b
ind
peop
le to
the
roun
d of
reb
irth
, but
the
self
ish
inte
ntio
ns s
o of
ten
behi
nd th
em. T
hetr
ue o
ppos
ite o
f se
lfis
h ac
tion
is d
isin
-te
rest
ed o
r se
lfle
ss a
ctio
n; to
tal i
nac-
tion
is a
nyw
ay im
poss
ible
.In
the
Bha
gava
d G
ita, a
ctio
n is
nolo
nger
the
sole
cau
se o
f ka
rma.
The
yoga
that
Kri
shna
taug
ht A
rjun
a of
fers
a pa
th to
enl
ight
enm
ent b
ased
on
the
aban
donm
ent o
f de
sire
. An
enlig
hten
edm
ind,
he
says
,is
indi
ffer
ent
"to
plea
sure
and
pai
n, g
ain
and
loss
"."P
repa
re y
ours
elf
for
the
figh
t," h
e te
llsA
rjun
a. "
Wha
teve
r yo
u do
, do
itas
an o
ffer
ing
to m
e."
Arj
una
ther
efor
ere
turn
ed to
the
wor
ld o
f ba
ttle,
and
his
path
has
sin
ce b
een
follo
wed
by
mill
ions
of
Hin
dus.
Arj
una
and
Kri
shna
on
the
battl
efie
ld, t
he la
tter
turn
ing
his
head
to d
eliv
er th
e fa
mou
s se
rmon
kno
wn
as th
e B
haga
vad
Gita
, fro
ma
19th
-cen
tury
man
uscr
ipt.
A N
ew H
isto
ryof
Ind
ia
Four
th E
ditio
n
STA
NL
EY
WO
LPE
RT
New
Yor
k O
xfor
dO
xfor
d U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss
1993
Oxf
ord
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
Oxf
ord
New
Yor
k T
oron
toD
elhi
Bom
bay
Cal
cutta
Mad
ras
Kar
achi
Kua
la L
umpu
r Si
ngap
ore
Hon
g K
ong
Tok
yoN
airo
bi D
ar a
s Sa
laam
Cap
e T
own
Mel
bour
neA
uckl
and
Mad
rid
and
asso
ciat
ed c
ompa
nies
inB
erlin
Ibad
an
Cop
yrig
ht ©
197
7, 1
982,
198
9, 1
993
by O
xfor
d U
nive
rsity
Pres
s, I
nc.
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ishe
d by
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ord
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ress
, Inc
.,20
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adis
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ew Y
ork,
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olpe
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tanl
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., 19
27 -
A n
ew h
isto
ry o
f In
dia
/ Sta
nley
Wol
pert
.4t
h ed
.p.
cm.
Incl
udes
bib
liogr
aphi
cal r
efer
ence
s an
d in
dex
ISB
N 0
-13-
5076
53-1
(cl
oth)
.IS
BN
0-1
9-50
7660
-5 (
pbk.
)1.
Ind
iaH
isto
ry.
I. T
itle.
DS4
36.W
6619
9395
4dcw
92
-125
73
246897531
Prin
ted
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
of
Am
eric
aon
aci
d-fr
ee p
aper
7 2
CO
NT
EN
TS
1.T
he E
colo
gica
l Setti
ng3
2.In
dus
Cul
ture
(ca.
250
0-16
00B
.c.)
143.
The
Ary
anA
ge (
ca. 15
00-1
000
B.c
.)24
4.N
orth
Ind
ian
Con
ques
t and
Uni
fica
tion
(ca.
1000
-450
B.c
.)37
5.In
dia'
s Fi
rst I
mpe
rial
Uni
fica
tion
(326
-184
B.c
.)55
6.Po
litic
alFr
agm
enta
tion
and
Eco
nom
ican
d C
ultu
ral
Enr
ichm
ent (
ca.
184
B.C
.A.0
.320
)70
7.T
he C
lass
ical
Age
(A
.D. 3
2oca
. 700
)88
8.T
he I
mpa
ctof
Isl
am(c
a. 7
11-1
556)
104
9.M
ugha
l Im
peri
alU
nifi
catio
n(1
556-
1605
)12
610
.W
este
rn E
urop
e's
Van
guar
d(1
498-
1669
)13
5II
.G
reat
Mug
hal G
lory
(160
5-17
07)
149
12.
Tw
iligh
t of
the
Mug
hal E
mpi
re(1
707-
64)
168
13.
John
Com
pany
Raj
(17
65-9
3)18
714
.T
he N
ewM
ugha
ls(1
793-
1848
)20
115
.U
nifi
catio
n,M
oder
niza
tion,
and
Rev
olt (1
848-
58)
226
i6.
Cro
wn
Rul
eAN
ew O
rder
(185
8-77
)23
917
.In
dian
Nat
iona
lism
The
Firs
t Mov
emen
t(1
885-
1905
)25
018
.T
he M
achi
neSo
lidif
ies
(188
5-19
05)
265
19.
Rev
olt,
Rep
ress
ion,
and
Ref
orm
(19
05-1
2)27
520
.T
he I
mpa
ctof
Wor
ldW
ar O
ne(1
914-
19)
286
21.
Tow
ard
Inde
pend
ence
(192
0-39
)30
122
.T
he I
mpa
ctof
Wor
ldW
ar T
wo
(193
9-46
)32
923
.T
he N
ehru
Era
(19
47-6
4)35
124
.Fr
om C
olle
ctiv
eL
eade
rshi
pto
Indi
ra R
aj(1
964-
77)
371
73
xii
25.
From
Jan
ata
Raj
to R
ajiv
Raj
407
26.
Indi
a T
oday
434
Bib
liogr
aphy
447
Glo
ssar
y47
5In
dex
481
INST
CO
PY A
VA
IL/0
12
CO
NT
EN
TS
74
-r
JJ
148
A N
EW
HIS
TO
RY
OF
IND
IA
cent
-Lea
rnin
g w
ell t
heir
less
ons
from
the
expe
rien
ce o
f th
eir
Eur
o-pe
an p
rede
cess
ors,
the
Eng
lish
inve
sted
in c
loth
wov
en b
y th
epe
as-
ants
of
Cor
oman
dal a
nd G
ujar
at,
boug
ht th
eir
pepp
er, i
ndig
o, a
ndsi
lk w
here
it w
as c
heap
est,
and
left
the
soul
s of
Ind
ians
to b
e ca
red
for
by th
eir
own
prie
sts
and
pund
itinn
1658
the
new
ly s
olve
ntco
m-
pany
was
bas
ed a
t Hug
hli i
n B
enga
l,in
heri
ting
the
form
er P
ortu
gues
efa
ctor
y m
ore
than
a hu
ndre
d m
iles
nort
h of
the
Bay
of
Ben
gal
up th
eH
ughl
i Riv
er, M
othe
r G
anga
'sm
ain
trib
utar
y to
the
sea.
All
fact
ors
inB
enga
l at t
his
time
rem
aine
d,ho
wev
er, u
nder
the
offi
cial
con
trol
ofth
e go
vern
or o
f Fo
rt S
t. G
eorg
e.T
he a
cqui
sitio
n of
Bom
bay
sim
ilarl
yst
reng
then
ed th
e B
ritis
h po
sitio
nin
the
wes
t, fo
r af
ter
1669
, whe
nG
eral
d A
ungi
er to
okov
er a
s go
vern
or o
f th
at is
land
and
sta
rted
itsfo
rtif
icat
ion,
Bom
bay
beca
me
the
com
pany
's p
rem
ier
port
and
an im
-pe
rvio
us B
ritis
h ba
stio
n.
75
EL
EV
EN
GR
EA
T M
UG
HA
LG
LO
RY
(160
5-17
07)
The
Gre
at M
ugha
ls, w
hose
rei
gns
span
the
entir
e se
vent
eent
h ce
n-tu
ry, h
ave
with
goo
d re
ason
bec
ome
univ
ersa
l sym
bols
of p
ower
and
affl
uenc
e, o
f te
nder
ness
and
cru
elty
, of
fero
city
and
sen
sitiv
ity; l
uxur
ylo
ving
, lic
entio
us, s
entim
enta
l, br
utal
, and
poet
ic, t
hey
wer
e th
e em
-bo
dim
ent o
f al
l tho
se e
xtre
mes
cha
ract
eris
ticof
the
Indi
an li
fe-s
tyle
know
n as
Mug
hlai
. Jah
angi
r, S
hah
Jaha
n,an
d A
uran
gzeb
eac
h in
his
own
way
epi
tom
ized
som
e as
pect
s of
the
com
plex
cul
tura
lsy
ncre
tism
with
in w
hich
they
live
d an
dov
er w
hich
they
pre
side
d. T
he c
ourt
s th
eym
aint
aine
d, th
e co
urtie
rs th
ey c
hose
, ref
lect
eda
t___
__ J
e2.v
syn
cret
ic p
atin
a
of c
ivili
zatio
n_th
at w
as a
ble
nd o
f In
dian
, Per
sian
, and
Cen
tral
Asi
anm
anne
rs a
nd m
ores
.Ja
hang
ir's
Raj
put m
othe
rca
n ha
rdly
be
cred
ited
with
hav
ing
conv
erte
d he
r so
n to
Hin
duw
ays,
but
his
rem
arka
ble
Pers
ian
wif
e,w
hom
he
rena
med
JalZ
ia (
"Lig
ht o
f th
eW
orld
") a
fter
mar
ryin
ghe
r in
161
1, f
irm
ly e
ntre
nche
d Pe
rsia
ncu
lture
at A
gra'
s co
urt.
Ath
irty
-fou
r-ye
ar-o
ld w
idow
whe
n sh
e m
arri
ed th
eem
pero
r, th
is in
-ge
nius
wom
an w
as, i
n fa
ct, r
ulin
gem
pres
s of
Ind
ia lo
ng b
efor
e he
rux
orio
us h
usba
nd d
ied.
She
rai
sed
her
Khu
rasa
n-bo
rn f
athe
r, M
irza
Beg
(re
nam
ed I
timad
ud-
Daw
lah
by A
kbar
)to
the
prem
iers
hip
and
brou
ght h
er b
roth
er, A
saf
Kha
n, in
to p
ositi
onto
ser
ve th
e ne
xt e
m-
pero
r in
that
off
ice
by a
rran
ging
the
mar
riag
e of
his
love
lyda
ught
er,
Mum
taz
Mah
al (
"Exa
lted
of th
e Pa
lace
"),
to J
ahan
gir's
thir
d so
n,K
hurr
am (
"Joy
ous"
), w
hom
she
eff
ectiv
ely
supp
orte
d as
impe
rial
succ
esso
r to
her
hus
band
. The
com
bina
tion
of b
eaut
y, b
rilli
ance
i_an
dam
bitio
n t h
at_a
llo_w
ed_N
_ur
laha
_nfi
lifto
: cap
ture
Jah
angi
r's h
eart
and
soon
vir
tual
ly-t
o_us
urp
his
thro
ne m
ay n
ot_b
e un
ique
ly_P
ersi
an, b
ut76
150
A N
EW
HIS
TO
RY
OF
IND
IA
follo
win
g_he
r as
cent
to_p
ower
, Per
sian
was
no
long
er s
impl
y th
e Ia
n-gu
ap o
f A
gra'
s co
urt
it se
t the
tone
and
dir
ectio
n of
Nor
th I
ndia
nad
min
istr
atio
n an
d cu
ltura
l_ li
fe a
t bot
h pr
ovin
cial
and
impe
rial
cap
i-ta
ls.
_
tals
. Agr
a its
elf
had
grow
n by
this
tim
e to
twic
e th
e si
ze o
nifi
fiiii
;w
ith a
n es
timat
ed p
opul
atio
n of
ove
r ha
lf a
mill
ion.
The
city
was
dom
inat
ed b
y A
kbar
's m
ight
y R
ed F
ort o
n th
e Y
amun
a, w
hose
hea
v-ily
gua
rded
bat
tlem
ents
wer
e vi
ewed
with
aw
e an
d te
rror
. Per
sian
poet
s an
d ar
tists
, arc
hite
cts
and
mus
icia
ns f
lock
ed to
this
gre
at c
api-
tal,
whi
ch A
kbar
had
fou
nd m
ore
cong
enia
l tha
n D
elhi
, hom
e of
so
man
y ho
stile
Afg
hans
, and
whi
ch J
ahan
gir,
his
em
pres
s, a
nd th
eir
suc-
cess
or, S
hah
Jaha
n, s
ough
t to
mak
e a
mod
el o
f Sa
favi
d el
egan
ce, l
ux-
ury,
and
gra
ndeu
r. F
rom
the
glaz
ed ti
le th
at c
over
ed th
e in
ner
wal
lsan
d w
alks
of
the
pala
ce to
the
encl
osed
for
mal
gar
den,
sto
ne la
cew
alls
, and
inla
id ti
les
of th
e do
med
tom
b N
ur J
ahan
had
bui
lt fo
r he
rfa
ther
, pre
curs
or o
f th
e T
aj M
ahal
, Agr
a m
irro
red
the
arch
itect
ure
ofits
con
tem
pora
ry P
ersi
an c
apita
l. T
he T
aj it
self
, whi
ch w
as s
aid
toha
ve ta
ken
twen
ty th
ousa
nd w
orke
rs o
ver
twen
ty y
ears
to b
uild
aft
erth
e de
ath
of M
umta
z M
ahal
in 1
631,
was
des
igne
d by
two
Pers
ian
arch
itect
s an
d ha
s of
ten
been
cal
led
the
grea
test
sin
gle
wor
k of
Saf
avid
art e
ver
cons
truc
ted;
in it
s de
pend
ence
on
Indi
an m
ater
ials
and
cra
fts-
man
ship
, how
ever
, not
to m
entio
n its
use
of
such
mot
ifs
as th
e fo
urR
ajpu
t can
opie
s bu
ilt a
roun
d th
e ba
se o
f its
dom
e, it
em
erge
s as
an
exce
llent
exa
mpl
e of
Mug
hal c
ultu
ral s
yncr
etis
m r
athe
r th
an a
s a
Per-
sian
impo
rt. I
n m
any
way
s, m
oreo
ver,
tthe
love
of
silk
s an
d pe
rfum
es,
the
cust
om o
f dr
apin
g bo
th m
ale
and
fem
ale
figu
res
with
jew
els,
di-
apha
nous
vei
ls, a
nd p
eaco
ck f
eath
ers,
and
the
delig
ht in
son
g an
dda
nce,
into
xica
ting
drin
k, a
nd th
e pl
easu
res
of th
e ha
rem
are
hab
itsan
d tr
aditi
ons
at le
ast a
s de
eply
roo
ted
in I
ndia
n as
in P
ersi
an s
oil]
Safa
vid
appr
oval
ser
ved
to v
alid
ate
such
beh
avio
r fo
r M
uslim
s as
wel
las
Hin
dus,
and
in a
rea
l sen
se th
e hi
stor
ic s
igni
fica
nce
of th
e_G
reat
Mug
hal 1
"ers
iimpa
ct m
ay b
e sa
id to
hav
e be
en th
at it
hel
ped
toIn
dian
ize
Mus
lim c
ultu
re, w
hich
is in
par
t wl_
_kyt
1Ie
rtile
frG
rle
eat
Mug
hals
prov
ed s
o st
able
.a_u
nify
ingf
orce
oyer
som
e tw
o ce
ntur
ies.
Wha
t cou
ld b
e m
ore
trad
ition
ally
Ind
ian,
aft
er a
ll, th
an a
Mug
hal
proc
essi
on o
f si
lver
-tus
ked,
silk
-cap
aris
oned
ele
phan
ts b
eari
ng b
e-je
wel
ed n
oble
s in
tass
led
how
dahs
? Ja
hang
ir's
love
of
win
e, w
omen
,an
d da
ncin
g gi
rls
was
in th
e be
st o
f m
ahar
aja
trad
ition
s, a
s w
as h
isla
vish
exp
endi
ture
of
coun
tless
rup
ees
on th
e m
onth
-lon
g fe
stiv
ities
77
GR
EA
T M
UG
HA
L G
LO
RY
151
cele
brat
ing
the
mar
riag
es o
f hi
s so
ns. W
hat d
id m
ost p
eopl
e ca
reif
mul
las
rath
er th
an b
rahm
ans
pres
ided
ove
r th
e ce
rem
ony?
Agr
a's
im-
pove
rish
ed m
asse
s m
ust h
ave
at le
ast d
eriv
ed s
ome
vica
riou
spl
easu
re
from
see
ing
and
hear
ing
how
ric
hly
thei
r ro
yal n
eigh
bors
live
d.T
hey
coul
d ev
en f
orge
t tha
t the
se r
uler
s w
ere
"for
eign
con
quer
ors,
"fo
r as
any
casu
al o
bser
ver
of M
ugha
l min
iatu
repo
rtra
its m
ay n
ote,
ther
ew
as n
o sh
arp
dist
inct
ion
in e
ither
dre
ss o
r ap
pear
ance
betw
een
the
\*,
4 t,
"G
reat
Mug
hal e
mpe
rors
and
pri
nces
and
thei
r le
adin
g R
ajpu
tnob
les
or o
ther
con
tem
pora
ry H
indu
chi
efs.
Kor
anic
cal
igra
phy
and
geo-
met
ric
desi
gns
cont
inue
d to
dec
orat
e th
e fr
inge
s of
Mug
hal
min
iatu
re
pain
tings
, but
por
trai
ts o
f th
e ha
llow
ed M
uslim
mon
arch
s w
ere
now
pain
ted
with
out p
rohi
bitio
n by
Ind
o-Pe
rsia
n ar
tists
of
rare
geni
us, a
s
wer
e th
e vi
rtua
lly n
aked
fig
ures
of
serv
ant
girl
s, p
rinc
esse
s, a
nd e
m-
brac
ing
coup
les
in th
e cl
assi
c R
ajpu
t, an
d ea
rlie
r H
indu
,tr
aditi
on.
Jaha
ngir
's o
wn
inte
rest
in g
arde
ns a
nd n
atur
al b
eaut
yhe
lped
stim
u-
late
the
emer
genc
e of
a d
istin
ctiv
ely
natu
ralis
tic s
tyle
in M
ugha
lpai
nt-
ing
that
was
aga
in m
ore
trad
ition
ally
Ind
ian
than
Per
sian
in c
hara
cter
.
Am
ong
the
grea
t Per
sian
art
ists
at h
is c
ourt
was
Aqa
Rid
a of
Her
at,
his
son
Abu
-l-
Has
an, a
nd M
ansu
r, w
hose
viv
id p
aint
ings
of a
nim
als
won
uni
que
accl
aim
. Gov
ardh
an a
nd M
anoh
ar w
ere
Hin
du a
rtis
ts o
fal
mos
t equ
al f
ame
who
wor
ked
at c
ourt
, and
we
know
of a
noth
erH
indu
, Bis
hand
as, o
f w
hose
por
trai
ture
wor
k Ja
hang
irth
ough
t so
high
ly th
at h
e w
as s
ent t
o Is
faha
n to
pai
nt th
ePe
rsia
n em
pero
r,'A
bbas
I. J
ahan
gir
prid
ed h
imse
lf o
n hi
s Pe
rsia
n po
etry
and
artis
tic
skill
and
wro
te m
emoi
rs (
Tuz
uk-
i- J
ahan
giri
) co
veri
ng m
ost
of h
isre
ign,
whi
ch w
ere
com
plet
ed b
y th
e Pe
rsia
n M
uham
mad
Had
i. M
any
othe
r hi
stor
ians
res
ided
at c
ourt
, and
they
wer
e ha
ppy
tofo
llow
the
empe
ror
to th
e H
imal
ayas
for
the
hot s
easo
n, a
nan
nual
roy
al e
xodu
sin
itiat
ed b
y Ja
hang
ir th
at th
e B
ritis
h la
ter
love
d to
em
ulat
e.Ja
hang
ir p
lace
d hi
s so
n K
hurr
am in
com
man
d of
his
arm
yin
1613
, and
ther
efor
e th
e pr
ince
, who
was
soo
n re
nam
edSh
ah J
ahan
("E
mpe
ror
of th
e W
orld
"), l
ed a
num
ber
of c
ampa
igns
agai
nst t
he
Raj
put f
orce
s in
Mew
ar a
nd K
angr
a an
d th
e D
ecca
nisu
ltana
tes
of
Ahm
adna
gar,
Bija
pur,
and
Gol
cond
aj T
he o
nly
thre
at to
Mug
hal
pow
er in
this
era
cam
e fr
om P
ersi
a,w
hen
in 1
622
Shah
Abb
asw
rest
ed K
anda
har
from
Agr
a's
cont
rol.
Jaha
ngir
was
too
preo
ccup
ied
with
his
gar
dens
, win
e, p
oetr
y, a
nd w
omen
to le
ad a
n ar
my
over
the
Bal
uchi
stan
pas
ses,
and
Sha
h Ja
han
refu
sed
Nur
Jap
an's
orde
r th
at(
8
)4.
4
Vilf
ik,f
r'''
152
A N
EW
HIS
TO
RY
OF
IND
IA
he d
o so
, rig
htly
sen
sing
that
the
empr
ess
no lo
nger
fav
ored
him
(he
row
n da
ught
er b
y a
form
er m
arri
age
had
just
mar
ried
his
you
nger
brot
her,
Sha
hriy
ar)
and
was
tryi
ng to
get
him
aw
ay f
rom
Agr
a an
dD
elhi
. The
yea
r be
fore
, Sha
h Ja
han'
s el
der
brot
her,
the
rebe
lliou
sK
husr
au, h
ad d
ied,
pro
babl
y po
ison
ed b
y on
e of
his
bro
ther
styi
thK
husr
au's
dea
th, S
hah
Jaha
n w
as th
e le
adin
g co
nten
der
for
his
fa-
ther
's m
antle
; his
rea
l opp
onen
t was
Nur
Jah
an, w
ho w
ishe
d to
con
-tin
ue to
rul
e th
e em
pire
no
mat
ter
who
rei
gned
.7In
162
3 Sh
ah J
ahan
mar
ched
in o
pen
rebe
llion
tow
ard
Agr
a bu
tw
as d
rive
n of
f by
impe
rial
for
ces
unde
r th
e co
mm
and
of th
e m
ight
yge
nera
l / M
ahab
at K
haii]
who
m N
ur J
ahan
had
rec
alle
d fr
om e
xile
inK
abul
. The
reb
ellio
us S
hah
Jaha
n w
as c
hase
d ar
ound
sou
thea
st I
ndia
for
thre
e ye
ars
befo
re f
inal
ly a
gree
ing
to r
etur
n to
his
fat
her's
fol
d. B
yT
.,th
en, h
owev
er, M
ahab
at K
han
was
so
pow
erfu
l and
pop
ular
that
Nur
Jaha
n co
nsid
ered
him
a p
oten
tial t
hrea
t and
ban
ishe
d hi
m to
Ben
gal,
subs
eque
ntly
cha
rgin
g hi
m w
ith e
mbe
zzle
men
t of
impe
rial
fun
ds.
Mah
abat
res
pond
ed b
y st
agin
g a
coup
in 1
626,
taki
ng b
oth
Jaha
ngir
c,..«
."`
and
Nur
Jah
an p
riso
ner.
He
held
them
cap
tive
for
seve
ral m
onth
sw
ithou
t har
min
g ei
ther
, the
n lo
st h
is n
erve
and
let t
hem
esc
ape.
Nur
Jaha
n pa
rdon
ed th
e si
mpl
emin
ded
gene
ral a
nd s
ent h
im o
ff to
hun
tSh
ah J
ahan
, who
was
adv
anci
ng n
orth
aga
in w
ith a
n ar
my
at h
is b
ack.
The
wily
em
pres
s no
w a
ppoi
nted
her
equ
ally
shr
ewd
and
polit
ical
lyad
roit
brot
her,
Asa
f K
han,
pre
mie
r of
the
real
m. O
n O
ctob
er 2
9,16
27, J
ahan
gir
died
, and
Nur
Jah
an tr
ied
to b
olst
er th
e sa
ggin
g sp
irits
of h
er s
ick
son-
in-l
aw S
hahr
lyar
, who
was
then
at t
he P
unja
b pr
ovin
-ci
al c
apita
l of
Lah
ore,
hop
ing
to im
bue
him
with
cou
rage
to f
ight
for
Agr
a's
trea
sure
. She
sou
ght t
o w
in h
er b
roth
er's
sup
port
, of
cour
se,
but A
saf
Kha
n ba
cked
his
ow
n so
n-in
-law
, Sha
h Ja
han,
who
m h
e in
-fo
rmed
by
cour
ier
of h
is f
athe
r's d
eath
. Sha
h Ja
han
rush
ed n
orth
tocl
aim
his
thro
ne, r
each
ing
Agr
a ea
rly
in 1
628.
All
of h
is c
lose
st r
ela-
tives
, who
wer
e po
tent
ial r
ival
s, w
ere
put t
o de
ath
in f
ine
Mug
hal
fash
ion,
and
then
Sha
h Ja
han
enjo
yed
thre
e w
eeks
of
lavi
sh c
oron
a-tio
n ce
lebr
atio
ns. N
ur J
ahan
was
pen
sion
ed o
ff a
nd w
ent t
o liv
e in
solit
ude
at L
ahor
e til
l her
dea
th in
164
5.Sh
ah J
ahan
rul
ed f
or th
ree
deca
des
(162
8-58
). T
he m
ost l
avis
hsp
ende
r of
all
the
Mug
hals
, he
was
add
icte
d to
mon
umen
tal a
rchi
tec-
ture
inla
id w
ith je
wel
s an
d se
mip
reci
ous
ston
es a
nd to
a h
arem
, who
seto
tal p
opul
atio
n nu
mbe
red
five
thou
sand
. His
bel
oved
wif
e, M
umta
z
79
GR
EA
T M
UG
HA
L G
LO
RY
153
Mah
al, b
ore
him
fou
rtee
nch
ildre
n, o
nly
half
of
who
m s
urvi
ved
to
adul
thoo
d, b
efor
e sh
e he
rsel
fdi
ed a
t the
age
of
thir
ty-n
inet
The
eld
est
son
was
gaL
ashq
701
(161
5-58
), w
hose
dee
pin
tere
st in
art
, hu-
man
ity, a
nd e
clec
ticph
iloso
phy
led
man
yco
urtie
rs a
nd f
orei
gnvi
si-
tors
to b
elie
ve th
atIn
dia
wou
ld s
oon
bebl
esse
d w
ith a
noth
erru
ler
as w
ise
and
liber
al a
s A
kbar
, but
Dar
a's
aust
ere,
ort
hodo
xbr
othe
r,
' Aur
angz
ebad
oth
erid
easj
Shah
Jah
an's
fir
st_
ears
as
empe
ror
wer
e
preo
ccup
ied
with
see
king
tosu
bdue
_re
belli
on in
the
Dec
can
and
Bun
delk
hand
. Ahm
adna
gar
and
Bija
pur
wer
ebo
th d
efea
ted
and
prom
ised
to p
ay a
nnua
ltr
ibut
e to
thei
r M
ugha
lsu
zera
in b
y 16
35,
and
the
follo
win
g ye
arG
olco
nda
also
agr
eed,
but
the
Dec
can
refu
sed
to r
emai
n pe
rman
ently
subo
rdin
ate
to n
orth
ern
pow
er.
Whi
le S
hah
Jaha
n's
arm
y w
aged
its
cost
ly w
ars
in th
e so
uth,
one
of
Indi
a's
wor
st
reco
rded
fam
ines
7liT
ilifi
dIFe
-Dtpo
pula
tion,
and
onl
y
five
thou
sand
rup
ees
ofim
peri
al f
unds
wer
e sp
ent
eicr
e-ek
-:ti)
-1ie
lp
relie
ve th
e w
ides
prea
dm
iser
y an
d st
arva
tion
by o
rder
of
the
rule
r w
ho
soon
_wou
ld_l
avis
h bi
llion
s_on
_ape
laak
thro
ne a
nd h
isw
ife'
s to
mb.
It w
as a
t Bur
hanp
ur,
the
Mug
hal p
rovi
ncia
lfo
rtre
ss in
the
Dec
can,
in th
e m
idst
of
that
fam
ine-
and
pla
gue-
rack
edre
gion
in i
63 z
, tha
t
Mum
taz
Mah
al d
ied
inch
ildbi
rth.
"E
mpi
re h
as n
osw
eetn
ess,
life
it-
self
has
no
relis
h le
ft f
or m
eno
w,"
Sha
h Ja
han
was
supp
osed
to h
ave
wai
led
whe
n he
hea
rd th
e ne
ws,
yet h
e liv
ed a
noth
erth
irty
-fiv
e ye
ars.
Mah
aras
htra
had
cla
imed
the
firs
t of
its M
ugha
lro
yalty
, but
she
wou
ld n
ot b
e th
e la
st.
The
rug
ged
Dec
can
was
tore
mai
n_ac
ontin
uing
polit
ical
trap
, sed
uctiv
ely
elus
ive,
a b
otto
mle
ss p
itof
exp
endi
ture
and
mar
tial l
oss
for
the
Gre
atM
ugha
ls.
Sliih
faha
n co
ntin
ued
to r
ely
onhi
s gr
andf
athe
r'sm
ansa
bdar
i
syst
em, b
ut w
hile
Akb
ar h
ad e
ight
een
hund
red
man
sabd
ars,
the
num
-
ber
of h
ighe
r bu
reau
crat
sdr
oppe
d to
onl
y ei
ght
hund
red
unde
r Sh
ah
Jaha
n, th
ough
the
uppe
rlim
it w
as n
ow e
scal
ated
toth
e ra
nk o
f si
xty
thou
sand
for
Pri
nce
Dar
aSh
ikoh
(Sh
ah J
ahan
him
self
hel
d a
man
sab
of th
irty
thou
sand
befo
re in
heri
ting
the
thro
ne).
The
oth
er th
ree
prin
ces,
Aur
angz
eb, S
huja
,an
d M
urad
, wer
egr
ante
d m
uch
low
er
man
sabs
, yet
all
wer
eab
ove
ten
thou
sand
.If
Sha
h Ja
han
was
mor
e
than
gen
erou
s to
his
child
ren,
how
ever
, he
was
less
than
exp
ansi
ve to
othe
rs, f
or o
nly
four
of
his
cour
tiers
hel
d th
era
nk o
f se
ven
thou
sand
,
six
wer
e gi
ven
man
sabs
of s
ix th
ousa
nd, a
ndfi
ftee
n ha
d m
ansa
bs o
f
five
thou
sand
. (A
uran
gzeb
was
to e
leva
te m
any
mor
eto
the
high
er
80
Eli
154
A N
EW
HIS
TO
RY
OF
IND
IA
eche
lons
of
serv
ice,
pri
mar
ily b
ecau
se h
e ne
eded
man
y m
ore
gene
rals
to w
age
his
expe
nsiv
e D
ecca
n w
ars.
) So
on a
fter
his
mot
her's
dea
th,
Dar
a Sh
ikoh
mar
ried
his
cou
sin,
Nad
ira,
to w
hom
he
rem
aine
d si
ngu-
larl
y de
vote
d, a
nd w
ho b
ore
his
eigh
t chi
ldre
n. A
uran
gzeb
(16
18 -
1707
) w
as o
nly
four
teen
at t
he ti
me,
but
he
seem
s al
read
y to
hav
eha
ted
his
elde
r br
othe
r an
d co
vete
d hi
s fa
ther
's th
rone
.\App
aren
tly in
the
hope
of
cool
ing
this
bro
odin
g pr
ince
's a
mbi
tion
by d
ista
nce,
his
fath
er a
ppoi
nted
Aur
angz
eb v
icer
oy (
naw
ab)
of th
e D
ecca
n in
163
6,bu
t rem
oten
ess
from
Agr
a on
ly f
ired
his
app
etite
for
pow
er, a
nd a
fter
eigh
t yea
rs in
exi
le A
uran
gzeb
qui
t his
pos
t and
ret
urne
d to
the
nort
h-er
n ce
nter
of
empi
re. B
y th
at ti
me,
Sha
h Ja
han
had
begu
n co
nstr
uc-
tion
of a
mag
nifi
cent
new
cap
ital i
n D
elhi
, to
whi
ch h
is c
ourt
wou
ldm
ove
in 1
648.
Not
that
Agr
a w
as e
ver
tota
lly a
band
oned
by
the
build
er o
f th
eT
aj, i
n w
hose
rei
gn th
e w
hite
mar
ble
Pear
l Mos
que
(Mot
i Mas
jid)
was
als
o er
ecte
d lik
e a
gian
t jew
el in
side
the
Agr
a fo
rt. P
erha
ps it
was
the
mem
ory
of M
umta
z M
ahal
that
trou
bled
the
empe
ror;
or
the
heat
,w
hich
is a
lway
s m
ore
inte
nse
at A
gra
than
Del
hi; o
r pe
rhap
s it
was
mer
ely
the
desi
re to
bui
ld h
is o
wn
city
, his
ow
n pa
lace
, for
bui
ldin
gbe
cam
e hi
s pr
imar
y pa
ssio
n no
w. T
hat p
assi
on d
rove
him
bac
k to
the
rust
y pl
ain
on w
hich
no
few
er th
an s
ix e
arlie
r In
dian
cap
ital c
ities
had
prev
ious
ly b
een
erec
ted,
ther
e to
des
ign
and
orde
r th
e co
nstr
uctio
n of
the
seve
nth,
Sha
h Ja
hana
bad,
or
wha
t wou
ld la
ter
be c
alle
d O
ld D
elhi
,af
ter
the
Bri
tish
bega
n bu
ildin
g a
New
Del
hi in
191
1. M
any
of th
ebl
ocks
and
bri
cks
requ
ired
to e
rect
the
new
wal
ls a
nd m
assi
ve g
ate-
,..\r
4.4:
%w
ays
to S
hah
Jaha
n's
city
wer
e ta
ken
from
the
rubb
le o
f Fi
roza
bad,
Tug
hluq
's D
elhi
, who
se P
uran
a Q
ila (
"Old
For
t")
still
sta
nds,
ash
atte
red
frag
men
t of
jagg
ed s
tone
and
bla
cken
ed b
rick
, a w
retc
hed
rem
nant
of
the
once
pro
ud s
ulta
nate
. Sha
h Ja
han
built
on
a gr
ande
rsc
ale,
thou
gh h
e, to
o, u
sed
the
red
sand
ston
e of
nei
ghbo
ring
hill
s,er
ectin
g a4
lect
. (L
al Q
ila)
even
larg
er th
an A
gra'
s pa
lace
, a c
ityw
ithin
the
city
that
enc
lose
d al
mos
t fiv
e m
illio
n sq
uare
fee
t with
in it
sto
wer
ing
ram
part
s. I
nsid
e w
ere
roya
l apa
rtm
ents
, har
ems,
a s
ecre
-ta
riat
, fac
tori
es, s
tore
hous
es, m
ilita
ry b
arra
cks,
a tr
easu
ry, a
min
t, an
dst
able
s, a
hom
e fo
r te
ns o
f th
ousa
nds
of s
erva
nts,
sla
ves,
cou
rtie
rs,
eunu
chs,
pri
nces
ses,
and
a k
ing
mig
htie
r th
an E
ngla
nd's
mon
arch
,ri
cher
than
Chi
na's
, as
stro
ng a
s Pe
rsia
's. A
fter
the
fort
was
fin
ishe
d,a
beau
tiful
mos
quet
hella
ma
Mas
jid w
as b
uilt
faci
ng it
s m
ain
en-
.
GR
EA
T M
UG
HA
L G
LO
RY
155
tran
ce.N
dia'
s la
rges
t pla
ce o
f w
orsh
ip, i
tsce
ntra
l cou
rtya
rd a
lone
is
over
a h
undr
ed th
ousa
nd s
quar
efe
et, p
erm
ittin
g te
ns o
fth
ousa
nds
of
Mus
lims
to g
athe
r th
ere
on F
rida
yaf
tern
oons
for
uni
ted
pray
er. I
t re-
mai
ns I
ndia
's n
oble
st m
onum
ent t
oIs
lam
ic c
ultu
re, e
ven
as th
e R
ed
Fort
is s
till i
ts m
ight
iest
3In
163
9 Pr
ince
Shu
ja, S
hah
Jaha
n's
seco
nd e
ldes
t son
, had
bee
n
sent
to B
enga
l, th
e M
ugha
l Em
pire
's p
rovi
nce
of "
peac
e, p
lent
y, a
nd
pest
ilenc
e,"
and
he p
resi
ded
over
its w
ealth
y de
stin
y fo
r ei
ghte
en
year
s, r
emot
efr
om D
elhi
and
Agr
a. P
rinc
e M
urad
,th
e yo
unge
st
brot
her,
on
the
othe
r ha
nd, w
asth
e bl
ack
shee
p of
Sha
h Ja
han'
s so
ns.
He
dese
rted
his
arm
y in
Cen
tral
Asi
a,af
ter
he h
ad le
d th
em to
Bal
kh
and
Bad
aksh
an in
164
6 on
wha
t was
Shah
Jah
an's
mos
t was
tefu
lm
ili-
tary
ven
ture
, ava
in a
ttem
pt to
rec
aptu
re h
is d
ynas
ty's
ance
stra
l hom
e
of S
amar
kand
. Per
haps
, lik
e B
abur
,Shah
Jah
an m
isse
d th
e m
elon
sof
Cen
tral
Asi
a, b
ut h
is y
oung
est s
onm
isse
d on
ly th
e hi
gh li
fe b
ack
at
cour
t, an
d[or
the
peas
antr
yw
ho p
aid
to s
usta
in s
uch
impe
rial
fol
ly,
the
cost
of
the
two-
year
Cen
tral
Asi
an e
xped
ition
tota
led
som
e fo
rty
mill
ion
rupe
es]
Smal
l won
der
that
Shah
Jah
an f
elt o
blig
ed to
rais
e hi
s
reve
nue
dem
ands
to a
n av
erag
eof
one
-hal
f of
all
crop
s, r
athe
rth
an
Akb
ar's
one
-thi
rd. B
etw
een
his
mon
umen
tal b
uild
ings
and
his
mar
tial
mis
adve
ntur
esw
hich
incl
uded
thre
e m
ore
frui
tless
exp
editi
ons
agai
nst
the
Pers
ians
at K
anda
hare
ven
the
fabl
ed s
urpl
us e
xact
edfr
om th
e
pers
piri
ng b
acks
of o
ne h
undr
ed m
illio
n pe
ople
swif
tly d
isap
pear
ed.
Still
, the
em
pero
r sa
t upo
nhi
s Pe
acoc
k T
hron
e (t
hank
s to
whi
ch it
was
sai
d th
at th
e w
orld
had
run
"sho
rt o
f go
ld")
,en
crus
ted
with
the
larg
est d
iam
onds
, rub
ies,
sap
phir
es,e
mer
alds
, and
pea
rls
ever
foun
d,
all b
ut b
lindi
ng d
istr
acte
dco
urtie
rs a
nd v
isito
rs, w
hofa
ced
a fi
rma-
men
t of
unm
atch
ed b
rilli
ance
and
wea
lth w
hene
ver
they
had
the
good
fort
une
of a
ppro
achi
ng th
e im
peri
al p
rese
nce.
Unl
ess
requ
ired
els
e-
whe
re o
n ur
gent
bus
ines
s, a
ll pr
inci
pal
man
sabd
ars
mus
tere
d tw
ice
daily
bef
ore
the
empe
ror
at h
is H
all o
f Pu
blic
Aud
ienc
e (D
iwan
-i
Am
), w
hile
less
er o
ffic
ials
stoo
d so
mew
hat m
ore
rem
ote,
yet
still
with
in c
all s
houl
d th
ey b
ene
eded
.N'h
e vi
rtue
s of
hum
ility
, obe
dien
ce,
patie
nce,
and
loya
lty w
ere
thus
inst
illed
in a
ll of
the
mig
hty
gene
rals
and
civi
l adm
inis
trat
ors,
at t
he c
ost
of in
telle
ctua
l ini
tiativ
e, in
depe
nd-
ence
of
min
d, s
elf-
suff
icie
ncy,
inte
grity
,an
d co
urag
e. B
ullie
d an
d
trea
ted
like
child
ren
by th
eir
empe
ror,
it w
as h
ardl
y su
rpri
sing
tofi
nd
such
"no
bles
" be
havi
ng in
turn
as
petu
lant
pet
tyty
rant
s to
thei
r se
rv-
-..
R2
tr.;:
;';
1***
5
83
156
A N
EW
HIS
TO
RY
OF
IND
IA
ants
, bea
rers
, sol
dier
s, a
nd p
easa
nts]
The
who
le s
yste
m w
as a
pyr
amid
of p
ower
des
igne
d to
per
petu
ate
its im
peri
al p
inna
cle,
whe
ther
ti16
71ru
thle
ss v
iole
nce,
ext
ortio
n, h
arem
-Ini
iigue
, bri
bery
, or
shee
r te
rror
.T
he f
orm
al g
arde
ns, m
arbl
e m
auso
leum
s, a
nd P
ersi
an m
inia
ture
sw
ere
as n
ecta
r sq
ueez
ed f
rom
a s
ubco
ntin
ent c
rush
ed in
to o
bedi
ence
,m
ilked
of
its r
iche
s by
the
few
' who
had
rea
son
to ly
rici
ze in
Per
sian
coup
lets
car
ved
into
the
orna
te w
alls
of
Del
hi's
Hal
l of
Priv
ate
Aud
i-en
ce (
Diw
an-i
Kha
s), "
If th
ere
be P
arad
ise
on e
arth
, It i
s H
ere,
It i
sH
ere,
It i
s H
ere!
"D
ara
Shik
oh's
inte
llect
ual c
urio
sity
and
rel
igio
us to
lera
nce
was
mor
e th
an c
ount
erba
lanc
ed to
war
d th
e en
d of
Sha
h Ja
han'
s re
ign
byA
uran
gzeb
's I
slam
ic o
rtho
doxy
and
mili
tant
zea
l. W
hile
Sha
h Ja
han
rem
aine
d he
alth
y, th
e te
nsio
n be
twee
n th
ese
pola
r pr
ince
s w
as h
eld
in
bala
nce,
and
thou
gh f
actiO
nsO
iyai
tiesp
artia
l to
one
or th
e ot
her
emer
ged
at c
ourt
, the
em
pero
r ke
pt th
em f
rom
ope
n w
arfa
re. S
hah
Jaha
n se
nt A
uran
gzeb
bac
k to
'the
Dec
can
in 1
652,
but
did
not
giv
ehi
m f
ull r
ein
to c
onqu
er G
olco
nda
and
Bija
pur
by in
vasi
on, a
s A
u-ra
ngze
b w
ante
d to
do,
afr
aid,
it s
eem
s, o
f th
e gr
oWin
g po
wer
and
boun
dles
s am
bitio
n of
his
"pr
ayer
-mon
ger"
son
. Dar
a, th
ough
vic
eroy
of th
e Pu
njab
, sta
yed
clos
e to
his
fat
her
at c
ourt
, but
he
care
d lit
tlefo
r m
unda
ne g
lory
and
took
less
inte
rest
in h
arem
intr
igue
or c
ourt
polit
ics
than
he
did
in m
ystic
ism
, Hin
du a
s w
ell a
s Su
fi, a
nd in
the
tran
slat
ion
of s
uch
Sans
krit
clas
sics
as
the
Bha
gava
d G
ita in
to P
ersi
an,
to w
hich
he
devo
ted
him
self
. Thu
s, w
hile
Aur
angz
eb v
entu
red
fort
hfr
om h
is c
apita
l of
Aur
anga
bad
to te
mpe
r hi
s sw
ord
in d
usty
Dec
can
cam
paig
ns th
atas
wel
l as
whe
tted
his
appe
tite_
fore
ater
conf
licts
and
cle
arer
vict
orie
s,D
ara
lang
uish
ed a
nd g
rew
wea
rity
_Lth
e
Del
hi M
aya-
wor
ld o
f m
ater
ial g
litte
r. S
huja
rem
aine
d in
Ben
gal,
and
Mur
ad w
as s
ent t
o G
ujar
at, w
here
he
was
giv
en a
s lit
tle to
do
as p
os-.
sibl
e,. l
eft t
o id
le h
is ti
me
with
a b
usy
cycl
e of
pro
vinc
ial f
east
s an
dce
rem
onie
s, in
ters
pers
ed b
y ro
yal h
unts
and
hol
iday
vis
its to
nei
gh-
bori
ng c
ities
and
shr
ines
, arr
ange
d by
his
shr
ewd
"gua
rdia
n" m
inis
ter,
Ali
Naq
i Kha
n.4.
ate
in 1
657,
with
the
beau
tiful
mau
sole
um th
atw
ould
imm
orta
lize
his
wif
e co
mpl
eted
, the
age
d Sh
ah J
ahan
fel
l vic
-tim
to h
is o
wn
insa
tiabl
e ha
rem
lust
and
all
but e
xpir
ed o
f st
rang
ury,
thro
win
g D
elhi
's c
ourt
into
a s
tate
of
pani
c ov
er th
e su
cces
sion
that
soon
rev
erbe
rate
d to
the
dist
ant c
orne
rs o
f pr
ince
ly M
ugha
l pro
vinc
ial
habi
tatio
n
GR
EA
T M
UG
HA
L G
LO
RY
157
Aur
angz
eb lu
red
sim
ple
Mur
ad in
to a
llian
ce a
gain
st "
our
dis-
grac
eful
bro
ther
," a
s he
cal
led
Dar
a Sh
ikoh
, fir
st b
y de
nyin
g th
at h
eha
d an
y re
gal a
mbi
tions
, cla
imin
g it
was
onl
y to
sav
e Is
lam
that
he
stoo
d re
ady
to "
defe
nd"
the
empi
re a
gain
st h
is e
lder
bro
ther
, and
late
rby
pro
mis
ing
Mur
ad th
e Pu
njab
and
Sin
d fo
r hi
s su
ppor
t. Sh
uja
was
firs
t to
proc
laim
him
self
em
pero
r, m
intin
g co
in in
his
ow
n na
me
be-
fore
the
end
of 1
657
in B
enga
l, st
imul
atin
g M
urad
to d
o th
e sa
me
inG
ujar
at. A
uran
gzeb
was
mor
e ca
utio
us, w
aitin
g til
l Jul
y 16
58 b
efor
ej
he w
ould
cla
im th
e th
rone
s of
Del
hi a
nd A
gra.
By
earl
y 16
58 S
hah
Jaha
n ha
d re
gain
ed h
is h
ealth
, and
he
trie
d de
sper
atel
y to
hel
p D
ara
cope
with
his
bro
ther
s' lu
st f
or p
ower
, but
the
mys
tic h
eir
had
spen
tto
o m
uch
of h
is ti
me
wor
ryin
g ab
out o
ther
wor
ldly
mat
ters
to s
ave
his
life
or r
etai
n th
e em
pire
beq
ueat
hed
to h
im. T
he u
nite
d fo
rces
of
Aur
angz
eb a
nd M
urad
mar
ched
nor
th to
def
eat J
odhp
ur R
ajpu
tJa
swan
t Sin
gh's
for
mid
able
impe
rial
for
ce a
t Dha
rmat
in A
pril.
Agr
aw
as m
obili
zed
in d
espe
rate
pre
para
tions
for
the
impe
ndin
g on
slau
ght,
and
Dar
a se
t for
th a
top
the
mig
htie
st r
oyal
ele
phan
t to
lead
his
gre
atar
my
of a
bout
a h
undr
ed th
ousa
nd tr
oops
to D
holp
ur, o
nth
e ri
ver
Cha
mba
l, w
here
he
plan
ned
to b
lock
the
adva
ncin
g re
bel f
orce
.A
uran
gzeb
, how
ever
, was
too
shre
wd
a st
rate
gist
for
his
bro
ther
. He
elud
ed th
e bl
ocka
de, f
ordi
ng th
e ri
ver
upst
ream
in th
e bl
azin
g he
at o
fM
ay a
nd f
orci
ng D
ara
to f
all b
ack
in h
asty
dis
arra
y to
Agr
a's
aban
-do
ned
fort
ress
. The
y m
et a
t Sam
ugar
h, s
ever
al m
iles
east
of
Agr
a,tw
o el
epha
nt-l
ed a
rmie
s, D
ara'
s ri
ddle
d w
ith d
islo
yalM
uslim
cav
alry
like
that
led
by th
e U
zbek
Kha
lilul
lah
Kha
n. A
uran
gzeb
was
cle
arly
the
stro
nger
gen
eral
. Raj
puts
in th
e th
ousa
nds
died
for
Dar
a Sh
ikoh
,w
ho f
led
the
fiel
d to
war
d A
gra,
a f
alle
n an
d hu
nted
sha
de o
fhi
s fo
r-
mer
sel
f; h
is h
ead
was
soo
n to
be
deliv
ered
in a
box
from
the
vic-
tori
ous
Aur
angz
eb to
thei
r im
pris
oned
fat
her.
Mur
ad w
as a
t fir
st f
lat-
tere
d by
his
pio
us e
lder
bro
ther
, whi
le h
is a
rmy
was
stil
l of
use
toA
uran
gzeb
, who
bes
eige
d A
gra'
s Fo
rt ti
ll he
for
ced
Shah
Jah
an to
surr
ende
r ea
rly
in J
une;
soo
n af
ter
that
, Mur
ad w
as ta
ken
pris
oner
by
his
brot
her,
and
thre
e ye
ars
late
r he
, too
, was
dec
apita
ted.
Aur
angz
eb a
scen
ded
the
thro
ne o
f A
kbar
as
lam
gir
("W
orld
Con
quer
or")
the
Firs
t in
July
165
8 an
d re
igne
d un
til h
is d
eath
in
Mar
ch 1
707.
He
was
at o
nce
the
mos
t pio
us a
nd th
e m
ost r
uthl
ess
of
the
Gre
at M
ugha
ls, a
sin
gle-
min
ded
lead
er o
f br
illia
ntad
min
istr
ativ
eca
paci
ty_a
nd a
s cu
nnin
g a
stat
esm
an a
s ev
er in
o-u
-rite
d an
I (I
lan_
_-
_ _
Si.:;
Tt4
158
A N
EW
HIS
TO
RY
OF
IND
IA
thro
ne, t
he w
as h
aile
d by
Sun
ni I
slam
as
Indi
a's
only
cal
iph
and
revi
led
by H
indu
dom
eve
n m
ore
than
the
Gha
znav
ids
and
Ghu
rs h
adbe
en f
or th
e su
ffer
ing
he s
elf-
righ
teou
sly
infl
icte
d on
non
-Mus
limsu
bjec
ts in
pea
cetim
e as
wel
l as
in w
ar.H
e ha
d no
fri
ends
, onl
y w
or-
ship
ping
adm
irer
s an
d en
emie
s w
hose
hat
red
was
sur
pass
ed o
nly
byth
eir
fear
of
his
cold
fur
y. H
e sp
ent m
ore
time
at p
raye
r th
an in
his
hare
m, a
nd w
as m
ost m
etho
dica
l in
his
rele
ntle
ss p
ursu
it of
pow
er.
Dar
a, w
ho h
ad f
led
to L
ahor
e an
d fr
om th
ence
to M
ulta
n, p
osed
no
real
mili
tary
cha
lleng
e af
ter
Sam
ugar
h. S
huja
, who
stil
l ret
aine
d co
n-tr
ol o
ver
Ben
gal a
nd B
ihar
, hop
ed to
"lib
erat
e" A
gra
and
the
im-
pris
oned
Sha
h Ja
han
whi
le A
uran
gzeb
was
bus
y ch
asin
g D
ara
arou
ndth
e Pu
njab
, but
Em
pero
r A
lam
gir
prov
ed to
o sw
ift,
too
ubiq
uito
us a
le-L
'",f
orce
for
any
and
all
of h
is r
ival
s. D
efea
ted
at. K
haju
ha in
Jan
uary
of
P°' 1
659,
Shu
ja r
etre
ated
to h
is B
enga
li ca
pita
l of
Raj
mah
al o
n th
eG
anga
, but
was
for
ced
soon
to a
band
on th
at s
tron
ghol
d fo
r E
ast
Ben
gal's
del
ta a
nd D
acca
. The
'nex
t yea
r he
was
dri
ven
out o
f In
dia
entir
ely,
see
king
ref
uge
in B
urm
a, w
here
he
repo
rted
ly m
et a
vio
lent
end.
Onc
e th
e w
ar o
f su
cces
sion
was
ove
r,. A
lam
gir
turn
ed h
is e
nerg
ies
to p
robl
ems
of a
n ad
min
istr
ativ
e an
d fi
nanc
ial n
atur
e. S
ecur
ing
his
hotly
con
test
ed th
rone
had
cos
t the
impe
rial
trea
sury
muc
h of
the
re-
mai
ning
for
tune
acc
umul
ated
dur
ing
Shah
Jah
an's
rei
gn, b
ut A
lam
gir's
tast
e fo
r bu
ildin
g an
d co
urt l
uxur
ies
was
the
aust
ere
oppo
site
of
his
fath
er's
. Mon
umen
tal c
onst
ruct
ion
now
cam
e to
an
end,
as
did
mos
tro
yal e
xpen
ditu
re o
n no
nrel
igio
us c
eleb
ratio
ns, e
spec
ially
thos
e in
-cl
udin
g w
ine,
son
g, a
nd d
ance
, all
bani
shed
as
infi
del h
abits
unf
it fo
rco
urtly
pat
rona
ge. P
erso
nally
pur
itani
cal i
n dr
ess
and
tast
e, A
lam
gir
set a
tone
of
zeal
ous
sobr
iety
for
his
cou
rtie
rs, w
hich
am
ply
atte
sted
tohi
s st
reng
th o
f ch
arac
ter
and
help
ed im
pres
s hi
s pi
ety
on th
ose
who
had
wat
ched
his
blo
ody
rise
to p
ower
with
mis
givi
ngs.
The
era
of
relig
ious
tole
ranc
e an
d H
indu
-Mus
lim e
qual
ity_
oftr
eatm
entth
at h
ad b
een_
initi
atec
Lby
Akb
at_w
as n
ow a
band
oned
.9A
lam
gir
appo
inte
d "c
enso
rs o
f pu
blic
mor
als"
(m
uhta
sibs
) to
ever
y
prov
inci
al c
apita
l and
oth
er la
rge
city
in h
is r
ealm
, ord
erin
g th
em to
be s
ure
that
Isl
amic
law
was
obe
yed
and
the
prop
er p
raye
rs/g
er-
form
ed. I
n'41
668
Hin
du r
elig
ious
fai
rs w
ere
outla
wed
, and
no\
--ew
Hin
du te
mpl
e pe
rmits
wer
e is
sued
, mr
wou
ld r
oyal
per
mis
sion
be
gran
ted
to r
epai
r ru
ndow
n te
mpl
es.'A
lam
gir
even
trie
d to
abo
lish
gam
blin
g an
d "i
llici
t sex
" fr
om th
e la
nd th
at h
ad v
irtu
ally
inve
nted
the
form
er a
nd p
ract
iced
the
latte
r as
one
mea
ns o
f w
orsh
ip. H
ard-
GR
EA
T M
UG
HA
L G
LO
RY
159
pres
sed
to r
aise
suf
fici
ent r
even
ue to
sup
port
the
arm
y he
nee
ded
to
keep
him
self
in p
ower
,Ala
mgi
r re
impo
sed
the
hate
d jiz
ya p
oll t
ax o
n
Hin
dus
in 1
679,
aft
er h
avin
g m
ore
than
dou
bled
the
duty
Hin
du m
er-
chan
ts w
ffre
obl
iged
to p
ay o
nth
e sa
me
prod
uce
boug
ht a
ndso
ld b
y
Mus
lims.
Whe
n cr
owds
gat
here
d ne
ar h
is R
ed F
ort t
o pr
otes
tsu
ch
ineq
uity
and
bla
tant
dis
crim
inat
ion,
impe
rial
ele
phan
ts w
ere
orde
red
out t
o cr
ush
them
. Ala
mgi
rre
ceiv
ed m
any
war
ning
s th
atre
belli
on
wou
ld s
prea
d ac
ross
Ind
ia if
he
pers
iste
d in
his
pol
icy
of s
tric
t par
-
tialit
y to
the
relig
ious
bel
iefs
of
the
rulin
g m
inor
ity, b
ut h
est
ayed
firm
ly in
pow
er a
nd o
nly
expa
nded
his
impe
rial
dom
ain.
The
pri
mar
y ca
use
of th
ew
ides
prea
d re
volt
that
occ
urre
d_in
_the
latte
r pa
rt o
f A
lam
gir's
rei
gn,
how
ever
, was
eco
nom
ic, n
otre
ligio
us.
_T
he in
tole
rabl
e in
crea
ses
in r
even
uede
man
ds d
rove
mor
e an
d m
ore
zam
inda
rs a
s w
ell a
s pe
asan
ts to
risk
deat
Iffr
llion
i:a&
ithan
acce
pt in
evita
ble
star
vatio
n.W
ith M
ugha
l im
peri
al p
ower
heav
ily d
e- it
ai
pend
ent o
n its
cav
alry
,ad
min
istr
ativ
e m
ansa
bdar
s w
ere
assi
gned
jagi
rs o
f la
nd to
sus
tain
them
selv
esan
d th
e ho
rsem
en th
ey w
ere
ex-
pect
ed to
lead
into
bat
tle a
t the
empe
ror's
cal
l. G
reed
tem
pted
man
y
man
sabd
ars
to r
aise
the
reve
nue
dem
ands
impo
sed
on th
eir
peas
ants
,
desp
ite c
entr
al g
over
nmen
t reg
ulat
ions
to th
e co
ntra
ry, a
nd to
sup
port
far
few
er c
aval
ry th
an th
eir
rank
req
uire
d, k
eepi
ng th
egr
ain
that
wou
ld h
ave
been
use
d to
fee
d th
ose
men
and
hors
es f
or th
eir
own
prof
it. S
uch
infl
atio
n be
cam
e qu
ite c
omm
onto
war
d th
e en
d of
Ala
m-
gir's
rei
gn a
nd in
the
peri
od o
f m
ore
rapi
d M
ugha
l dec
line
that
fol
-
low
ed.(
Eve
n du
ring
the
earl
y ye
ars
of th
e re
ign,
how
ever
, the
har
sh-
ness
of
jagi
rdar
dem
ands
led
peas
ants
in m
any
part
s of
the
empi
re to
flee
fro
m th
eir
Mug
hal v
illag
esan
d ra
lly th
eir
supp
ort b
ehin
dre
gion
al
zam
inda
rs, J
at, M
arat
ha, S
ikh,
and
Raj
putJ
Hin
du J
at p
easa
nts
unde
r a
zam
inda
r na
med
Gok
ula
revo
lted
in M
athu
ra in
166
9, a
nd th
ree
year
sla
ter
the
Satn
amis
("T
ruth
Nam
ers"
), a
sec
t of
Hin
du p
easa
nts
in th
e Pu
njab
, reb
elle
d,m
arch
ing
tow
ard
Del
hi u
ntil
they
wer
e bl
own
to s
hred
s by
Mug
hal
artil
lery
. The
Sikh
s by
now
had
twic
e su
ppor
ted
losi
ng a
spir
ants
to M
ugha
l pow
er,
once
in J
ahan
gir's
reig
n, w
hen
they
bac
ked
his
rebe
l son
, Khu
srau
,
and
agai
n w
hen
they
fav
ored
Dar
a's
clai
m; t
his
expe
rien
cele
ft a
bitt
er
resi
due
of a
nti-
Mug
hal p
assi
onin
the
Punj
ab, t
o w
hich
Ala
mgi
r ad
ded
an in
tole
rabl
e po
tion
of a
ngui
sh. T
he M
arat
has
also
em
erge
d th
roug
h-
out t
he la
tter
part
of
his
reig
n as
bitt
er th
orns
inhi
s D
ecca
n si
de, a
nd
the
Raj
puts
ros
e tim
e an
dag
ain,
yet
the
"pra
yer-
mon
ger"
held
his
87
160
A N
EW
HIS
TO
RY
OF
IND
IA
thro
ne, c
onvi
nced
that
he
did
so b
y th
e w
ill o
f A
llah,
ass
iste
d by
ala
rger
and
bet
ter
paid
arm
y th
an a
ny p
revi
ous
Indi
an m
onar
ch h
adev
er s
usta
ined
. Des
pite
the
"bad
pre
ss"
that
has
hau
nted
Ala
mgi
r's
.rep
utat
ion
sinc
e hi
s de
ath,
his
rei
gn m
ay b
e_re
ad a
s a
less
on in
the
effi
cacy
of
unre
lent
ing
forc
e an
d un
tirin
g di
ctat
oria
l dom
inan
ce a
ske
ys to
the
cont
rol o
f In
dia'
s pr
epon
dera
ntly
doc
ile,
apol
itica
l pea
sant
pop
ulat
ion.
Akb
ar h
ad h
oped
to w
in c
ontr
ol o
ver
all o
f In
dia
by h
is e
n-lig
hten
ed p
olic
y of
"lo
ve"f
orgi
ng a
mul
tirel
igio
us a
llian
ce, r
educ
ing
taxe
s, a
nd e
ncou
ragi
ng to
lera
nce
for
all s
ects
and
idea
s. A
lam
gir
achi
eved
gre
ater
suc
cess
thro
ugh
his
polic
y of
terr
or a
nd n
aked
pow
erif
we
wou
ld m
easu
re im
peri
al s
ucce
ss, t
hat i
s, b
y th
e co
nque
st a
ndre
tent
ion
of r
eal e
stat
e al
one.
It i
s, o
f co
urse
, har
der
to g
auge
the
less
tang
ible
, tho
ugh
at le
ast e
qual
ly im
port
ant t
hing
s, s
uch
as th
e "g
en-
eral
wel
fare
" or
"ha
ppin
ess"
of
the
publ
ic a
t lar
ge, e
spec
ially
sin
ceth
ere
are
so f
ew s
urvi
ving
rec
ords
, of
the
lives
and
fee
lings
of
Indi
a's
peop
le, o
ther
than
impe
rial
cou
rtie
rs. W
e do
kno
w, h
owev
er, o
f at
leas
t one
ano
nym
ous
lette
r of
elo
quen
t com
plai
nt th
at r
each
ed th
eem
pero
r af
ter
he h
ad r
eim
pose
d th
e jiz
ya, s
tatin
g in
par
t: "Y
our
sub-
ject
s ar
e tr
ampl
ed u
nder
foot
; eve
ry p
rovi
nce
of y
our
Em
pire
is im
-po
veri
shed
; dep
opul
atio
n sp
read
s an
d di
ffic
ultie
s ac
cum
ulat
e .
..
If Y
our
Maj
esty
pla
ces
any
faith
in th
ose
book
s by
dis
tinct
ion
calle
ddi
vine
, you
will
be
ther
e in
stru
cted
that
God
is th
e G
od o
f al
l man
-ki
nd, n
ot th
e G
od o
f M
ussa
lman
s al
one.
"' S
uch
sent
imen
t may
hav
epr
evai
led
thro
ugho
ut m
uch
of I
ndia
dur
ing
the
latte
r pa
rt o
f . t
hese
vent
eent
h ce
ntur
y, a
nd in
sev
eral
reg
ions
it le
d to
vio
lent
and
sus
-ta
ined
rev
olt.
The
Pun
jab
has
been
men
tione
d as
the
firs
t suc
h m
ajor
regi
on, p
erha
ps b
ecau
se it
had
so
long
bee
n "l
oyal
" to
its
vice
roy,
Dar
a, a
nd h
is c
laim
s to
Agr
a's
thro
ne. W
hile
Dar
a st
ill h
ad L
ahor
e's
gold
to d
ispe
nse,
he
reta
ined
a s
ubst
antia
l fol
low
ing
of c
aval
ry, R
ajpu
tas
wel
l as
Mus
lim, b
ut th
at q
uick
ly m
elte
d as
Ala
mgi
r's s
un r
ose
high
er, l
eavi
ng, n
onet
hele
ss, a
har
d co
re o
f Si
kh o
ppos
ition
in th
eL
and
of th
e Fi
ve R
iver
s.Si
nce
the
foun
ding
of
the
Sikh
2 fa
ith b
y its
sai
ntly
gur
u N
anak
,
1 Ja
duna
th S
arka
r, H
isto
ry o
f A
uran
gzeb
(C
alcu
tta: M
. C. S
arka
ran
d So
ns, 1
952)
, vol
. 3, p
. 34.
2 T
he b
est h
isto
ry o
f th
is f
aith
is K
hush
wan
t Sin
gh, A
His
tory
of
the
Sikh
s, v
ol.
1, 1
469-
1839
(Pr
ince
ton,
N.J
.: Pr
ince
ton
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
,19
63).
ti
GR
EA
T M
UG
HA
L G
LO
RY
161
in th
e ea
rly
sixt
eent
h ce
ntur
y,_t
his
popu
lar
new
libe
ral c
omm
unity
flou
rish
ed in
the
Punj
ab, d
raw
ing
its _
recr
uits
mos
tly_f
rom
har
d-w
orki
ngye
asan
try
of H
indu
as
wel
l as
Mus
lim b
irth
. Rec
ordi
ng th
e
sacr
ed s
ayin
gs o
f G
uru
Nan
ak in
asp
ecia
lly d
evis
ed s
crip
t, ca
lled
Gur
umuk
hi (
"fro
m th
e G
uru'
s m
outh
"),
his
chos
en s
ucce
ssor
, Gur
u
Ang
ad (
1504
-52)
, gav
e th
eco
mm
unity
gre
ater
coh
esio
n an
d a
clea
rer
sens
e of
its
own
iden
tity.
Elb
e th
ird
guru
, Am
ar D
as, w
as
patr
oniz
ed b
y A
kbar
, fur
ther
indu
cing
conv
erts
to th
e fa
ith,
whi
chv
stre
ssed
com
mun
ity e
atin
g as
wel
l as
pray
eran
d ab
olis
hed
fem
ale
purd
ah (
"sec
lusi
on")
toge
ther
with
cas
teex
clus
iven
ess
and
unto
uch-
abili
ty. R
am D
as, t
he f
ourt
h gu
ru,
had
serv
ed a
t Akb
ar's
cou
rt a
nd
was
gra
nted
som
e la
nd b
yth
e em
pero
r be
twee
n th
e ri
vers
Sutle
j and
Rav
i in
the
Punj
ab, w
hich
was
tobe
com
e th
e si
te o
f th
e Si
kh's
sacr
ed
capi
tal)
Ram
Das
's s
on a
nd s
ucce
ssor
, Arj
un(1
563-
1606
), c
om-
plet
ed th
e gr
eat S
ikh
tem
ple
atth
is s
pot,
nam
ing
the
city
Am
rits
ar
("Po
ol o
f Im
mor
tal N
ecta
r")
for
its ta
nk f
illed
with
"sa
cred
"w
ell
wat
er. U
nder
Arj
un's
car
eful
guid
ance
the
Sikh
scr
iptu
re,
Gra
nth
Sahi
b, w
as c
ompi
led
and
depo
site
d in
Arm
itsar
's te
mpl
e. "
In th
is v
es-
sel,"
wro
te G
uru
Arj
un o
f hi
s bo
ok,
"you
will
fin
d th
ree
thin
gstr
uth,
peac
e, a
nd c
onte
mpl
atio
n."
Jaha
ngir
cha
rged
Arj
un w
ith tr
easo
n,
how
ever
, and
had
him
tort
ured
tode
ath
for
supp
osed
ly a
idin
g th
e
empe
ror's
reb
el s
on K
husr
au, t
hen
refu
sing
toad
mit
his
"gui
lt" o
r
aban
don
his
faith
. Arj
un's
mar
tyrd
omin
spir
ed h
is o
wn
son,
Har
go-
bind
, to
arm
his
com
rade
s, w
ho s
tood
read
y to
def
end
thei
r re
ligio
n
with
thei
r liv
es, c
onve
rtin
g th
e pa
cifi
stfa
ith o
f G
uru
Nan
akin
to a
mill
fa:ti
t:new
ord
er p
itted
aga
inst
IN
;Iug
liTal
_t_y
rann
y.T
houg
h fo
rced
to
retr
eat t
o K
irat
pur
in th
e H
imal
ayan
foot
hills
, Gur
u H
argo
bind
and
his
band
hel
d ou
t aga
inst
Mug
hal a
rms
until
the
guru
's p
eace
ful d
eath
The
sev
enth
gur
u, H
ar R
ai, w
asho
unde
d ev
en f
arth
er in
to th
e
mou
ntai
ns, f
rom
whi
ch h
e em
erge
don
ly a
fter
165
8 to
sup
port
Dar
a
Shik
oh's
cla
im to
the
thro
ne. F
ollo
win
gA
lam
gir's
vic
tory
, how
ever
,
Har
Rai
was
obl
iged
to s
end
his
son,
Ram
Rai
, as
host
age
to D
elhi
's
cour
t, w
here
the
youn
g m
anbe
cam
e a
loya
l fol
low
er o
f th
e em
pero
r,
losi
ng h
is f
athe
r's s
uppo
rt. S
hort
lybe
fore
his
dea
th in
r66
1, H
ar R
ai
desi
gnat
ed h
is y
oung
er s
on, H
ari K
rish
en, a
shi
s su
cces
sor,
but
this
son,
too,
was
for
ced
tose
ek A
lam
gir's
fav
or in
Del
hi,
and
he e
xpir
ed
ther
e of
sm
allp
ox in
166
4. T
he n
inth
gur
u w
asH
ar R
ai's
gra
ndun
cle,
Teg
h B
ahad
ur (
1621
-75)
, who
was
arre
sted
by
Ala
mgi
r's s
oldi
ers
in0
162
A N
EW
HIS
TO
RY
OF
IND
IA
Agr
a an
d br
ough
t to
Del
hi, w
here
he
was
sub
sequ
ently
behe
aded
aft
er
refu
sing
to c
onve
rt to
Isl
am. L
qurt
-siG
-O-1
5iiid
666-
1708
), T
egh
Bah
adur
's s
on, w
as th
e te
nth
and
last
of
the
Sikh
Gur
us. H
e vo
wed
toav
enge
his
fat
her's
mur
der
and
to d
evot
e hi
s lif
e to
cea
sele
ss s
trug
gle
agai
nst A
lam
gir's
tyra
nny.
Gob
ind
Rai
for
ged
his
com
mun
ity in
to a
n
"arm
y of
the
pure
" (k
hals
a), t
akin
g as
his
new
sur
nam
e Si
ngh,
whi
ch
mea
ns "
Lio
n,"
and
bapt
izin
g hi
s cl
oses
tfo
llow
ers
with
the
sam
ena
me.
Fro
m th
is ti
me
at le
ast,
the
Sikh
s em
erge
d as
acl
ose-
knit
forc
e
of to
ughe
ned
figh
ters
who
rec
ogni
zed
one
anot
her
by th
esa
rtor
ial
sym
bols
of
thei
r fa
ith, f
or th
ey v
owed
nev
er to
cut
thei
r ha
ir o
r be
ards
,
alw
ays
to c
arry
a s
aber
, to
wea
r a
stee
lbra
cele
t on
thei
r ri
ght w
rist
san
d kn
ee-l
engt
h so
ldie
r's s
hort
s, a
nd to
kee
p a
com
b fo
r th
eir
hair
.
The
Gur
u no
w m
erge
d w
ith h
is c
omm
unity
, sin
ce a
ll w
ere
to b
ecom
ehu
nted
men
and
ful
l-tim
e fi
ghte
rs, b
ut th
e m
ajor
ity w
ill o
f th
e kh
alsa
wou
ld h
erea
fter
rep
rese
nt th
e G
uru
who
was
thus
imm
orta
lized
. Go-
bind
was
sai
d to
hav
e ha
d m
ore
than
twen
ty th
ousa
nd lo
yal s
uppo
rter
sin
his
ret
inue
at o
ne ti
me,
but
Mug
hal a
rmie
s ou
tnum
bere
dan
d ha
r-
rass
ed h
im ti
ll hi
s la
st y
ears
of
stru
ggle
and
har
dshi
p. A
t lea
sthe
had
the
ultim
ate
satis
fact
ion
of o
utliv
ing
his
hate
d ri
val,
Ala
mgi
r, b
y a
year
and
a h
alf.
In M
ahar
asht
raL
an_e
qual
ly f
ierc
e_H
indu
_oos
ition
_toi
ftha
lru
le e
mer
ged
unde
r th
e le
ader
ship
of
VSh
ivaj
i Bho
nsle
(16
27-8
0),
who
was
hai
led
by h
is f
ollo
wer
s as
the
foun
ding
fat
her
of th
e M
arat
ha"n
atio
n" b
ut r
evile
d by
the
Mug
hals
as
aD
ecca
n "m
ount
ain
rat."
Shiv
aji's
fat
her,
Sha
hji,
had
serv
ed th
esu
ltan
of A
hmad
naga
r, n
orth
-er
nmos
t of
the
five
suc
cess
or-k
ingd
oms
to th
e on
ce m
ight
yB
ahm
ani
sulta
nate
. As
the
sulta
n's
jagi
rdar
in P
oona
, Sha
hji w
as a
n im
port
ant
loca
l lea
der
and
soon
fou
nd h
imse
lf w
ooed
by
the
sulta
n of
nei
ghbo
r-in
g B
ijapu
r, f
or h
is w
as a
bor
derl
and
jagi
r. S
hort
lybe
fore
Shi
vaji'
sbi
rth,
his
fat
her
shif
ted
alle
gian
ce to
Bija
pur
and
took
a s
econ
d w
ife
as w
ell a
s a
new
sul
tan.
Em
otio
nally
aban
done
d by
her
hus
band
,Sh
ivaj
i's d
evou
t mot
her,
Jiji
Bai
, lav
ishe
dal
l of
her
atte
ntio
n an
daf
fect
ion
upon
her
son
. Aft
er S
hah
Jaha
n ca
me
to p
ower
at A
gra
and
adva
nced
into
the
Dec
can,
Sha
hji s
hift
ed a
llegi
ance
onc
e m
ore,
ac-
cept
ing
a M
ugha
l man
sab
from
late
163
oun
til S
hah
Jaha
n re
turn
ed
3 T
he b
est h
isto
ry o
f th
e M
arat
has
rem
ains
G. S
. Sar
desa
i, N
ewH
isto
ry o
f th
e M
arat
has,
3 v
ols.
, 2nd
impr
essi
on (
Bom
bay:
Phoe
nix
Pub-
licat
ions
, 195
7).
89
GR
EA
T M
UG
HA
LG
LO
RY
163
nort
h in
163
2, w
hen
the
adro
it M
arat
hast
ates
man
dec
ided
tore
turn
to h
is o
rigi
nal o
verl
ord,
the
sulta
n of
Ahm
adna
gar.
The
fol
low
ing
year
, how
ever
,D
aula
taba
d fe
ll, a
nd th
esu
ltan
was
take
n pr
ison
er b
y
the
Mug
hal a
rmy.
Sha
hji
now
sou
ght t
o ra
llyth
e re
mna
nt o
fA
hmad
-
naga
r fo
rces
,us
ing
guer
rilla
war
fare
tact
ics
agai
nst
far
supe
rior
Mug
-
hal m
ight
in th
eho
stile
Dec
can
terr
ain
he k
new
so
wel
l.W
ith s
ome
1
twel
ve th
ousa
nd f
ollo
wer
s,Sh
ahji
reta
ined
his
inde
pend
ence
of M
us-
lim r
ule
for
a fe
w y
ears
,bu
t whe
n B
ijapu
rco
nclu
ded
a tr
eaty
with
Shah
Jah
an in
163
6,th
e fa
te o
f H
indu
resi
stan
ce w
as s
eale
d,an
d
Shah
ji hi
mse
lfsu
rren
dere
d to
a jo
int M
ugha
l-B
ijapu
rar
my.
He
was
bani
shed
ther
eaft
er f
rom
Poon
a, b
ut J
ijiB
ai r
aise
d he
r so
n Sh
ivaj
iin
that
city
, whi
ch w
as to
beco
me
the
capi
talo
f M
arat
ha p
ower
]
Shiv
aji w
as a
fier
cer
figh
ter
than
his
_fat
her,
and
he g
rew
to.m
an:
hood
_im
boed
with
his
mot
her's
love
of H
indu
ism
_ an
d an
tipat
hy_t
o
Mus
lim B
ijapu
ri a
sw
ell a
s M
ugha
l rul
e.T
hat t
he D
ecca
nisu
ltana
tes
wer
e he
tero
dox
Shi'i
te§
whi
le"t
he M
ugha
ls w
ere
orth
odox
Sun
nis
mad
e no
dif
fere
nce
to S
hiva
ji's
year
ning
for
inde
pend
ence
of a
ll ov
er-
lord
s, e
spec
ially
thos
e of
a "
fore
ign"
faith
. He
wan
ted
"sel
f-ru
le"
(sva
-raj
) an
dth
e fu
ll fr
eedo
m to
pra
ctic
ehi
s ow
n re
ligio
n (s
va-
dhar
ma)
in th
e la
ndof
his
bir
th; t
heG
reat
Cou
ntry
Mah
a-W
asht
ra.
Shiv
aji l
eft P
oona
at th
e ag
e of
twen
ty,le
adin
g a
band
of y
oung
Ma-
rath
a fo
llow
ers
who
had
been
rea
red
inth
e hi
lls o
f th
eir
rugg
edre
gion
and
coul
d m
ost e
ffec
tivel
y us
egu
erri
lla ta
ctic
sin
fig
htin
g bo
th M
ugha
l
and
Bija
pur
pow
ers.
The
se "
mou
ntai
nra
ts"
wou
ld w
ait f
or c
arav
ans
to w
end
thei
r w
ayin
to th
e hi
ll co
untr
yan
d th
en s
woo
pdo
wn
to
plun
der
wha
teve
r th
eyco
uld
use
to s
tren
gthe
nth
eir
band
, whi
ch s
oon
had
the
arm
s, m
oney
,an
d ho
rses
to p
ose
afo
rmid
able
cha
lleng
e to
Mus
lim g
arri
sons
. Sec
urin
g a
num
ber
of k
ey m
ount
aint
oppl
atea
us a
s
his
fort
ress
es, S
hiva
ji so
onco
mm
ande
d a
subs
tant
ial p
ortio
nof
Mah
a-
rash
tria
n te
rrai
n, a
nd th
ough
Bija
pur
trie
dto
coe
rce
him
by
hold
ing
his
fath
er h
osta
ge, n
othi
ngco
uld
intim
idat
e th
iste
naci
ous
youn
g
Hin
du w
arri
or. H
isfi
rst s
tron
ghol
d, S
inha
garh
("T
he F
ortr
ess
of th
e
Lio
n"),
dom
inat
esth
e pl
ain
sout
hwes
tof
Poo
na, i
ts s
heer
rock
fac
e
risi
ng s
o ne
arly
vert
ical
that
no
hum
an w
asbe
lieve
d ca
pabl
e of
sca
ling
its h
eigh
t. M
ahar
asht
rian
lore
cla
ims
that
Shi
vaji
used
a g
iant
Dec
can
lizar
d to
ass
ist h
imin
this
"su
perh
uman
"ta
sk, t
ying
a r
ope
to th
e
lizar
d's
roug
h ta
il an
d hu
rlin
gth
e cr
eatu
re u
p ag
ains
tth
e w
all s
o th
at
its s
uctio
n-cu
p fe
etfa
sten
ed f
irm
ly to
the
shee
r cl
iff
and
Shiv
aji
and 0
164
A N
EW
HIS
TO
RY
OF
IND
IA
his
men
cou
ld c
limb
over
it in
the
dead
of
nigh
t to
surp
rise
the
Mus
limga
rris
on th
ere.
Wha
teve
r hi
s se
cret
s m
ay h
ave
been
, Shi
vaji
clea
rly
used
an
intim
ate
know
ledg
e of
his
hom
elan
d to
con
side
rabl
e m
artia
l adv
an-
tage
,an
drhe
wel
l des
erve
s to
be
calle
don
e of
the
foun
ding
fat
hers
of
mod
ern
guer
rilla
war
fare
, a m
etho
d he
lear
ned
in p
art f
rom
Sha
hjgB
y16
59 S
hiva
ji's
dari
ng e
xplo
its r
ouse
d su
ffic
ient
Bija
puri
con
cern
toJ'
4"th
e po
wer
ful g
ener
al A
fzal
Kha
n an
d an
arm
y of
sev
eral
thou
-sa
nds
troo
ps, w
ho c
ompl
etel
y su
rrou
nded
Shi
vaji
in h
is "
Fort
ress
of
Val
or"
(Pra
tapg
arh)
, whe
re h
e w
as tr
appe
d w
ith in
suff
icie
nt f
ood
orw
ater
to s
urvi
ve a
leng
thy
sieg
e. S
hiva
ji th
en o
ffer
ed to
"su
rren
der,
"
insi
stin
g, h
owev
er, u
pon
mee
ting
Afz
al K
han
pers
onal
ly, m
an to
man
,to
"di
scus
s fi
nal t
erm
s."
The
Mus
lim g
ener
al w
as a
gia
nt b
ull o
f a
man
, and
Shi
vaji
bare
ly m
ore
than
fiv
e fe
et ta
ll. A
fzal
adv
ance
d un
-af
raid
to a
leve
l spo
t jus
t bel
ow th
e hi
gh w
all o
f th
e fo
rtre
ss, a
ndSh
ivaj
i lef
t his
lair
wea
ring
an
inno
cuou
s-lo
okin
g, lo
ose-
fitti
ng c
loth
shir
t with
sle
eves
that
cov
ered
his
han
ds, e
ach
of w
hich
was
leth
ally
arm
ed. H
e ca
rrie
d a
"sco
rpio
n-ta
il" d
agge
r in
one
han
d, a
nd h
ad th
efi
nger
s of
the
othe
r sh
eath
ed in
raz
or-e
dged
iron
"tig
ers'
cla
ws.
"Sh
ivaj
i rus
hed
to e
mbr
ace
Afz
al K
han,
who
col
laps
ed w
ith a
dea
th c
ryth
at s
igna
led
the
Hin
du tr
oops
, hid
den
alon
g th
e ro
ad A
fzal
had
take
n, to
spr
ing
from
am
bush
and
kill
the
gene
ral's
atte
ndan
ts. T
hele
ader
less
arm
y at
the
base
of
the
mou
ntai
n w
as e
asily
dis
pers
ed in
pani
c an
d de
spai
r, o
nce
the
troo
ps r
ealiz
ed th
at th
e "i
nvin
cibl
e" A
fzal
was
dea
d an
d th
ere
wou
ld b
e no
pro
spec
t of
pay,
nor
hop
e of
plu
nder
.Sh
ivaj
i's m
urde
r of
Afz
al K
han_
mar
ked
the
real
bir
th o
f_ M
arat
hapo
wer
; the
reaf
ter,
no
Sout
h In
dian
for
ce w
ould
be
able
to c
halle
nge
this
intr
epid
Hin
du_l
eade
r,_
and
only
the
full_
wei
ght o
f M
ugha
l im
-pe
rial
mig
ht c
_oul
d_hu
mbl
e hi
m. S
hiva
ji w
as s
tron
g en
ough
to r
aid
Sura
t in
1664
, plu
nder
ing
muc
h of
its
wea
lth a
nd e
ven
tryi
ng to
loot
the
Bri
tish
fact
ory
ther
e, w
hich
was
sto
utly
def
ende
d by
its
smal
l gar
-
riso
n. tW
hen
such
em
barr
assi
ng e
xplo
its r
each
ed A
lam
gir's
ear
s, h
ese
nt a
hug
e ar
my,
led
by th
e R
ajpu
t Jai
Sin
gh, t
o de
al w
ith th
isM
arat
ha "
upst
art."
Shi
vaji
was
now
trap
ped
at a
noth
er o
f hi
s hi
ll-to
p fo
rts,
Pur
andh
ar; i
n 16
65 h
e su
ed f
or p
eace
, but
this
tim
e he
was
oblig
ed to
sur
rend
er tw
enty
-thr
ee o
f hi
s tw
enty
-fiv
e fo
rtre
sses
, in
re-
turn
for
a m
ansa
b in
the
impe
rial
Mug
hal s
ervi
cej
Shiv
aji a
ctua
lly a
ppea
red
as a
man
sabd
ar o
f fi
ve th
ousa
nd h
orse
91
GR
EA
T M
UG
HA
L G
LO
RY
165
at A
lam
gir's
cou
rt, b
ut h
e w
as s
o ou
trag
edto
fin
d hi
mse
lf f
acin
gth
e
back
s of
gen
eral
s he
con
side
red
his
infe
rior
s th
at h
e fu
ssed
and
fum
ed
and
fina
lly f
aint
ed, h
ad to
be
carr
ied
off,
and
was
pla
ced
unde
r ho
use
arre
st. O
nce
agai
n pr
ovin
g hi
s in
geni
ous
tale
nt f
or "
mir
acul
ous"
c)`4
"1"
esca
pe, S
hiva
jiel
uded
his
gua
rds
by h
idin
g in
a la
undr
y or
food
bas
ket
until
he
was
out
side
, the
n m
ade
his
way
back
to th
e D
ecca
n, w
here
he
was
wel
com
ed a
s a
retu
rnin
gm
onar
ch.a
3y 1
670
heha
d re
capt
ured
mos
t of
his
fort
ress
per
ches
and
coul
d la
unch
a s
econ
d, e
ven
mor
e
lucr
ativ
e at
tack
aga
inst
Sur
at. I
n 16
74he
fel
t suf
fici
ently
pow
erfu
l
to h
ave
him
self
cro
wne
d C
hatr
apat
i("
Lor
d of
the
Uni
vers
e")
in a
trad
ition
al H
indu
cor
onat
ion
at R
ajga
rh("
The
For
tres
s of
Rul
e"),
whe
re e
leve
n th
ousa
nd b
rahm
ans
gath
ered
to c
hant
the
sacr
edV
edic
man
tras
, whi
le f
ifty
thou
sand
loya
l Mah
aras
htri
anfr
iend
s an
d su
p-
port
ers
swor
e un
dyin
g al
legi
ance
to th
is r
einc
arna
tion
ofL
ord
Shiv
a.
Shiv
aji M
ahar
aj th
us p
ublic
lyst
aked
his
cla
im to
sva
raj o
ver
the
land
of h
is b
irth
, as
coun
tless
Hin
duvo
ices
thro
ugho
ut th
e D
ecca
nto
ok u
p
the
cry
of "
Shiv
aji M
ahar
aj-k
i-ja
i!"
("V
icto
ryto
Gre
at K
ing
Shiv
aji"
):3
Ala
mgi
r w
as a
t the
tim
e pr
eocc
upie
dw
ith A
fgha
n co
nflic
ts a
ndw
ould
not b
e ab
le to
foc
us h
is p
erso
nal
atte
ntio
n up
on th
e D
ecca
n fo
r so
me
year
s to
com
e; n
ot,
in f
act,
until
aft
er S
hiva
ji's
earl
yde
ath
in 1
680.
[The
dea
th o
f Sh
ivaj
i did
not
mea
n th
een
d of
Mah
aras
htra
's s
trug
gle
for
inde
pend
ence
, how
ever
, sin
cehe
beq
ueat
hed
to h
is s
ons
and
coun
-
trym
en h
isfi
erce
spi
rit o
f H
indu
nat
iona
lism
atle
ast i
n th
is M
aha-
rash
tria
n re
gion
al f
orm
and
they
cont
inue
d hi
s ba
ttle
agai
nst M
ugha
l
pow
er. The
yea
r Sh
ivaj
i die
d, th
e R
ajpu
tsof
Jod
hpur
and
Mew
ar r
ose
ik_u
nite
cLop
posi
tion_
to_A
larn
gir's
rule
lThe
em
pero
r se
nt h
is s
on A
k-
bar
at th
e he
ad o
f a
pow
erfu
l Mug
hal a
rmy
to s
ubdu
e R
ajpu
tre
sist
-
ance
in 1
68o,
but
the
youn
g pr
ince
deci
ded
inst
ead
to jo
in f
orce
sw
ith
the
Hin
dus
agai
nst h
is f
athe
r's ty
rann
yan
d so
on d
ecla
red
him
self
em
-
pero
rl'h
e se
cond
Akb
arco
uld
not,
how
ever
, ful
ly e
mul
ate
his
nam
e-
sake
; fal
ling
vict
im to
Ala
mgi
r's g
reat
ersh
rew
dnes
s an
d m
artia
l ex-
peri
ence
, he
was
forc
ed to
fle
e w
ith a
few
of
his
follo
wer
s to
the
Dec
can.
Akb
ar s
ough
t hel
p fr
om S
hiva
ji's
elde
r so
n, S
ambh
aji (
1657
va.,
89),
who
had
als
o ju
stas
sum
ed h
is f
athe
r's r
oyal
title
at R
ajga
rh.
ic,,,
-
Ala
mgi
r no
w s
aw n
oal
tern
ativ
e bu
t to
mar
ch s
outh
him
self
in o
rder
to s
ubdu
e th
is p
oten
tially
mos
t dan
gero
usof
all
rebe
llion
s he
had
face
d. B
y N
ovem
ber
1681
he
reac
hed
Bur
hanp
ur, a
nd in
Mar
ch16
82
.92
ar7.
7÷7.
166
A N
EW
HIS
TO
RY
OF
IND
IA
he e
stab
lishe
d hi
sca
mp
at A
uran
gaba
d, th
e D
ecca
n ca
pita
l he
had
built
whe
n st
ill a
youn
g pr
ince
. But
it w
as m
uch
easi
er f
or A
lam
gir
toin
vade
the
Dec
can
than
itw
as f
or h
im to
fin
d th
e M
arat
ha f
orce
s he
had
com
e to
cru
sh.
Sam
bhaj
i, lik
e_ h
is f
athe
r, u
sed
guer
rilla
-war
fare
stra
tegy
and
sco
rche
d-ea
rth
tact
ics
to h
aras
s an
d hi
de f
rom
the
Mug
hal a
rmie
s, r
etai
ning
con
trol
of
the
trea
cher
ous
hills
and
thei
rfo
rts,
__po
sing
a c
onst
ant s
ourc
e of
anno
yanc
e an
d in
sult
to A
lam
ogi
r's f
ar s
uper
ior
pow
er.[
Akb
ar s
ough
t in
vain
lure
Sam
bhaj
i nor
thw
ith h
im, h
opin
g to
mar
chup
on A
gra
at th
e he
ad o
f an
alli
ed f
orce
of
Mar
atha
s, R
ajpu
ts, a
nd th
ose
Mug
hals
who
ral
lied
roun
d hi
sba
nner
1Sh
ivaj
i's s
on n
ever
rea
lly tr
uste
d th
e M
uslim
prin
ce, h
owev
er, a
ndIn
dian
reg
iona
l dif
fere
nces
once
aga
in s
erve
d to
und
erm
ine
drea
ms
ofun
ific
atio
n, f
orie
ven
t -17
)tig
h th
e M
arat
has
and
the
Raj
puts
wer
e bo
thH
indu
s, th
ey s
poke
dif
fere
nt la
ngua
ges
and
hard
ly k
new
one
ano
ther
.T
he th
eme
of r
egio
nal I
ndia
n di
scor
d w
ould
ofte
n be
rep
laye
d in
the
face
of
grow
ing
Bri
tish
pow
er, a
nd n
ot u
ntil
the
latte
r pa
rt o
f th
e ni
ne-
teen
th c
entu
ry w
ould
Ind
ians
lear
n th
at if
they
hop
ed e
ver
to r
ule
them
selv
es th
ey w
ould
hav
e to
sub
ordi
nate
regi
onal
am
bitio
ns, p
reju
-di
ces,
and
fea
rs to
a c
omm
on, u
nite
d na
tiona
lef
fort
j Aft
er w
atch
ing
his
fath
er's
invi
ncib
le f
orce
dem
olis
hB
ijapu
r's d
efen
ses
and
brin
g th
atD
ecca
n su
ltana
te u
nder
the
ever
-exp
andi
ng im
peri
al u
mbr
ella
, Akb
arfl
ed to
Per
sia
in 1
686,
whe
re h
e di
ed in
exi
lebe
fore
Ala
mgi
r. S
am-
bhaj
i con
tinue
d to
eva
de d
irec
t con
fron
tatio
n w
ithA
lam
gir's
arm
y,w
hich
mov
ed li
ke a
sw
arm
of
locu
sts
over
the
Dec
can.
In 1
687,
soo
n af
ter
Bija
pur
fell,
Gol
cond
a, th
e la
st o
f_th
e Sh
ilte
sulta
nate
s, s
urre
nder
ed a
nd w
as a
bsor
bed
with
in th
eM
ughg
syst
em,
leav
ing_
only
the
Mar
atha
s as
die
hard
oppo
nent
s to
the
"Wor
ld C
on-
quer
or."
/In
1689
Sam
bhaj
i was
capt
ured
, tor
ture
d, a
nd b
utch
ered
tode
ath,
fir
ing
his
peop
le's
spi
rit o
f re
sist
ance
eve
nm
ore
thro
ugh
the
cour
age
of h
is la
st a
ngui
shed
hou
rs th
an h
e ha
d du
ring
the
latte
r year
sof
his
life
time.
His
youn
ger
brot
herA
Raj
a R
am ,-
ow to
ok th
e sa
cred
title
of
Cha
trap
ati a
ndke
pt th
e ba
nner
of
Mar
atha
inde
pend
ence
wav
ing
for
anot
her
full
deca
de, t
ill h
is o
wn
deat
h in
r7o
qRaj
a R
am's
wid
ow, T
ara
Bai
, con
tinue
d he
r hu
sban
d's
rele
ntle
ssst
rugg
le, h
eroi
-ca
lly r
efus
ing
to b
ow to
the
Mug
hal y
oke.
Ala
mgi
r ha
d ta
ken
Sam
b-ha
ji's
son
Shah
u an
d hi
s m
othe
r in
to h
isca
mp,
how
ever
, and
rai
sed
the
boy
as a
man
sabd
ar, d
eter
min
ed to
inco
rpor
ate
Mah
aras
htra
into
the_
empi
re th
at n
ow_e
xten
ded_
bey
ond
the
limits
reac
hed_
even
_b_y
_ke
93
GR
EA
T M
UG
HA
L G
LO
RY
167
grea
t Ash
oka,
Nev
erbe
fore
nor
_ si
nce
wou
ld s
om
uch
of th
e So
uth
Asi
an s
ubco
ntin
ent f
all w
ithin
.a_s
ingl
eru
ler's
dom
ain.
t_gr
eat M
ugha
l
glor
y th
us r
each
edits
pin
nacl
e of
pow
er a
tth
e en
d of
the
seve
ntee
nth
cent
ury,
und
erth
e fi
erce
ly f
anat
ical
lead
ersh
ipof
an
octo
gene
rian
desp
ot w
hose
will
was
obe
yed
from
Kas
hmir
to H
yder
abad
,fr
om
Kab
ul to
Ass
am?
Yet
the
conq
uest
of
the
Dec
can,
to w
hich
Ala
mgi
rde
vote
d th
e
twen
ty-s
ix_y
ears
of h
is li
fe, w
as in
man
y w
ays
a Py
rrhi
c vi
ctor
y,
cost
ing
an e
stim
ated
hund
red
thou
sand
live
s a
year
duri
ng it
s la
st
deca
des
of f
ruitl
ess,
che
ss-g
_am
ew
arfa
re, i
n w
hich
Mar
atha
fort
ress
es
wou
ld b
e ta
ken
one
wee
kan
d lo
st th
e ne
xt, o
nly
tobe
rec
aptu
red
and
relo
st a
mon
th la
ter.
ti_l
e ex
pens
ein
gol
d an
d ru
pees
can
hard
ly b
e
imag
ined
or
accu
rate
lyes
timat
ed. A
lam
gir's
mov
ing
capi
tal
alon
ea
city
of
tent
s th
irty
mile
s in
cir
cum
fere
nce,
som
etw
o hu
ndre
d an
d fi
fty
baza
ars,
with
hal
f a
mill
ion
cam
p fo
llow
ers,
fif
tyth
ousa
nd c
amel
s,
and
thir
ty th
ousa
nd e
leph
ants
,al
l of
who
m h
ad to
be f
ed, s
trip
ped
peni
nsul
ar I
ndia
of a
ny a
nd a
ll of
its
surp
lus
grai
n an
dw
ealth
thro
ugho
ut th
e qu
arte
r ce
ntur
yof
its
intr
usio
n. N
ot o
nly
fam
ine,
but
bubo
nic
plag
ue a
rose
tota
ke c
ount
less
mor
eliv
es d
urin
g th
is e
raof
trag
ic c
onfl
ict
and
was
teJT
he m
acab
redi
men
sion
of
the
dram
a se
ems
som
ehow
too
grea
t for
seve
ntee
nth-
cent
ury
war
fare
,so
undi
ng m
ore
mod
ern
in it
s un
yiel
ding
but
cher
y,its
sen
sele
ss m
assa
cre
of h
uman
and
anim
al li
fe. E
ven
Ala
mgi
rha
d ce
ased
to u
nder
stan
dth
e pu
rpos
e
for
it al
l by
the
time
he d
ecid
ed to
sto
p fi
ring
his
guns
and
turn
his
arm
yw
orld
bac
k to
war
d th
eno
rth
in 1
705.
The
em
pero
rw
as n
eari
ng
nine
ty b
y th
en.
He
spen
t mos
t of
his
days
read
ing
and
copy
ing
the
Kor
an, p
repa
ring
him
self
for
the
fina
l rec
koni
ng,w
hile
at t
he r
etre
at-
ing
frin
ges
ofhi
s ca
mp,
Mar
atha
hor
sem
enro
de r
ough
shod
ove
rth
e
rear
gua
rd, l
ootin
g, p
lund
erin
g,an
d pi
ckin
g of
f M
ugha
lst
ragg
lers
,
gain
ing
stre
ngth
from
the
bloa
ted
impe
rial
pre
senc
eth
at h
ad c
ome
to
plag
ue th
e D
ecca
n."I
cam
e al
one
and.
I g
o as
a st
rang
er. I
do n
ot
know
who
I a
m, n
or w
hat
I ha
ve b
een
doin
g,"
the
dyin
g ol
d m
an c
on-
fess
ed to
his
son
in F
ebru
ary
1707
."I
hav
e si
nned
terr
ibly
,an
d I
do
not k
now
wha
t pun
ishm
ent
awai
ts m
e."4
He
expi
red
on a
Frid
ay a
nd
was
bur
ied
in a
vill
age
near
Aur
anga
bad.
4 Q
uote
d by
Wal
dem
ar H
anse
n,T
he P
eaco
ck T
hron
e (N
ewY
ork:
Hol
t, R
ineh
art a
nd W
inst
on,
1972
), p
. 485
.
8 4
95
GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
OF
IND
IA
ED
ITO
RS
SWA
MI
MA
DH
AV
AN
AN
DA
RA
ME
SH C
HA
ND
RA
MA
JUM
DA
R
TH
E H
OL
Y M
OT
HE
R B
IRT
HC
EN
TE
NA
RY
ME
MO
RIA
L
Abv
aita
Ash
ram
a-(P
ublic
atio
nD
epar
tmen
t)5
Deh
i En
tally
Roa
dC
alcu
tta 7
00 0
14
96
Publ
ishe
d by
SWA
MI
MU
MU
KSH
AN
AN
DA
PRE
SID
EN
T, A
DV
AIT
A A
SHR
AM
A
MA
YA
VA
TI,
PIT
HO
RA
GA
RH
, HIM
AL
AY
AS
© S
RI
SAR
AD
A M
AT
H,D
AK
SHIN
ESW
AR
TI-
IIR
D I
MPR
ESS
ION
, SE
PTE
MB
ER
1993
2M2C
Prin
ted
in I
ndia
at
GIP
IDI
BO
X C
O.
3B C
HA
TU
BA
BU
LA
NE
CA
LC
UT
TA
700
014
'
97
11
CO
NT
EN
TS
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
S. R
adha
kris
hnan
Vic
e-Pr
esid
ent,
Rep
ublic
of
Indi
a
PAR
T I
A G
EN
ER
AL
SU
RV
EY
CH
APT
ER
I.ID
EA
L A
ND
PO
SIT
ION
OF
IND
IAN
WO
ME
NIN
DO
ME
STIC
LIF
ER
ames
h C
hand
raM
ajum
dar,
'mA
., PH
.D.,
F.A
.S..
Hon
. Fel
low
, Roy
al A
siat
icSo
ciet
y (B
omba
y B
ranc
h),
form
erly
.Vic
e-C
hanc
ello
r, D
acca
Uni
vers
ity
II.
IDE
AL
AN
D P
OSI
TIO
N O
F IN
DIA
NW
OM
EN
IN
SO
CIA
L L
IFE
Ana
nt S
adas
hiv
Alte
kar,
M.A
., L
L.B
.; ru
m.
Prof
esso
r of
Anc
ient
Ind
ian
His
tory
and
Cul
ture
, Pat
naU
nive
rsity
and
Hon
. Dir
ecto
r, K
. P.
J. R
esea
rch
Inst
itute
,Pa
tna
III.
EV
OL
UT
ION
OF
MO
TH
ER
WO
RSH
IPIN
IN
DIA
Shas
hi B
husa
n D
asG
upta
, M.A
., PH
.D.
Lec
ture
r, C
alcu
tta U
nive
rsity
..
IV. W
OM
EN
'S E
DU
CA
TIO
N I
NA
NC
IEN
T I
ND
IAM
rs. R
oma
Cha
udhu
ri,
M.A
., D
.PH
IL. (
Oxo
n.)
Prin
cipa
l and
Pro
fess
or o
fPh
iloso
phy,
Lad
y B
rabo
urne
Col
lege
and
jt. S
ecre
tary
,Pr
achy
avan
s M
andi
ra, C
alcu
tta
V.
POSI
TIO
N O
F W
OM
EN
IN
MO
DE
RN
IND
IAM
rs. L
ila M
ajum
dar,
M.A
.
Form
erly
Prof
esso
r at
Vis
vabh
arat
i, A
suto
shC
olle
ge a
ndV
idya
saga
r C
olle
ge, C
alcu
ttaiii
PAC
E 1X xv 1
26 49 87
112 98
PAR
T I
II
A. W
OM
EN
IN
SA
NSK
RIT
LIT
ER
AT
UR
E
APT
ER
VI.
GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
IN
VE
DIC
LIT
ER
AT
UR
ESu
shil
Kum
ar D
e, M
.A.,
D.u
rr. (
Lou
d.)
Prof
esso
r of
San
skri
t Lan
guag
e an
d L
itera
ture
,Po
st-G
radu
ate
Res
earc
h D
epar
tmen
t, Sa
nskr
it C
olle
ge, C
alcu
tta
VII
.G
RE
AT
WO
ME
N I
N T
HE
RA
MA
YA
NA
Swam
i Nih
shre
yasa
nand
aFo
rmer
ly P
resi
dent
of
the
Ram
akri
shna
Mis
sion
, Mau
ritiu
sB
ranc
h
VII
I.M
AIN
WO
ME
N C
HA
RA
CT
ER
S IN
TH
E M
AH
AB
HA
RA
TA
Tri
puia
ri C
hakr
avar
ti, M
.A.
Lec
ture
r C
alcu
tta U
nive
rsity
IX.
WO
ME
N C
HA
RA
CT
ER
S IN
TH
E S
TO
RIE
S O
F T
HE
MA
HA
BH
AR
AT
AM
iss-
Sun
iti B
ala
Gup
ta, M
. ED
. (L
eeds
)Fo
rmer
ly C
hief
Ins
pect
ress
of
Scho
ols,
Wes
t Ben
gal,
Prin
cipa
l,L
ady
Bra
bou
rne
Col
lege
and
Mem
ber
of th
e Sy
ndic
ate,
Cal
cutta
Uni
vers
ity.
PAG
E
129
140
169
182
X.
GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
IN
TH
E P
UR
A29
'AS
Raj
endr
a C
hand
ra H
azra
, M.A
., PH
.D.,
rum
.A
ssoc
iate
Pro
fess
or o
f Sm
riti
and
Pura
na, R
esea
rch
Dep
artm
ent,
Gov
ernm
ent S
ansk
rit C
olle
ge, C
alcu
tta a
nd f
orm
erly
Rea
der
and
Hea
d of
the
Dep
artm
ent o
f Sa
nskr
it, D
acca
Uni
vers
ity22
1
XI.
GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
IN
SA
NSK
RIT
CL
ASS
ICS
Siva
pras
ad B
hatta
char
yya,
M.A
., K
avya
tirth
a, S
ahity
asha
stri
.Fo
rmer
ly S
enio
r Pr
ofes
sor
or S
ansk
rit,
Pres
iden
cy C
olle
ge,
Cal
cutta
238
B. W
OM
EN
IN
BU
DD
HIS
M A
ND
JA
INIS
M
XIL
GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
IN
BU
DD
HIS
MN
alin
aksh
a D
utt,
M.A
., B
.L.,
PH.D
., P.
R.S
., D
.LIT
T. (
Lon
d.),
M.P
.Pr
ofes
sor
of P
ali,
Cal
cutta
Uni
vers
ity
XII
I.G
RE
AT
WO
ME
N I
N J
AIN
ISM
Um
akan
t 'Pr
eman
and
Shah
, M.A
., PI
I.D
.iv
99
253
275
C. W
OM
EN
IN
TH
E C
LA
SSIC
AL
PRIO
D(c
. 400
B.C
. to
1200
A.D
.)
CH
APT
ER
XIV
.G
RE
AT
WO
ME
N I
N N
OR
TH
IND
IAD
. C. S
irca
r, M
.A.,
PH.D
.Su
peri
nten
dent
for
Epi
grap
hy,
Dep
artm
ent o
f A
rcha
eolo
gy,
Gov
ernm
ent o
f In
dia,
Oot
acam
und
XV
. GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
IN
SO
UT
HIN
DIA
K. A
. Nila
kant
a Sa
stri
,M
.A.
Prof
esso
r of
Ind
olog
y, M
ysor
eU
nive
rsity
K. R
. Ven
kata
ram
an,
B.A
.Fo
rmer
ly D
irec
tor
of P
ublic
Inst
ruct
ion
and
His
tori
cal R
ecor
dsO
ffic
er, P
uduk
kotta
i Sta
teN
. Ven
kata
ram
anay
ya,
M.A
., PH
.D.
Form
erly
Rea
der
of I
ndia
nH
isto
ry a
nd A
rcha
eolo
gy, M
adra
sU
nive
rsity
N, L
aksh
min
aray
an R
ao,
M.A
.G
over
nmen
t Epi
grap
hist
for
Indi
a, O
otac
amun
dK
. N. G
opal
a Pi
llai,
M.A
.Pr
ofes
sor,
Am
eric
an C
olle
ge,
Mad
urai
D. W
OM
EN
IN
TH
E'M
ED
IEV
AL
PE
RIO
D(c
. 120
1 to
180
0 A
.D.)
XV
L G
RE
AT
1-I
IND
U W
OM
EN
IN N
OR
TH
IN
DIA
'Kal
ikin
kar
Dat
ta,
M.A
.,P.
R.S
.Pr
ofes
sor
of H
isto
ry, P
atna
Uni
vers
ity
GR
EA
T H
IND
U W
OM
EN
IN S
OU
TH
IN
DIA
K. A
. Nila
kant
a Sa
stri
K. R
. Ven
kata
ram
anN
. Ven
kata
ram
anay
yaN
. Lak
shm
inar
ayan
Rao
K. N
. Gop
ala
Pilla
i
XV
III.
GR
EA
T H
IND
U W
OM
EN
IN M
AH
AR
4HT
RA
Mrs
. Kam
alab
ai D
eshp
ande
,pu
.D. (
Prag
ue)
Form
erly
Pri
ncip
al, S
. N. D
. T. C
olle
ge f
or W
omen
,Po
ona
343
XIX
.G
RE
AT
HIN
DU
WO
ME
NIN
GU
JAR
AT
AN
D S
AU
R4H
TR
AB
hogi
lal J
. San
desa
ra, M
.A.,
PH.D
.Pr
ofes
sor
and
Hea
dof
the
Dep
artm
ent
of G
ujar
ati,
M. S
.U
nive
rsity
, Bar
oda
i.!;
.XV
IL
PAC
E
285
298
320
332
V36
2
I IA
PTE
R
XX
. GR
EA
T H
IND
UW
OM
EN
IN
EA
ST I
ND
IA
Suku
mar
Sel
l, M
.A.,
PH.D
., F.
A.S
.L
ectu
rer,
Cal
cutta
Uni
vers
ity;
Hon
. Sec
reta
ry, L
ingu
istic
Soc
iety
of I
ndia
, and
Phi
lolo
gica
lSe
cret
ary,
Asi
atic
Soc
iety
XX
I. G
RE
AT
MU
SLIM
WO
ME
N O
FIN
DIA
Moh
amm
ad W
ahid
Mir
za, M
.A.,
PH.D
. (L
und.
)H
ead
of th
e A
rabi
c D
epar
tmen
t,L
uckn
ow U
nive
rsity
E. W
OM
EN
IN
TH
EM
OD
ER
N P
ER
IOD
XX
IL G
RE
AT
IN
DIA
N -
wN
INE
TE
EN
TH
CE
NT
UR
Y
Rad
haka
mal
Muk
erje
e, M
.A.,
PH.D
.D
irec
tor,
I. K
. Ins
titut
e of
Soc
iolo
gyan
d H
uman
Rel
atio
ns,
Luc
know
Swam
i Sat
swar
upan
anda
Form
erly
Pre
side
nt,
Ram
akri
shna
Mat
h,' K
arac
hiJ
N. G
opal
a Pi
llai
N. L
aksh
min
aray
an R
ao
PAC
E
369
378
395
XX
III.
GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
DE
VO
TE
ES
OF
SHR
I R
AM
AR
RIS
HN
A
Swam
i Tej
asan
anda
Prin
cipa
l, R
amak
rish
naM
issi
on V
idya
man
dira
, Bel
ur (
How
rah)
414
...
XX
IV. T
HE
HO
LY
MO
TH
ER
Swam
i Nir
veda
nand
a-
.
Pres
iden
t, R
amak
rish
naM
issi
on S
arad
a Pi
tha,
,Bel
ur (
How
rah)
and
Ram
akri
shna
Mis
sion
Cal
cutta
Stud
ent?
Hom
e -.
464
IND
EX
541
1FST
CO
PYA
VA
IIL
AB
LE
vi
101.
102
l.utit
.csa
n V
ird
who
,se
nt b
y th
eay
to s
educ
ew
ith h
erch
arm
s th
epa
trio
tic h
ero
from
his
goa
lco
nver
ted
into
his
code
of p
atri
otic
cond
uct,
disg
uise
d he
rsel
fas
a s
aint
(tii
pasi
)fo
r ac
hiev
ing
this
.W
omen
as m
arty
rs in
relig
ion
appe
ar r
arel
y in
Bud
dhis
ticri
nair
eac
coun
ts, b
utw
omen
as
nuns
wed
ded
to s
ervi
ce o
f:a
nity
and
to th
ew
ays
of m
onas
ticis
mar
e m
ore
freq
uent
.T
heno
ble
exam
ple
of a
ffec
tion
thro
ugh
serv
ice
is P
atra
lekh
ain
the
amba
d. S
heis
the
best
exam
ple
ofco
mpa
nion
ship
unfe
igne
dun
daun
ted
byth
e da
wn
and
retu
rn o
f lo
ve:
Cas
es li
keth
ese
are
;ab
le e
xcep
tions
.W
hile
the
wom
an is
not
gene
rally
pron
e "t
oit,
to s
tart
lean
d w
ayla
y,"
and
is "
asp
irit
still
,an
d br
ight
with
!thi
ng o
fan
ang
elic
ligh
t,"it
mus
tbe
adm
itted
that
her
rol
ew
arn,
to c
omfo
rtan
d co
mm
and"
is h
ardl
yev
er s
erio
usly
npte
d ; a
ndth
ere
ason
for
this
omis
sion
isto
be
disc
over
edin
:lass
ical
wri
ters
'st
icki
ngfa
ithfu
llyto
the
shas
tric
idea
l of
her
ever
in th
eco
ntro
l of
anot
her
and
not s
triv
ing
to b
ecom
eir
d an
dse
lf-w
illed
.W
oman
may
be
apo
et, a
phi
loso
pher
,a
ar, a
nd e
ven
a br
ahm
avad
ini lik
e M
aitr
eror
Chi
icla
la, b
utsh
ed
not
pres
ent h
erse
lf in
asse
mbl
ies
mak
ing
a de
mon
stra
tion
ofen
ius.
Aw
oman
may
be
lear
ned,
but
shou
ldno
t be
forw
ard.
:him
tore
cogn
ition
lies
thro
ugh
her
serv
ice
of h
erlo
rd a
nd-1
;h h
er b
eing
the
mot
her
of a
grea
t son
, wis
eor
val
iant
like
Shan
kara
,C
haita
nya
or th
e he
roic
Bha
rata
,as
'the
cas
em
ayhi
s is
the
attit
ude
even
of
rom
antic
love
sto
ries
.V
asav
adat
tat b
ecau
se o
f he
rbe
ing
the
mot
her
ofN
arav
ahan
adat
ta.
CH
APT
ER
XII
GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
IN B
UD
DH
ISM
1.G
EN
ER
AL
OB
SER
VA
TIO
NS
IN A
con
serv
ativ
eco
untr
y lik
e In
dia,
the
posi
tion
of w
omen
inth
e B
uddh
ist
peri
od c
ould
not h
ave
chan
ged
very
muc
h fr
om th
atof
the
earl
ier
days
.N
ever
thel
ess,
ther
ew
as s
ome
impr
ovem
ent
inth
eir
cond
ition
,du
e pr
imar
ilyto
the
basi
c pr
inci
ples
whi
ch B
uddh
ala
id d
own
inhi
s te
achi
ngs.
The
sem
ay b
e br
iefl
y st
ated
as f
ollo
ws:
(i)
Bud
dha
laid
str
ess
on th
e fa
ct th
ata
wom
an, l
ike
a m
an,
reap
s th
e fr
uits
of
her
past
kar
ma,
and
that
she
mus
t dep
end
on h
erow
n ac
ts f
or h
erfu
ture
goo
dor
evi
l or
salv
atio
n,an
d in
this
none
can
help
her
,no
t eve
n he
rpa
rent
s, te
ache
ror
spi
ritu
alpr
ecep
tor.
Thi
s st
ruck
at th
e ro
ot o
f th
ebe
lief
that
a so
n w
as n
eede
dfo
r th
esa
fepa
ssag
e of
an
indi
vidu
alaf
ter
deat
hto
hea
ven.
Hen
ce th
efu
tility
of
the
invi
diou
s di
stin
ctio
nm
ade
betw
een
a so
n an
da
daug
hter
in th
epr
e-B
uddh
ist p
erio
dbe
cam
e ob
viou
sto
the
peop
le,
.an
d th
is u
ltim
atel
yra
ised
the
stat
us o
f a
daug
hter
.(i
t) S
econ
dly,
Bud
dha
disc
arde
d.th
e B
rahm
anic
ritu
als
in w
hich
the
wif
e pl
ayed
a se
cond
ary
part
and
a b
arre
nw
oman
or
a w
idow
had
no p
lace
. "T
his
did
away
with
the
unw
arra
nted
stig
ma
atta
ched
to th
ese
two
cate
gori
esof
unf
ortu
nate
wom
en.
(iii)
Thi
rdly
,B
uddh
a m
ade
no d
istin
ctio
n be
twee
na
man
and
a w
oman
reg
ardi
ngth
e at
tain
men
tof
spi
ritu
alen
ds. H
ede
liver
eddi
SCou
rses
for
the
bene
fit
of b
oth
the
sexe
s, a
nd th
e m
oral
code
pres
crib
ed b
y hi
mw
as to
be
obse
rved
by b
oth.
Hen
ce th
e lo
wer
pOsi
don
ofw
omen
in th
e sp
here
of s
piiit
ual
cultu
rew
as d
one
away
with
, and
this
has
been
am
ply
evid
ence
d by
the
seve
ral
nuns
atta
inin
g th
e hi
ghes
tgo
al, n
irva
na.
(iv)
The
ord
erof
nun
sw
as o
pen
to m
arri
edas
wel
l as
unm
arri
edw
omen
, irr
espe
ctiv
e of
whe
ther
they
wer
e ba
rren
or
not,
as a
lso
to.
wid
ows.
The
rew
as n
o di
stin
ctio
nbe
twee
non
e ca
tego
ry a
nd a
noth
erw
hen
they
beca
me
eith
ersh
ram
aner
isor
bhi
kshu
nis.
It is
spi
ritu
al
NO
T C
OPY
MA
MA
252
103
3,L
E
253
104
adva
ncem
ent a
lone
that
cou
nted
in th
e sa
ngha
.E
ven
a co
urte
san
was
adm
itted
to th
e or
der
of n
uns,
and
aft
er o
rdin
atio
n no
dis
resp
ect
was
sho
wn
to h
er f
or h
er p
ast c
aree
r. B
uddh
a gl
adly
acc
epte
d th
ein
vita
tion
of A
mba
pali
for
mea
ls, m
uch
to th
e ch
agri
n an
d di
scom
-fi
ture
of
the
rich
Lic
hchh
avis
. He
acce
pted
her
man
go g
rove
and
adm
itted
her
to th
e or
der
with
out'
the
leas
t hes
itatio
n.Si
mila
rtr
eatm
ent w
as a
ccor
ded
to a
few
oth
er..
who
join
edth
e or
der.
..
.
(v)
The
edu
catio
n, g
iven
to f
emal
e' n
ovic
es a
nd n
uns
was
not
diff
eren
t fro
m th
at im
part
ed to
thei
r m
ale
coun
terp
arts
. - T
he f
emal
ela
y de
vote
es a
lso
rece
ived
thei
r tr
aini
ng in
the
prin
cipl
es o
f B
uddh
isni
.T
he n
uns
wer
e in
itiat
ed in
to th
e de
epes
t pro
blem
s of
phi
loso
phy
asal
so in
to th
e su
btle
mys
tical
exp
erie
nces
atta
inab
le th
roug
h in
tens
em
edita
tive
exer
cise
s. T
here
are
inst
ance
s of
bhi
kshu
nis
reci
ting
the
text
s an
d el
ucid
atin
g th
e'de
ep p
robl
ems
of th
e B
uddh
ist p
hilo
soph
y.
'Tho
ugh
it' is
cla
imed
that
the
stat
us o
f w
omen
was
rais
ed in
the
Bud
dhis
t per
iod,
it c
anno
t but
be
adm
itted
that
in th
e m
onas
ticor
der
the
plac
e ac
cord
ed to
the
nuns
was
low
er th
an th
at o
f th
em
onks
. Som
e of
the
rest
rict
ions
impo
sed
on n
uns
mig
ht h
ave
been
nece
ssar
yfo
r th
eir
phys
ical
wea
knes
s, b
ut th
ere
are
a fe
w w
hich
cann
ot r
easo
nabl
y be
just
ifie
d.T
he r
estr
ictio
ns w
ere
as f
ollo
ws:
(i)
A b
hiks
huni
, tho
ugh
of a
long
sta
ndin
g, m
ust
bow
bef
ore
a bh
iksh
u or
dain
ed m
uch
late
r th
an h
er.
Thi
s co
nditi
on, w
asre
sent
ed b
y M
ahal
iaja
pati
Got
ami,
a qu
een
and
a m
othe
r,bu
t she
had
to y
ield
to th
e ad
aman
tine
will
of
the
Tea
cher
.(i
s) A
bhi
kshu
ni w
as n
otal
low
ed to
spe
nd th
e ra
iny
seas
on,
(var
shav
asa)
in a
pla
ce w
here
ther
e w
as n
o bh
ikfi
tu.
(iii)
At t
he te
rmin
atio
nof
var
shav
asa,
a b
hiks
huni
had
to c
onfe
ss
her
faul
ts, i
f an
y, b
efor
e bo
th th
e sa
ngha
s;of
mon
ks a
nd n
uns.
(iv)
In
orde
r. to
fix
the
date
of
the
fort
nigh
tly a
ssem
bly
(upo
sath
a) a
nd e
xhor
tatio
n (o
vada
),a"
bhi
kshu
ni m
ust t
ake
the
nece
ssar
ydi
rect
ions
fro
m a
mon
k.,
.
.(v
) A
nun
had
to, s
eek,
abso
lutio
n of
cer
tain
off
ence
s fr
ombo
th
the
.san
ghas
.(v
i) A
. nun
see
king
, hig
her
ordi
natio
n, m
ust h
ave
the
sanc
tion
of
both
the
sang
has.
(vii)
A n
unco
uld
in n
o ci
rcum
stan
ces
adm
onis
h a
mon
k, w
hile
any
mon
k co
uld
adm
onis
h a
nun.
(viii
) A
nun
mus
tne
ver
abus
e a
mon
k.
Bud
dha
at f
irst
was
ave
rse
toth
e ad
mis
sion
of
wom
enin
to h
is
syst
em,
but w
hen
it w
as p
oint
ed o
utto
him
that
such
ref
usal
of
Ord
inat
ion
to w
omen
cla
shed
with
his
bas
ic p
rinc
iple
that
onl
y an
indi
vidu
al c
ould
hel
p'hi
mse
lf o
r he
rsel
f in
ach
ievi
ngsa
lvat
ion,
he
agre
ed to
the
form
atio
n of
the
orde
rof
nun
s. H
ere
aliz
ed th
at
thou
gh o
n pr
inci
ple
both
men
and
wom
ensh
ould
be
plac
ed o
nth
e
sam
e fo
otin
g,th
ere
wer
e ch
ance
sof
abu
se b
y th
ose
who
wer
e in
the
low
er s
tage
s of
spi
ritu
alcu
lture
. The
res
tric
tions
stat
ed a
bove
.
wer
e ac
tual
ly m
eant
for
the
nuns
und
er tr
aini
ng,
and
coul
d no
t hav
e
appl
ied
to a
bhik
shun
i who
had
atta
ined
one
of
the
four
fru
its o
f
sanc
tific
atio
n.C
elib
acy,
aus
teri
tyan
d st
rict
men
tal d
isci
plin
ew
ere
the
key-
note
s of
Bud
dhis
m. H
ence
the
exis
tenc
e of
the
orde
rs o
f
mon
ks a
nd n
uns
was
a s
ourc
eof
gre
at a
nxie
ty to
Bud
dha,
and
this
led
him
to m
ake
the
rule
s go
vern
ing
the
life
of n
uns
so s
trin
gent
.
Bud
dhis
m w
as p
rim
arily
are
ligio
n fo
rre
clus
es, m
ale
orfe
mal
e;
and
henc
e th
e w
omen
who
bec
ame
fam
ous
in B
uddh
ist h
isto
ryw
ere
mos
tly th
ose
who
ros
e to
the
high
est s
tage
of s
piri
tual
cul
ture
know
n
as a
rhat
hood
.
Sour
ces:
, The
onl
yPa
li te
xt w
hich
thro
ws
any
light
on
the
spir
itual
:ach
ieve
men
tsof
wom
en is
the
The
ri-g
atha
, asm
all t
ext
cont
aini
ng o
nly
five
hun
dred
and
twen
ty-t
wo
stan
zas
said
toha
ve
been
utte
red
byse
vera
l nun
s gi
ving
expr
essi
on to
thei
r jo
y at
the
atta
inm
ent o
fth
e hi
ghes
t goa
l,ni
rvan
a. T
he c
omm
enta
ry
Para
mat
tha-
di p
ani o
nth
is te
xt f
urni
shes
us
with
bio
grap
hica
l acc
ount
s
of th
e th
eris
(se
nior
nun
s),bu
t man
y of
them
see
m to
have
bee
n dr
awn
from
imag
inat
ion.
The
re is
ano
ther
com
men
tary
Man
orat
ha-p
aran
i
on: t
he. A
ngut
tara
Nik
aya,
inw
hich
app
ears
alis
t of
the
fore
mos
t
:hen
s (n
uns)
, shr
aman
eris
(fem
ale
novi
ces)
,an
d up
asik
as (
fem
ale
lay
devd
tees
)..
The
com
men
tary
offe
rs a
bio
grap
hica
lsk
etch
of
each
of
thes
e fe
mal
e no
tabl
es;an
d th
e sk
etch
es a
resi
mila
r in
nat
ure
toth
ose
.in:th
e,_P
aram
atth
a-di
pani
.,
bw::W
e sh
all n
owre
late
a f
ew ty
pica
l acc
ount
sof
the
lives
of
wom
en
Who
-at
tain
eddi
stin
ctio
n in
the
hist
ory,
of B
uddh
istr
i.,
254
105
BE
ST C
OPY
AV
AIL
AB
255
'
.11.
06
2.N
UN
S
Afti
,..i
c7:;c
7pcz
ti'T
was
bor
n,t-
t (L
augh
' rof
Cu:
Des
tmla
lia.
She
was
the
yoti:
:ger
siA
ct o
fla
',15
.15
t.tio
t;Itt
of 1
iddh
5t-t
ha G
amm
a.w
hen
gro,
t.-n
.p, w
ei /.
..m
art i
r'd to
Kin
g Sh
liddh
odan
a.1.
sevc
p.af
t,ic
IM
O.;
.' (T
hldl
r:te
tha,
and
her
sist
,of
her
c1-
01-.
-ur-
rd h
im a
she
r o,
1t. A
fter
beca
me
the
chie
fri
uP,e
n.oc
;., -
_. b
irth
to a
soi
l":
---A
ida
and
a da
tight
rrth
e ca
rebe
t cL
ildre
n to
tb-.
and
.1.-
Car
eil
Aft
er th
e at
tai.
i..jJ
boil/
iiG
-..o
.-on
ta B
uddh
apa
id a
via
i! o
Kap
i-,a
stn.
and
dr-
1-ci
eda
few
dis
com
ses.
Aft
er:h
em K
ing
*ma
b..
t-a
lay
atta
ioir
gth
e fi
rst s
tage
of
sanc
tific
ati-
.ap
annt
t (p;
aced
in th
est
rean
,n-
,gni
tva,
i\1'
and
;oe
d th
e t.n
det
4Y:e
tth
e de
ath
of E
ing
SI),
, .. .
l;o.a
she
1 -
'eam
e, v
_Jed
..rm
itted
to:
"1,-
-th
e w
utc;
'; ri
fe.
At t
h'e.
.s.
c a
rh;
'kc
onbe
twee
n th
ed
t1le
. Kid
:van
s fo
r dr
awin
g w
ater
fro
m th
e ri
ver
Roh
ini.
'1'!-
is e
nded
in a
dit.
tistto
us li
ght b
etw
een
the
two
clan
s, 1
,1tit
Tin
gah
t.th
e lo
ss o
f 1t
tly li
ves.
Wit!
' .M
a1.1
paja
pati
pinT
, the
,...it
iow
s of
the
dead
Shs
kvan
wa
Tio
tr-
d fo
r tit
hor
n th
eir
hom
esw
it'
to b
ecom
e. r
eclu
ses.
She
aroo
arhe
d1.
',odd
;w
ho w
as,-
esid
ing
atV
aisi
tl:%
, and
sou
nit.
for
his
I.or
t)is
s;on
, to
join
the
o; d
er o
f B
uddh
ist r
c('
On
a tir
cvio
uscc
casi
.re
quew
' her
s w
as to
dow
n 1
SO th
is ti
WC
,111
5.r
V-n
tati
Gut
ami t
tod.
her
had
11.
hair
cut
,.4
.y-11.or
1.:-."
Als
haii
too'
n0(
-1-1
1hyr
her
l't.1
4;vf
nv
unw
t';g
to .f
orm
r .-
,,'
..
llk lt
.::1-
11 S
112
reas
o-...
a;.
.-,
. of
At.a
nt1"
Ii
'n
in. O
rder
to ;1
1.6,
He
4:t .
t.,h
e
V.
to l'
,.(:0
11(f
nuns
eigb
t.
-ed
abve
.M
aiiv
ati G
ot.-
'11:
1 af
t r-
tool
:-i
kiew
tatio
nn°
unde
r tic
dir
ect s
ocer
vlsi
31"r
and
soo
n at
tain
edliv
c,1
up I
o. e
-:r
ed a
nd tA
.:nty
and
107
l'i;A
JNA
PAR
AM
ITA
Cou
rtes
y: K
ern
Inst
itute
; Lei
den;
Hol
land
EST
CO
PYA
VM
.IL
108
BE
T C
OPY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
10B
s de
clar
ed b
y th
e T
each
er a
s th
eol
dest
and
the
mos
t exp
erie
nced
of
aine
d nu
ns (
ratta
iiiiu
nath
).B
uddh
a di
d no
t sho
w a
ny s
peci
alsi
dera
tion
to h
er.
It is
sai
d th
at o
n on
e oc
casi
on h
e re
fuse
d to
pt th
e ex
celle
nt r
obe
mad
e by
her
from
ext
raor
dina
ry m
ater
ials
d th
ereb
y di
sapp
oint
ed h
er v
ery
muc
h, a
nd e
ven
Ana
nda'
s in
ter-
sion
on
her
beha
lf w
as o
f no
ava
il ; h
e di
rect
ed h
er to
off
erth
eto
the
sang
ha a
s a
who
le. B
utB
uddh
a pa
id h
er v
isits
whe
n sh
eon
her
dea
th-b
ed, a
nd g
ave
suita
ble
disc
ours
es a
fter
alte
ring
the
e th
at .a
mon
k m
ust n
ot g
o ne
arth
e be
d of
a s
ick
nun.
The
' gre
ates
t ach
ieve
men
t of
Mah
apaj
apat
i- w
as to
secu
redd
ha's
con
sent
for
the
form
atio
n of
the
orde
r of
nun
sin
the
dhis
t' sy
stem
, and
it w
as a
t her
inst
ance
that
sev
eral
rul
es w
ere
ed f
or th
e di
scip
linar
y gu
idan
ce o
f nu
ns, w
hich
wer
ekn
own
asik
shur
a-pr
atim
oksh
a-su
tra.
: The
The
ri-g
atha
attr
ibut
es 't
o he
r a
gath
as, i
n w
hich
she
off
ered
her
res
pect
s to
Bud
dha
sayi
ng th
atha
d sa
ved
man
y a
bein
g fr
om w
orld
ly s
uffe
ring
s, a
nd th
atbe
caus
e.h
im 's
he h
erse
lf h
ad b
een'
able
to p
ut a
n en
d to
her
thir
st,
the
e'd.
all'm
iser
ies.
She
pra
ctis
ed th
e ei
ghtf
old
path
and
real
ized
t her
' pre
sent
bod
y w
as th
e la
st o
neof
innu
mer
able
suc
h sh
e ha
dio
usly
, had
as
mot
her,
son
', fa
ther
, bro
ther
, gra
ndm
othe
r, e
tc.
also
Tea
lited
'that
she
wou
ld h
ave
no m
ore
rebi
rth;
sin
cesh
e w
as
rget
ie a
nd h
ad p
ut in
all
her
effo
rts
to e
nd h
er w
orld
lyex
iste
nce.
..was
rea
lly f
orth
e be
nefi
t of
man
y th
at M
aham
aya
had
give
n bi
rth
'the-
chi
ld G
auta
ma;
who
had
sho
wn
the
path
to c
ount
less
bein
gs
to h
ow 't
o en
d th
eir:
suf
feri
ngs-
4nth
ese'
wor
ds s
he o
ffer
ed h
erut
atio
ns to
the
grea
t Tea
cher
.:;,
:;:
;.-
Ksh
ema
was
bor
n !a
t. Sa
gala
in th
e ro
yal f
amily
of
Mad
ras.
Whe
n gr
own
up, s
he h
ad a
n ex
quis
ite a
ppea
ranc
e w
ithm
plex
ion
like.
mol
ten
gold
. ;,I
n. c
ours
e of
tim
e sh
e w
as m
arri
edB
ing
Bim
bisa
ra a
nd li
ved
at R
ajag
riha
as
'the
chie
f qu
een.
At
time
the:
Tea
cher
-re
side
d at
.Vel
uvan
a, th
e: r
oyal
- ga
rden
; giv
eny
by th
e ki
ng to
the
Bud
dhis
esai
tgha
. - Q
ueen
Ksh
ema
cam
e to
that
Bud
dha
cond
emne
d in
fatu
atio
n w
ith o
ne's
ow
n pe
rson
alut
y, a
nd s
o sh
e pr
efer
red
tore
mai
n aw
ay f
rom
him
and
thus
'd b
eing
cri
ticiz
ed f
or h
er lo
ve-
for
beau
tiful
app
eara
nce.
'The
g de
liber
ated
with
inhi
mse
lf th
at a
s he
was
the
chie
f la
y su
ppor
ter
Bud
dha,
it w
as n
ot p
rope
r th
at h
is c
hief
que
en s
houl
d no
t app
roac
h
"25
7
r.
110
,rth
e T
each
er to
list
en to
his
dis
cour
ses.
So h
e in
stru
cted
his
bar
ds. t
osi
ng a
bout
the
char
ms
of th
e. V
eluv
ana
with
in th
e he
arin
g of
the.
quee
n, s
o th
at h
er c
urio
sity
mig
ht b
e ro
used
for
the
beau
ties
of th
ega
rden
, and
ulti
mat
ely
she
wou
ld b
e ta
ken
ther
e.T
he p
lan
had
its d
esir
ed e
ffec
t..T
he q
ueen
.exp
ress
ed h
er d
esir
e to
see
the
gard
enan
d so
ught
the
perm
issi
on o
f th
e ki
ng, w
ho g
rant
ed it
with
the
requ
est t
hat s
he s
houl
d pa
y ho
mag
e to
the
Tea
cher
whi
le v
isiti
ngth
e ga
rden
.: Sh
e, h
owev
er, d
id n
ot g
ive
any
repl
y, b
ut p
roce
eded
in h
er r
oyal
cha
riot
to th
e ga
rden
. The
kin
g in
stru
cted
the
men
acco
mpa
nyin
g th
e qu
een
to p
ersu
ade
her
to p
ay h
er r
espe
cts
toB
uddh
a, b
ut. i
n ca
se .t
hey
faile
d to
do
so; t
hey
wer
e di
rect
ed to
take
her
in s
ome
way
or
.oth
er to
Bud
dha'
s pr
esen
ce. T
he q
ueen
, aft
er,
amus
ing
hers
elf
in ,t
he g
arde
n fo
r th
e w
hole
.day
, wan
ted
to r
etur
n,to
the
pala
ce. r
with
out s
eein
g th
e T
each
er..;
Muc
h ag
ains
t her
wis
h;;
the'
men
esc
orte
d he
r to
;Bud
dha,
. who
in th
e m
eant
ime
.mag
ical
ly!
crea
ted
a w
oman
of
,exq
uisi
te h
eaut
y .a
nd m
ade
her
fan
him
, with
a pa
lm le
af:.
The
que
en. w
as ta
ken
abac
k at
the
beau
ty.of
f.th
is.
wom
an, f
elt t
hat s
he 'w
as n
ot w
orth
y ,o
f :b
eing
eve
n. h
er m
aids
erva
nts
and
regr
ette
d he
r ya
nity
.. Sh
e. s
tood
ther
e:; a
maz
ed o
bser
ving
; the
char
ms.
of
the
wom
an, w
hen
the.
Tea
cher
cha
nged
her
into
a m
iddl
t,ag
ed o
ne, t
hen
into
ano
ld w
oman
and
ulti
mat
ely
Mad
e, h
er f
all:
dow
n. o
n th
e .g
roun
d w
ith th
e fa
n in
her
han
d., f
On
acco
unt,;
of h
er,
accu
mul
ated
mer
its in
pre
viou
s liv
es, Q
ueen
:Ksh
emah
egan
to p
onde
r,,
over
; the
.fac
t tha
t . e
very
. bod
y m
ust p
ass
thro
ugh
thes
e; s
tage
s,. w
hen
she
hear
d: th
e T
each
er .u
tteri
ng th
e ye
s-se
: "T
hose
who
are
giy
en,to
.
atta
chm
ent f
all i
nto
the
stre
am (
of.,re
peat
ed ,e
xist
ence
s),.,
like
,, th
e,sp
ider
(ca
ught
) in
the
net c
reat
ed b
y its
elf.
One
who
has
no
atta
ch-.
men
t get
s' r
id o
f hi
s su
ffer
ings
'and
goe
i out
' by
tear
ing
asun
der.
(th
e,ne
t)"(
Dha
mm
apad
a, '3
47);
'I!
On
liste
ning
to th
is u
ttera
nce;
the:
que
en o
btai
ned:
a r
hath
ood
(per
fect
ion)
then
and
ther
e, b
ut a
s on
e 'c
anno
t rem
ain.
. an
arha
i:as
a ho
useh
olde
r,. s
he d
ecid
ed to
take
'ord
inat
ion
at o
nce.
- :O
n he
r: r
etur
nto
the
pala
ce, t
he k
ing.
inqu
ired
if s
he h
ad s
een
the
*Tea
cher
. In.
repl
y sh
e sa
id th
at w
hat t
he k
ing
had
seen
of
the
Tea
cher
was
:ne
glig
ible
; .it
was
: the
rea
l Tea
cher
.th
at. s
he h
ad v
isua
lized
..S
he,
then
ask
ed f
or h
is p
erm
issi
on to
bec
ome
a bh
iksh
uni,
whi
ch th
e ki
ngga
ve w
ith h
is w
hole
.hea
rt a
nd s
ent.
her
to .t
he n
unne
ry in
a g
olde
npa
lanq
uin.
In c
ours
e .:.
of..
time
she
beca
me
very
lear
ned.
, in
..the
ttlui
stra
s, a
nd s
o B
uddh
a ga
ve h
er a
ver
y hi
gh p
lace
am
ong
the
vast
ly,e
arne
d th
esis
.::I
n .th
e st
anza
s at
trib
uted
to h
er in
.the
The
ri-g
atha
, Ksh
ema
ilate
s th
at a
you
ng m
an o
f ex
celle
nt a
ppea
ranc
e w
ante
d to
ent
ice
:with
wor
ldly
enj
oym
ent,:
but
she
spu
rned
his
pro
posa
l say
ing
that
wha
t wer
e pl
easu
res
to h
im p
ierc
ed h
er li
ke a
sha
rp d
art.
She
was
sic
k of
her
phy
sica
l bod
y, a
sto
reho
use
of d
isea
ses
havi
ng o
nly
flee
ting
exis
tenc
e.Sh
e ha
d ac
quir
ed p
erfe
ctio
n in
kno
wle
dge
and
:bad
cru
shed
all
her
desi
res
for
wor
ldly
mat
ters
. She
had
rea
ched
the
goal
by
follo
win
g th
e in
stru
ctio
ns o
f th
e E
nlig
hten
ed O
ne, a
nd n
otw
orsh
ippi
ng th
e st
ars
and
'kin
dlin
g sa
crif
icia
l fir
es in
. the
for
est.
On
one
occa
sion
, whe
n sh
e: w
as s
tayi
ng in
a h
erm
itage
nea
rSh
riva
sti,
Kin
g Pr
asen
ajit
was
look
ing
for
a te
ache
r w
ith w
hom
he
i:Oul
d ha
veso
me
philo
soph
ical
dis
cuss
ions
. He
was
app
rise
d of
the
ires
ence
of
Bhi
kshu
ni. K
shem
a, a
s on
e va
stly
lear
ned
and
prof
icie
ntth
e ex
posi
tion
\of
abst
ruse
doc
trin
es, i
n th
e he
rmita
ge o
f T
oran
a-u.
The
kin
g ap
proa
ched
her
res
pect
fully
and
put
the
ques
tion
ethe
r th
e pe
rfec
t Tat
haga
ta e
xist
ed a
fter
dea
th o
r no
t. B
hiks
huni
ema.
sai
d th
at a
que
stio
n lik
e th
is s
houl
d be
left
asi
de, s
ince
itas
abs
urd.
as
atte
mpt
ing
to c
ount
the
drop
s of
wat
er in
an
ocea
n.Sh
e:ex
plai
ned
to th
e ki
ng th
at th
e T
atla
gata
aft
er d
eath
, cou
ld n
otlo
cate
d by
mat
eria
l ing
redi
ents
(ra
pa)
or f
eelin
g_ (
veda
na)
orco
nstit
uent
s' w
hich
,com
pose
d a
bein
g ;
henc
e th
e qu
estio
n of
his
Lio
n af
ter
deat
h co
uld-
not
ari
se.
She
adde
d th
at s
uch
ques
tions
lid' b
een
trea
ted
by th
e T
each
er, a
s in
dete
rmin
able
. Thi
s ex
posi
tion
lit4s
fied
'the
kin
g, w
hO w
as h
ighl
y im
pres
sed
by h
er 'e
rudi
tion.
')
Pata
char
a:Sh
e w
as b
orn
in th
e fa
mily
of
a ba
nker
.Sh
rava
sti.
V_
iten
grow
n up
, she
t::1
1 in
love
with
.an
empl
oyee
of
her
fath
er a
ndth
is lo
ve a
ffai
r se
cret
.H
er f
athe
r, h
owev
er; s
elec
ted
a yo
ung
an o
f eq
ual f
amily
sta
tus
and
prop
osed
her
mar
riag
e w
ith h
im.
o, a
vert
this
unw
elco
me
situ
atio
n, th
e gi
rl o
ne n
ight
elo
ped
with
,Pri
er lo
ver,
wen
t to
a vi
llage
nea
r by
and
live
d th
ere.
At t
he ti
me
offa
3Cbi
rth
of th
eir
firs
t chi
ld, s
he w
ante
d- to
ret
urn
to h
er f
athe
r's,
but.
she
was
dis
suad
ed b
y he
r hu
sban
d.A
fter
som
e tim
e,A
tben
she
was
goi
ng to
hav
e he
r ,s
econ
d ch
ild, s
he d
eter
min
ed to
go
to h
er f
athe
r, o
verr
idin
g, th
e w
ill o
f he
r hu
sban
d. O
n th
e w
ay,
siSi
s-ev
er, s
hega
ve b
irth
to, t
he c
hild
, and
her
hus
band
hur
ried
to11
258
259
112
the
near
-by
jung
le f
or c
olle
ctin
g so
me
stra
w a
nd r
eed
to m
ake
shel
ter
for
the
mot
her
and
child
.T
o th
e m
isfo
rtun
e of
all,
youn
g m
an w
as b
itten
by
a sn
ake
whe
n he
was
col
lect
ing
the
san
d di
ed th
en a
nd th
ere.
The
gir
l wai
ted
and
wai
ted
and
atin
des
pair
wen
t in
sear
ch o
f hi
m a
nd. f
ound
him
dea
d.Sh
edu
mbf
ound
ed a
t the
sig
ht a
nd r
etur
ned
to h
er c
ryin
g ch
ildr
Gri
ef-s
tric
ken
as s
he w
as, s
he s
tart
ed f
or h
er f
athe
r's p
lace
with
two
child
ren,
one
in h
er a
rms
and
the
othe
r ho
ldin
g he
r fi
nger
s.'
On
her
way
, the
re w
as a
n ov
erfl
owin
g st
ream
whi
ch s
he h
adfo
rd, a
nd s
he .w
as a
t a lo
ss h
ow to
do
it w
ith h
er tw
o ch
ildre
n.pl
anne
d to
for
d th
e st
ream
with
one
chi
ld a
ta
time.
Lea
ving
olde
r ch
ild o
n .th
e ba
nk, s
he c
ross
ed th
e st
ream
with
the
baby
.S
plac
ed th
e ba
by o
n a
ston
e, c
over
ed it
with
'gra
ss a
nd w
as r
etu
to f
etch
the
othe
r ch
ild.
Whe
n sh
e w
as in
.mid
-str
eam
a h
asw
oope
d on
the
baby
. To
driv
e it
away
she
.wav
ed h
er h
ands
,th
e ol
der
child
thou
ght t
hat h
e w
as b
eing
cal
led
by h
is m
othe
rso
he
got d
own
into
the
stre
am a
nd w
as c
arri
ed a
way
by
the
curt
Thu
s sh
e lo
st, h
er h
usba
nd a
nd b
oth
the
child
ren,
. and
on
reac
h;he
r de
stin
atio
n sh
e le
arnt
that
hcr
par
ents
and
bro
ther
.als
o ha
dth
e pr
evio
us n
ight
:by-
the
cras
hing
of
the-
hous
e an
d w
ere
bein
g b
on th
e sa
me
pyre
. ..A
t thi
s sh
e lo
st, h
er :n
erve
s an
d be
cam
e in
sane
.O
ne d
ay s
he w
as n
otic
ed b
y B
uddh
a w
hen
he w
as a
eliv
ea
disc
ours
e- to
.an
asse
mbl
y.Sh
e w
as b
roug
ht to
her
sen
ses
.by
Tea
cher
. by
.the-
i exe
rcis
e. o
f hi
s ..e
xtra
ordi
nary
, pow
ers.
- Sh
e th
prop
erly
.: co
vere
d he
r.: b
ody,
,'ap
proa
ched
Bud
dha:
and
., re
late
d;hi
m h
er. e
ndle
ss J
,suf
feri
ngs.
:-: H
e,co
nsol
ed h
er s
ayin
g.,';
that
had
shed
tear
s on
the
deat
h of
her
dea
r on
es in
cou
ntle
ss p
revi
exis
tenc
es a
lso,
and
-th
at if
'tho
se' t
ears
cou
ld b
e. c
olle
cted
, the
y. w
oM
ake
four
teas
. :H
e- th
en to
ld h
et th
at n
o so
n: o
r da
ught
er o
r o
rela
tive
'cou
ld r
ende
r an
y he
lp to
a: p
erso
n af
ter
deat
h ; n
o bl
rela
tion
wou
ld ..
com
e to
ne's
. aid
in m
itiga
ting
one'
s i s
uffe
rin
oR
ealiz
ing
this
har
d fa
ct, o
ne s
houl
d tr
y' to
bec
ome
wis
e by
'fol
ioth
e pa
th c
halk
ed o
ut b
y th
e B
uddh
a. P
atac
hara
, aft
er li
sten
ing
thes
e w
ords
, bec
ame
a sr
ota-
apan
na (
plac
ed in
the
stre
am le
adin
gni
rvan
a)`
and
expr
esse
d he
r -d
esir
e to
join
-the
ord
er o
f nu
ns. S
he.
duly
ord
aine
d an
d 'M
ade
a bh
iksh
uni.
:-'
One
day
, aft
er w
ashi
ng h
er f
eet,.
she
'obs
erve
d th
at th
e w
afl
owed
to a
cer
tain
ext
ent a
nd th
en d
isap
pear
ed. S
he p
oure
d w
a
GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
IN
BL
IDD
HIS
W
'aga
in a
nd o
bser
ved
its c
ours
e til
l its
dis
appe
aran
ce.
She
real
ized
ther
efro
m h
ow li
fe w
as tr
ansi
tory
.Sh
e th
en li
sten
ed to
a d
isco
urse
whi
ch B
uddh
a ex
plai
ned
that
all
bein
gs w
ere
subj
ect t
o de
ath,
and
ther
efor
e it
shou
ld b
e th
e ai
m o
f ev
ery
bein
g to
see
that
the
five
nstit
uent
s di
d no
t com
bine
to f
orm
ano
ther
per
isha
ble
body
for
.-Sh
e m
edita
ted
over
thes
e w
ords
of
Bud
dha
and
soon
atta
ined
perf
ectio
n, th
e ar
hath
ood.
She
expr
esse
d he
r jo
y in
thes
e w
ords
:A
man
plo
ughs
his
fie
ld, s
ows
seed
ther
ein
and
thus
ear
ns w
ealth
to-m
aint
ain
his
wif
e an
d so
ns ;
why
then
sho
uld
she
not a
ttain
nir
vana
by o
bser
ving
the.
mor
al p
rece
pts
and
follo
win
g th
e te
achi
ngs
ofud
dha?
She
decl
ared
that
she
had
obt
aine
d co
ntro
l ove
r he
rth
ough
ts b
y m
edita
ting
on th
e co
urse
of
wat
er p
oure
d on
the
grou
nd.
e ni
ght s
he to
ok a
lam
p, s
eate
d he
rsel
f on
the
bed
and
with
the
1p o
f a
need
le s
mot
here
d th
e bu
rnin
g w
ick
with
in th
e oi
l.B
yse
rvin
g th
is h
er m
ind
beca
me
com
plet
ely
eman
cipa
ted.
Pata
char
a be
cam
e pr
ofic
ient
in th
e di
scip
linar
y -r
ules
(vi
naya
)d
was
pra
ised
by.
Bud
dha
as th
e fo
rem
ost o
f th
e fe
mal
e vi
naya
-. te
rs. ,
Her
nam
e Pa
tach
ara
--pa
tu (
prof
icie
nt)
in a
char
a (d
utie
s).v
ery,
like
ly g
iven
for
her
str
ict a
dher
ence
to th
e vi
naya
rul
es.
trai
ned
thir
ty n
uns
and,
gui
ded
them
in th
e m
ay in
whi
ch s
heat
tain
ed p
erfe
ctio
n.It
is s
aid
that
all
the
thir
ty n
uns
obta
ined
gher
pow
ers
and
dest
roye
d th
eit i
gnor
ance
.
Kur
idal
akes
ha:
Bha
Ckl
a or
' Sub
hadd
a,w
as b
orn
atja
gn.
ana
in th
e fa
mily
of
a ve
ry r
ich
bank
er.
On
the
day
of h
era
son
was
bor
n to
the
prie
st o
f th
e re
alm
. He
was
nam
edka
: Fro
m h
is v
ery
child
hood
Sat
tuka
dev
elop
ed a
str
ong
.,
ency
for
ste
alin
g, a
nd w
hen
quite
you
ng, h
e us
ed to
ste
al w
hat-
. artic
les
he c
ould
lay
his
hand
s on
. He
Cou
ld n
ot b
e co
rrec
ted
his
pare
nts
in s
pite
of
thei
r be
st e
ffor
ts.
At l
ast,
whe
n he
was
wn
up, t
hey
turn
ed h
im o
ut .o
f th
eir
hous
e. F
rom
that
day
war
d?.;
with
the
help
of
a ho
ok a
nd a
rop
e he
ste
alth
ily c
limbe
dto
, the
upp
er s
tore
ys o
f ho
uses
and
sto
le a
s m
uch
prop
erty
as
hem
anag
e. :H
e m
ade
such
atte
mpt
s on
alm
ost e
very
hou
se in
tow
n. T
he m
atte
r dr
ew th
e at
tent
ion
of th
e ki
ng, w
ho o
rder
edto
wn
guar
d to
arr
est h
im a
t any
cos
t und
er th
e th
reat
of
*shm
ent.
The
tow
n gu
ard
aler
ted
his
subo
rdin
ates
and
was
abl
ear
rest
Sat
tuka
alo
ng w
ith th
e st
olen
art
icle
s. T
he th
ief
was
pla
ced
"."
)
260
113
'fE
ST C
opy
AV
AL
LA
B26
111
4
_4_
uciu
re th
eki
ng, w
to-.
sent
ence
d hi
mto
dea
thby
a f
all f
rom
appo
inte
d cl
iff-
, He
was
sev
erel
ybe
aten
. and
was
bei
ngta
ken
tocl
iff,
whe
nhe
was
see
nby
the
bank
er's
daug
hter
Sub
hadd
a.St
rang
ely
enou
gh, S
ubha
dda
at f
irst
sigh
t . f
ell i
nlo
venu
Sattu
ka, a
ndpr
evai
led
upon
her
pare
nts
to s
ave
his
life
and
get h
mar
ried
to h
im. .
She
bein
g hi
son
ly d
augh
ter,
the
fath
erbr
ibed
tow
n .g
uarc
li,w
ho r
elea
sed
Sattu
kase
cret
ly a
nd k
illed
anot
her
per
in h
ispl
ace
tosa
tisfy
: the
king
.' .
Sattu
ka w
asbr
ough
t to*
the
bank
er's
=ho
use
and
was
fed
clot
hed
:mos
tlu
xuri
ousl
y.. H
ew
as .t
aken
:tri
,Sub
hadd
a, w
hoad
orne
d.he
rsel
f.. w
ith. a
llhe
e.pr
ecir
ius
orna
men
tsan
d re
ceiv
edw
ith d
ueho
nonr
;1!
Sattu
ka; '
how
ever
,se
t. hi
sth
ough
tsup
on' :
.or
nam
ents
and
bega
n to
dev
ise:
apl
an to
ste
alth
em.
Aft
er a
fda
ys, w
hen
Subh
adda
was
sea
ted
near
him
,com
fort
ably
,Sat
tuka
tohe
r th
at h
eha
dso
met
hing
-ver
yse
cret
-.to
'di
sclo
seto
her
.co
nfid
ence
of
Sattu
kapl
ease
d Su
bhad
dai
very
muc
h, a
ndsh
e re
aag
reed
to: c
arry
out
his
wis
hes.
Sattu
ka th
ento
ld h
erth
at h
eta
ken
a vo
w a
t the
time
of h
isde
ath
sent
ence
that
ifby
. any
mea
mhi
s lif
ewas
save
d, h
e w
ould
mak
eof
feri
ngs
to th
epr
esid
ing
deity
the
deat
h-cl
iff,
and
this
. wor
ship
he
wan
ted
to o
ffer
in h
erco
mpa
nySu
bhad
dam
ade
all
the:
nece
ssar
ypr
epar
atio
ns f
ox'
mak
ing
offe
ring
s.Sh
epu
t on
'her
:bes
tor
nam
ents
, and
both
of
thpr
ocee
ded
ina
vehi
cle
to th
e cl
iff.
Sattu
ka le
ftth
em
en a
t the
fof
the
hill
and
aSke
dSU
bhad
da*.
alon
eto
scar
ryih
e'ef
feri
ngs.
,,a
scen
ding
'itie
hill,
he
mad
eso
me
unki
nd r
emar
ksto
Subh
adda
;",
ther
eupo
n ''f
oini
dou
t' hi
s-re
alin
tent
ion:
Whe
n' o
n th
e'"t
op o
fhi
ll; S
attu
kaas
ked'
Subh
adda
to. p
ut 'h
eror
nam
ents
on 'a
pie
ce'''
clot
h an
dm
ake
iblit
idle
.'''W
heri
'she
Prri
teSt
ed, h
edi
sclo
Sed
his
inte
ntio
n.A
t'th
is: S
ubha
dda
said
that
not o
nly
the
'Orr
iam
ebe
long
ed to
hin
i'but
her
pers
on 'a
lso,
and
She
furt
her
said
that
six
was
one
with
him
and
' had
no in
tere
stap
art f
rom
him
.'B
efor
eto
off
the
orna
men
ts; s
hesa
id s
hew
ould
'onc
eem
brac
e' h
imfr
om th
fron
t and
then
'fro
mth
e bi
ck.'
Thi
Sw
as a
gree
dto
by
Sattu
k&A
fter
embr
acin
g hi
m'fr
om".
the'
fron
t,Su
bhad
dapr
ocee
ded
embr
ace
him
from
the
back
, whe
nsh
epu
shed
him
dow
n th
edi
fan
dse
nt h
ini
to h
isde
Stin
y.T
hego
dsth
ereu
pon
utte
red
soni
cve
rses
sayi
ng th
at 'M
en' a
re n
otne
cess
arily
wis
e in
all ci
rcum
stan
ces"
!c.
ther
ear
e al
so w
omen
who
are
wis
e an
din
telli
gent
.r-
GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
IN B
UD
DH
ISM
. Aft
er th
is in
cide
nt;
Subh
adda
did
not t
hink
itpr
oper
to r
etur
nho
me
; she
mad
eup
her
min
d to
bec
ome
a re
clus
e an
dpr
actis
eri
goro
us a
scet
icis
m.
She
join
ed th
e or
der
ofN
irgr
anth
as b
yta
king
`ord
inat
ion
inpr
oper
for
m. H
er h
airs
wer
e re
mov
edby
the
petio
leO
f a
palm
leaf
, but
hai
rsag
ain
cam
e ou
t in
curl
y he
aps,
for
whi
chsh
ew
as g
iven
the
appe
llatio
n of
Kun
clal
a-ke
sha
(cur
ly-h
aire
d). S
hest
udie
d' th
ere
vari
ous,
', su
bjec
ts,
pirt
iCul
arly
dia
lect
ics.
She
then
diff
eren
tpl
aceS
whe
re r
enow
ned
teac
hers
live
d,an
d le
arnt
1, 'f
roth
' the
mth
e ar
tof
'.dis
puta
tion.
alo
ng w
ithot
her
scie
nces
.Sh
e'b
eCar
rie2
a.gr
eat d
ispu
tant
and
foun
dno
ne w
ho c
ould
join
, iss
ue w
ith'h
er. :
'Whe
reve
rsh
e w
ent,'
she
wou
ld 'm
ake
'a s
and
heap
, fix
on
it'a
fri
nibe
bran
CV
and
anno
unce
' to
the
peop
le're
sidi
ng n
ear
that
any
-One
- w
ho d
ared
to e
nter
into
disp
utat
ion
with
her
was
invi
ted
to:tr
aMpl
e'in
poin
the
jam
bu b
ranc
h.Fo
r se
ven
days
she
wou
ldw
ait,
atid
'ilie
n; if
none
cam
e-fo
rWar
& s
he' W
ould
depa
rt f
rom
the
plac
e-'W
ith'th
e br
anch
.In
this
way
she
rea
ched
Shr
avas
tin,
whe
re B
uddh
aw
as r
esid
ing'
at th
etim
e. A
s us
ual,
she
put u
p th
e sa
ndhe
ap w
ithja
mbu
bra
nch
and
wai
ted
ther
efo
rdi
sput
atio
n. T
he s
and
heap
was
not
iced
by B
uddh
a's
chie
fdi
scip
le S
arip
utta
,w
ho, o
nle
arni
ngth
eob
ject
of
it fr
om th
ebo
ys s
tand
ing
'nea
rby
, tra
mpl
edup
on it
.'W
hen
Subh
adda
lear
nt th
at s
heha
d be
ench
alle
nged
by
Sari
putta
,sh
e co
llect
edhe
r fr
iend
s an
dad
mir
ers
and
with
ala
rge
follo
win
gpr
o-ed
- to
deb
ate
with
Sari
putta
, whr
iw
as th
enta
king
res
t aft
eri=
nmea
ls:
Saiip
utia
- gi
ve-
liet.
the
optio
n to
Put
ques
tions
, whi
ch s
he'd
id;'i
nd a
ll'of
theM
wer
ean
swer
edby
him
ver
yqu
ickl
y. W
hen
her
";qu
estio
n's
'wer
e ex
hani
ted,
'Sa
r- ip
Utta
put t
o he
r .o
nly
one
ques
tion,
faile
d' to
'ans
wer
.' Sh
e'th
enac
know
ledg
ed h
imas
her
She
- W
aS'
take
n' to
Bud
dha,
who
_del
iver
ed to
her
aJs
iiita
ble*
disc
onrs
e,w
hich
open
ed h
erey
es, a
nd s
he s
hort
lyat
tain
ed'P
erfe
ctio
n..1
,Sh
e th
enex
pres
sed
her
deep
gra
titud
eto
Bud
dha
inth
ese
'wor
ds 'S
he w
ithhe
r ha
irpl
ucke
d ou
t use
dto
wan
der
abou
tw
eari
ngon
e pi
ece
Of
clot
han
dco
veri
ng h
erbo
dy w
ith d
ust.
She
disc
arde
d`w
hat w
asri
ght a
ndpr
actis
ed w
hat w
asw
rong
.. In
the
afte
rnoo
nsh
e-m
et-B
uddh
aon
Gri
dhra
kuta
Mou
nt, a
nd th
ere
salu
ted
him
with
lenf
knee
s.B
uddh
a.ga
ve h
er th
eor
dina
tion
with
two
wor
ds, "
Com
e,ad
y."'
For
fift
yye
ars
she
roam
ed a
bout
inA
figa
, Mag
adha
,V
ajji,
.:Kas
hran
d K
osal
aliv
ing
on a
lms.
' She
wou
ld n
otco
nsid
er h
erse
lfin
263
262
116
debt
to th
e gi
vers
of
alm
s, s
ince
she.
kne
w th
atgr
eat m
erit
was
assu
red
to th
em w
ho h
ad b
een
char
itabl
e to
her
.
Am
bayi
ti (A
mra
pali)
:Sh
e w
as f
ound
in th
em
ango
gar
den
ofth
e Sh
akya
n no
ble
Mah
anam
a,a
rich
citi
zen
,of
Vai
shal
i. O
ne d
ayw
hen
Mah
anam
aw
as a
mus
ing
hiM
self
alo
ng w
ith th
em
embe
rs o
fhi
s fa
riiil
y in
hit
plei
suie
gar
den,
a ne
wly
-bor
n ba
be w
as f
ound
ther
eby
his
gar
dene
r.. M
ahan
ama,
who
was
,chi
ldle
ts,
wel
com
ed th
e ba
byan
d ha
nded
her
over
to h
it w
ife,
who
rea
red
her
amid
. pom
p an
dlu
xury
as
her
own
daug
hter
. Whe
n th
e ba
bygr
ew u
p, s
he b
ecam
eex
quis
itely
bea
utif
ul, a
nd h
erha
nd w
as c
ovet
ed b
y th
e to
nsof
ric
hi
peop
le.:
Mah
anam
a w
as p
lace
dn
a, d
ilem
ma
in s
elec
ting
a su
itabl
ebr
ideg
roon
i for
his
idop
ted
daug
hter
, for
he
knew
he w
ould
be
incu
rrin
g th
e di
sple
asur
e of
thos
e w
hom
he
wou
ld r
efus
e; t
hen,
aga
in,
he w
as b
ound
by
cust
omto
mar
ry h
is d
augh
ter
toa
youn
g m
an o
f,th
ecl
an. H
e tf
iere
fore
deci
ded
to c
all a
mee
ting
ofth
e A
ssem
bly
ofth
e L
ichc
hhav
isi:a
nd, p
lace
the
prop
osal
of
his
daug
hter
's m
arri
age
befo
re it
.:T
he. m
embe
rs e
xpre
ssed
thei
r de
sire
. to
have
a lo
okat
the
girl
, so
Mah
anam
a br
ough
t':he
r to
tile
.Ass
embl
y.;:
The
mem
bers
wer
e st
ruck
.with
amaz
emen
t at h
er b
eaut
Y a
ndde
cide
dun
anim
ousl
y th
at s
he s
houl
d be
enjo
yed.
by
all (
gatta
-bho
gya)
.T
his'
deci
sion
was
agr
eat s
hock
to th
e fa
ther
, who
cou
ldno
t thi
nk o
f hi
s,
;
daug
hter
. bec
omin
ga
cour
tesa
n.T
he d
ecis
ion
of th
e A
ssem
bly
:.
how
eYer
, cou
ld .n
ot b
e. d
isob
eyed
,an
d so
he
felt
nonp
luss
ed. T
heda
ught
er c
ame
to h
is.
resc
ue a
nd :a
gree
d to
abi
de b
y th
em
uch
agai
nst h
is w
ill. S
he a
sked
for
five
con
ditio
nsto
be
fulf
illec
l.by
..th
e A
ssem
bly.
,,, T
hese
wer
e as
fol
low
s :
(i)
she
shou
ld, b
e :p
rovi
ded
with
;a h
ouse
in th
e be
stlo
calit
y of
the
city
;(i
i), o
nly
one
pers
ori:t
.w
ould
be
entit
led
toen
ter.
into
, her
pre
mis
es. a
t. a
time
;he
r. f
ee:::
wou
ld b
e 50
0 ka
rsha
pana
s; (
iv)
her
hout
e co
uld
be in
spec
ted
on th
e,se
vent
h da
y in
cas
e; o
f a:
gene
ral
sear
ch f
or, a
n .e
nem
yor
a, c
ulpr
it';',
'an
d (v
) th
ere
shou
ld b
eno
wat
ch o
ver
pers
ons,
com
ing
in o
r go
ing
.ou
t of
her
hous
e. T
he A
ssem
bly
acce
pted
all t
he c
ondi
tions
.A
mba
pali
then
sel
ecte
dho
use
in th
e be
st lo
calit
y. ..
She
had
the
wal
ls o
f he
r ho
use
pain
ted
byan
art
ist w
ith, t
he p
ortr
aits
king
s,-
min
iste
rs, n
oble
s, .r
ich
bank
ers
and
trad
ers.
.W
hile
sca
nnin
gth
e po
rtra
its, s
he b
ecam
e en
amou
red
of th
e po
rtra
it of
Kin
g B
imbi
sara
.,an
d be
cam
e ve
ry a
nxio
us, t
o m
eet h
im. K
ing
Bim
bisa
ra,a
lso.
got t
he
uttz
eil
Ai'
L111
,14_
4
info
rmat
ion
that
Am
bapa
li ha
d a
nym
phlik
e ap
pear
ance
, and
bec
ame
very
cur
ious
abo
ut h
er. A
t tha
t tim
e th
epo
litic
al r
elat
ion
betw
een
the
Lic
hchh
avis
and
the
Mag
adha
n ki
ng w
as m
uch
stra
ined
, and
so
Kin
g B
imbi
sara
was
war
ned
that
he
shou
ld n
ot ta
ke th
e ri
sk o
fen
teri
ng in
to h
is e
nem
y's
terr
itory
.H
e, h
owev
er, d
id n
ot li
sten
toan
y co
unse
l and
pro
ceed
edw
ith h
is g
ener
al. G
opa
.to th
e ho
use
ofA
mba
pali
in V
aish
ali.
It is
sai
d th
at th
e L
ichc
hhav
is c
ame
to k
now
.of
the
pres
ence
of
an e
nem
y in
thei
r' te
rrito
ry a
nd s
tart
ed a
sear
chof
all
: the
hou
ses,
but
:the
y w
ere:
una
ble
to s
earc
h th
e ho
use
of
- A
mba
pali,
with
out'
ano
tice
of s
even
day
s.::;
Kin
g: B
imbi
sara
cou
ldth
eref
ore
stay
saf
ely
in h
er h
ouse
for
six
day
s, a
ndA
mba
pali
:con
ceiv
ed d
urin
g th
at ti
me.
The
kin
g th
ereu
pon
gave
her
a fi
nger
-
ring
tied
in a
thin
pie
ce o
f cl
oth
as a
roy
al to
ken
in c
ase
she
need
ed:a
ny h
elp
for
the
child
.A
fter
nin
e m
onth
s A
mba
pali
gave
bir
th to
a so
n. .
The
chi
ld g
rew
up
into
a s
turd
y bo
y, b
ut h
e w
as o
ften
deri
ded
by h
is p
laym
ates
as
bein
g an
ille
gitim
ate
child
and
the
son
of a
mai
dser
vant
.H
is p
ositi
on b
ecam
e in
tole
rabl
e, a
nd s
o he
was
sent
to K
ing
Bim
bisa
ra, w
hore
cogn
ized
him
as
one
of h
is s
ons.
In
:cou
rse'
. of
time
he b
ecam
e a
Bud
dhis
t mon
kkn
own
as V
imal
a'.7
Kon
dalif
ia;:
:""
::Am
bapa
li pl
ied
her
trad
e an
d am
asse
d hu
ge w
ealth
.:S
he b
ecam
e
a: la
y ,d
evot
ee o
f B
uddh
aan
d hu
rrie
d to
pay
. her
res
pect
s to
him
iiihe
n: h
e re
ache
d K
otig
ama,
nea
r V
aish
ali i
n hi
s la
stjo
urne
y. S
helis
tene
d to
the
disc
ours
e de
liver
ed: b
y th
e T
each
er f
or, h
erbe
nefi
t,
and
invi
ted
him
alo
ng w
ith h
is d
isci
ples
to h
er h
ouse
for
the
fore
noon
-.m
eal.
The
acc
epta
nce
of h
er in
vita
tion
byB
uddh
a di
sapp
oint
ed th
e,:t
Lic
hchl
iavi
s,, w
ho c
ame
in a
bod
y to
invi
te h
im. O
nth
e fo
llow
ing
Am
bapa
li se
rved
foo
d to
,Bud
dha
and.
his
par
ty to
her
entir
e''s
atis
fact
ion,
and
at t
he e
nd o
f it
offe
red
her
man
goga
rden
with
its
biiil
ding
s to
the
bhik
shu
sang
ha.
Thi
s gi
ft w
as a
lso
acce
pted
by
,thev
Tea
cher
.So
me
time
afte
r th
is, o
ne d
ay s
he li
sten
ed to
a d
isco
urse
deliv
ered
.'by
-her
son
Vim
ala,
and
mad
e up
her
min
d to
bec
ome
a bh
ilesh
uni.
4.;'
Not
long
aft
er h
er o
rdin
atio
n sh
eob
tain
ed in
sigh
t int
o th
e tr
uth.
.--.
0bse
rvin
g th
e ch
ange
s th
at c
ame
upon
her
onc
ebe
autif
ul p
hysi
que
'at '
the
adva
nced
age
, she
real
ized
the
impe
rman
ence
of
wor
ldly
'exi
sten
ce a
nd a
ttain
ed a
rhat
hood
. She
gav
e ex
pres
sion
tohe
r m
ind
inve
rses
.
1 1
726
4.
EST
CO
PY A
VA
liff.
A
265
118
- -
Ur
Isid
asi w
as b
orn
inth
e fa
mily
of
a pi
ous
rich
ban
ker
of U
jjayi
nr.
She
was
the
only
chi
ldof
her
fat
her
and
was
bro
ught
up w
ith g
reat
car
e...
Whe
n sh
eca
me
of a
ge, s
he w
as m
arri
edto
the
son
of a
ver
y re
spec
tabl
e ba
nker
of S
aket
a, a
ndgo
t at t
he ti
me
ofhe
r m
arri
age
mar
ry v
alua
ble
pres
ents
fro
mhe
r hu
sban
d's
fam
ily.
As
inst
ruct
ed, b
y he
rpa
rent
s, s
he s
alut
ed h
er 'f
athe
r -in
-la
w a
nd m
othe
r-, i
n-la
w e
very
. mor
ning
and
even
ing.
She
was
-al
l atte
ntio
nto
the
'sis
ters
of
her
husb
and:
:Sh
e w
ould
take
care
of
wha
teve
r .f
ood
and
drin
ks th
ere
wer
e in
the
hous
e; a
nd :d
istr
ibut
e-t
hem
to th
e :m
embe
rsof
.the
fam
iVr;
acc
ordi
ngto
thei
r ne
eds.
., Sh
er-w
ould
atte
nd h
erhu
sban
d pu
nctil
ious
ly; c
ook
:for
:hi m
and
ser
ve h
im in
ever
y w
ay;
but i
ry s
pite
of
all h
eref
fort
s sh
e co
uld
not p
leas
e hi
m. S
he in
curr
edhi
s di
sple
asur
eso
muc
h th
at h
e th
reat
ened
to le
ave
the
hous
e if
he
was
to li
ve w
ith-
her
unde
r th
esa
me,
.roo
f.H
is p
aren
ts r
easo
ned
with
him
and
ple
aded
for
the
poor
wif
e, w
hom
they
fou
nd h
ard.
wor
king
and
very
;goo
d ir
i nat
ure,
but
they
faile
d to
cha
nge
his
min
d. T
hey
inqu
ired
of I
sida
si if
she
kne
wth
e re
ason
s fo
r su
chdi
sple
asur
e:of
thei
rso
n, b
ut s
he a
lso
plea
ded
igno
ranc
eof
any
fau
lton
her
par
t. A
t las
t she
had
to le
ave
her
husb
and'
s ho
me
and
retu
rnto
her
ow
n pa
rent
s at
Ujja
yini
. Her
fath
er g
ot h
er m
arri
edfo
r th
ese
cond
tim
e w
ith a
noth
eryo
ung
man
not
.so
rich
as h
er f
orm
erhu
sban
d. T
his
time,
also
she
ren
dere
d se
rvic
e.to
her
hus
band
and
the
mem
bers
of
his
fam
ilyto
the
best
of
her
abili
ty. B
ut s
heco
uld
not s
atis
fy th
em, a
nd a
t las
t had
to le
ave
that
:hou
se a
lso
and
retu
rnto
her
par
ents
..f
i.
At s
uch
rept
hed
mis
fort
une
of h
is d
augh
ter,
her
fat
her
pers
uade
d a
youn
g re
clus
eof
goo
d na
ture
to g
ive
up h
is y
ello
w d
ress
and
begg
ing
bow
l, an
dm
arry
his
dau
ghte
r. A
fter
this
mar
riag
eth
eyliv
ed a
s hu
sban
d an
d w
ife
for
bare
ly f
ifte
en d
ays
whe
nhe
r. h
usba
ndfe
lt di
sgus
ted
with
the
wor
ldly
life
and
.wan
ted
to r
ever
t to.
his
. lif
eas
a r
eclu
se.
Her
fat
her
beca
me
grea
tly d
isap
poin
ted
and
'adv
ised
her
to le
ada
relig
ious
life
at h
ome.
At t
his
time
she
cam
e ac
ross
Bhi
kshu
nr J
inad
atta
, who
paid
a v
isit
to h
er h
ouse
,an
d pr
ayed
tohe
r fo
r ad
mis
sion
into
.th
e or
der
ofnu
ns.
In s
pite
of
her
pare
nts'
prot
est s
he r
etir
ed, a
ndw
as o
rdai
ned
by J
inad
atta
as a
nun
.So
onaf
ter
ordi
natio
n sh
eat
tain
ed th
e hi
ghes
t kno
wle
dge
and
cam
e to
know
her
. pas
t exi
sten
ces,
in w
hich
she
had
com
mitt
edth
e si
n of
adul
tery
.It
was
for
this
that
she
suff
ered
so
muc
h in
this
life.
119
266
GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
IN
14r1
bHIS
M
3.L
AY
DE
VO
TE
ES
Sam
avat
i :Sh
e w
as b
orn
as th
e da
ught
er o
f a
bank
er (
segh
i or
shre
sizt
hin)
of
the
tow
n B
hadd
iya.
Som
e tim
e af
ter
her
birt
h a
fam
ine'
bro
ke o
ut in
the
coun
try
; so
her
fath
er w
ith g
reat
dif
ficu
ltyto
ok h
er a
nd h
er m
othe
r to
Kau
sham
bi, w
here
live
d hi
s ol
d fr
iend
Gho
Shak
a Se
tthi.
The
y fo
und
shel
ter
in a
cot
tage
.A
t tha
t tim
eG
hosh
aka
Setth
i 'oP
ened
a h
Ous
e of
cha
rity
for
giv
ing
food
to th
epo
or a
nd n
eedy
. The
Set
thi.
of B
hadd
iya
felt.
ash
amed
to g
o to
his
frie
nd in
' the
mis
erab
le c
ondi
tion
he w
as in
, and
sen
t his
dau
ghte
r,S
amav
ati t
o br
ing
thei
r fo
od f
rom
the
char
ity h
ouse
.Sa
mav
ati,
bein
g bo
rn in
a r
espe
ctab
le f
amily
, avo
ided
the
rush
of
the
poor
clam
ouri
ng f
or f
ood
and
stoo
d on
one
sid
e qu
ietly
and
bas
hful
ly.
Her
dem
eano
ur d
rew
the
kind
ly a
ttent
ion
of th
e of
fice
r in
cha
rge
of
the
char
ity h
ouse
. On
the
firs
t day
she
took
foo
d fo
r th
ree
pers
ons,
on th
e se
cond
day
she
aske
d fo
r tw
o pe
rson
s, w
hile
on
the
thir
dda
y Sh
e as
ked
for
only
one
. The
Sup
erin
tend
ent d
erid
ed h
ersa
ying
that
she
, had
now
rea
lized
the
capa
city
ofh
er s
tom
ach
and
was
ask
ing
for
food
for
one
per
son
and
not f
or tw
o or
thre
e.. A
tth
is s
uspi
cion
of .t
he S
uper
inte
nden
t she
dis
clos
ed to
him
the
sad
deat
h of
her
.fat
her
and
on th
e fo
llow
ing
day
of h
er m
othe
r. O
nin
quir
y sh
edi
vulg
ed th
e pa
rtic
ular
s of
her
par
ents
to th
e Su
peri
nten
dent
,w
ho
ther
eupo
n ad
opte
d he
r as
his
dau
ghte
r.O
ne d
ay s
he s
ugge
sted
to th
e Su
peri
nten
dent
the
way
s an
d m
eans
for
brin
ging
ord
er in
to, t
he c
haot
ic c
ondi
tions
cre
ated
at t
he ti
me
ofth
e di
stri
butio
n of
foo
d.Sh
e sa
id th
at a
n ar
ea s
houl
d be
enc
lose
dby
a f
ence
, with
in w
hich
the
food
was
to b
e ke
pt.
The
re s
houl
dbe
two:
pas
sage
s, .o
ne f
or in
com
ing
and
the
othe
r fo
r ou
tgoi
ng.s
eeke
rs o
f fo
od.
Thi
s su
gges
tion
of S
amav
ati w
as r
eadi
ly a
ccep
ted
by th
e Su
peri
nten
dent
, and
the
dist
ribu
tion
of f
ood
beca
me
orde
rly
and
nois
eles
s.T
his
drew
the
atte
ntio
n of
Gho
shak
a Se
tthi,
who
ther
eupo
n ca
me
to k
now
the
part
icul
ars
of S
amav
ati.
He
had
her
brou
ght t
o hi
s ho
use
and
gave
her
a d
augh
ter's
pla
ce w
ithdu
e ho
nour
and
suita
ble
atte
ndan
ts.
%.1
One
day
Kin
g U
daya
na o
f K
aush
ambi
met
her
whi
le s
he w
asgo
ing
to a
riv
er f
or b
ath,
and
was
cha
rmed
by
her
extr
aord
inar
ybe
auty
. He
aske
d fo
r he
r ha
nd in
mar
riag
e, b
ut G
hosh
aka
decl
ined
his
offe
r. A
t thi
s th
e ki
ng g
ot a
ngry
, and
turn
ed h
im o
ut o
f hi
sho
use
267
120
"t"
and
seal
edit
with
his
roya
l sea
l.W
hen
SAm
avat
rca
me
to k
now
this
plig
htof
his
fos
ter-
fath
er,
she
advi
sed
him
toag
ree
to th
e ki
ng's
prop
osal
, pro
vide
dhe
allo
wed
her
to ta
kew
ith h
er th
efi
ve h
undr
edgi
rls
who
used
toat
tend
on h
er. T
heki
ng a
ccep
ted
the
prop
osal
and
mad
eSa
mav
ati h
is'q
ueen
.So
me
time
afte
r th
is,
Kin
g U
daya
naM
arri
edan
othe
r eq
ually
beau
tiful
girl
cal
led
Chi
llam
agan
diya
,w
hose
pare
nts
once
trie
d to
get h
er m
arri
edto
Bud
dha,
who
turn
eddo
wn'
the
prop
osal
with
'sh
arp
rebu
ff.
At t
his'
refu
sal s
hebo
re a
bitt
ergr
udge
aga
inst
the
com
pass
iona
teT
each
er.'
In th
eco
urse
of
his
pere
grin
atio
nsB
uddh
aon
ce c
ame
toK
aush
Am
bian
d w
as r
ecei
ved
with
grea
t hon
our
byG
hosh
aka
Setth
i,w
ho o
ffer
edhi
s ga
rden
calle
d G
hosh
itara
ma
'for
his
resi
denc
e al
ong
with
his
disc
iple
s."T
hilla
mag
andi
ya,"
'who
was
then
a qu
een
of th
epl
ace,
wan
ted
to a
vail
hers
elf
of th
isop
port
imity
to ta
kere
veng
e fo
rth
e in
sult
flun
gup
on h
er b
y B
uddh
aby
spu
rnin
gto
acc
ept h
erha
ndin
mar
riag
e.Sh
e en
gage
dtw
o w
icke
d ru
ffia
nsto
hur
l abu
ses
on th
eT
each
er, b
utth
ere
mai
ned
unto
uche
dby
suc
h ab
uses
,co
ntin
ued
his
sojo
urn
at K
aush
arnb
t and
deliv
ered
his
disc
Our
ses
regu
larl
y.A
ti at
tend
ant
of-
Que
enSa
mav
atr,
calle
d K
hujju
ttara
,he
ard
ofth
e fa
me
of B
uddh
ain
the
hous
eof
the
garl
and-
mak
erfr
om w
hom
she
used
to p
urch
ase
garl
ands
for
the
quee
nev
ery
day.
She
liste
ned
to th
e di
scou
rses
of B
uddh
aan
d re
mem
bere
dth
em w
ell.
One
day
,on
SArn
avat
rsin
sist
ence
,sh
e re
prod
uced
in h
erpr
esen
ce th
ose
disc
ours
es,
whi
ch m
ade
a st
rong
impr
essi
onon
her
min
d'an
d ro
used
her
faith
in B
uddh
a,hi
s 'd
harm
aan
d sa
figh
a.Sh
e be
cam
ean
xiou
sto
hav
ea
look
at t
heT
each
er; b
utth
is s
hew
as u
nabl
eto
do,
sin
ce K
ing
Uda
yana
lad
no f
aith
in B
uddh
a.T
hequ
een
ther
efor
ew
aite
d fo
ra
chan
ce to
see
Bud
dha,
whe
nhe
wou
ldbe
pas
sing
by th
e pa
lace
,th
roug
h th
ew
indo
ws
ofhe
rap
artm
ents
. She
used
to w
ait
at th
ew
indo
w h
oles
to c
atch
a gl
imps
e of
the
Tea
cher
.T
his
was
not
iced
by th
e ot
her
quee
n C
hilla
mag
andi
ya,
who
wan
ted
to e
xplo
it th
isre
gard
of
Sam
avat
i for
Bud
dha
as a
n ex
pedi
ent
for
brin
ging
her
into
disr
eput
e in
the
eyes
of
the
king
.Fa
iling
to r
ouse
the
ange
r of
the
king
by
the
info
rmat
ion
of S
amav
ad's
rega
rd f
orB
uddh
a, s
heto
okto
man
y ot
her
artif
ices
and
at la
st w
as a
ble.
to e
nrag
e th
eki
ngso
muc
h th
at h
eto
ok u
p a-
bow
and
pois
oned
arro
ws
to s
hoot
Sam
avat
ian
d he
rat
tend
ants
.T
hey,
how
ever
,re
mai
ned
unpe
rtur
bed
at th
is12
126
8
%Jr
41V
VIA
GR
EA
T W
OM
EN
IN
BU
DD
HIS
M
attit
ude
of th
e ki
ng, a
ndex
erci
sed
thei
r m
aitr
i (go
odw
ill)
feel
ing
tow
ards
him
in s
uch
a w
ay th
at h
e co
uld
not e
ven
rele
ase
the
bow
and
arro
ws
from
his
han
ds.
He
beca
me
dum
bfou
nded
at th
is d
is-
com
fitu
re o
f hi
s an
d di
dno
t kno
w w
hat t
o do
. The
n at
Sam
avat
i'sin
terc
essi
on, h
e go
t rid
of
the
bow
and
arr
ows,
and
kne
lt do
wn
aski
ng f
or h
er p
ardo
n, w
hich
,of
cou
rse,
was
rea
dily
vou
chsa
fed.
Sam
avat
i the
n se
cure
d th
epe
rmis
sion
of
the
king
to o
ffer
gif
tsto
Bud
dha
and
his
disc
iple
s.Sh
e al
so w
ishe
d th
at th
e ki
ng s
houl
din
vite
a m
onk
to th
e pa
lace
daily
to d
eliv
er d
isco
urse
s, a
nd th
is th
eki
ng c
ompl
ied
with
by
requ
estin
g A
nand
a to
do
so.
For
her
perf
ectio
n in
the
prac
tice
ofgo
odw
ill, s
he w
as c
ompl
imen
ted
byB
uddh
a as
the
fore
mos
t of
the
fem
ale
lay
devo
tees
who
per
fect
edth
emse
lves
in th
e ex
erci
se o
fgo
odw
ill to
oth
ers.
Khu
ijutta
ra:
Khu
jjutta
ra w
as c
hief
of
the
vast
lyle
arne
d fe
mal
ela
y de
vote
es (
upas
ikas
). S
hew
as b
orn
as th
e da
ught
er o
f a
nurs
e in
the
hous
e of
the
bank
erG
hosh
aka
of K
aush
ambi
. As
she
was
K. h
unch
back
ed a
t her
ver
y' b
irth
, she
was
nam
ed K
hujju
ttara
fro
mK
tibia
Utta
rd th
e hu
nchb
acke
dU
ttara
.Sh
e 'b
ecam
e on
e of
the
atte
ndan
ts o
f Q
ueen
Sam
avat
i,w
ho u
sed
to g
ive
her
a lit
tle s
umev
ery
day
for
purc
hasi
ng g
arla
nds.
The
ble
ssed
Bud
dha
once
rea
ched
Kau
sham
bi a
nd s
topp
ed'a
t the
Gho
shita
ram
a bu
ilt f
or a
nd d
edic
ated
to h
im b
y G
hosh
aka
Setth
i.O
ne d
ay th
e T
each
er a
long
with
his
disc
iple
s pa
ida
visi
t to
the
hous
e of
the
chie
f ga
rlan
d-m
aker
. At
that
tim
e K
hujju
ttara
wen
t the
re f
or g
arla
nds
and
was
told
that
all
the
garl
ands
wou
ld b
egi
ven
to th
e T
each
er a
nd h
is d
isci
ples
,an
d so
ther
e w
ere
none
to s
pare
for
her
'que
en. T
he g
arla
nd-m
aker
ask
edhe
r to
hel
p 'h
im in
sen
ding
food
to th
e T
each
er a
nd h
is d
isci
ples
, to
whi
ch s
he g
ladl
y ag
reed
.O
n lis
teni
ng to
the
disc
ours
e de
liver
edby
the
Tea
cher
aft
er ta
king
his
s fo
od, s
he n
ot o
nly
com
mitt
edto
mem
ory
.
ever
y w
ord
of it
but
als
bat
tain
ed' t
he f
irst
sta
ge o
f sa
nctif
icat
ion,
siot
a-ap
atti.
She
beca
me
trut
h-co
nsci
ous
and
wou
ld n
ot to
uch
othe
rs' m
oney
." H
ence
forw
ard
she
gave
up
the
habi
t of
stea
ling
half
r of
the
little
mon
ey g
iven
to h
er b
y Q
ueen
Sam
avat
i for
pur
chas
ing
garl
ands
. As
a co
nseq
uenc
e of
this
, she
took
a do
uble
qua
ntity
of
-s: g
arla
nds
fin.
the
quee
n, w
ho n
otic
edth
is s
udde
n ch
ange
and
inqu
ired
'of
her
the*
reas
on f
or it
.Sh
e th
en d
iscl
osed
to' t
he q
ueen
that
she
had
been
ste
alin
g ha
lf th
eam
ount
giv
en to
her
, ant
the
teac
hing
s26
9
GR
EA
T W
rEN
OF
IND
IA
of B
uddh
a ha
d br
ough
tab
out t
he c
hang
e in
her
habi
ts.
Lea
rnin
g
of th
e gr
eatn
ess
ofB
uddh
a an
d re
aliz
ing
the
exce
llenc
e of
his
teac
hing
, the
que
en p
ardo
ned
Khu
jjutta
rd, r
elie
ved
her
of h
erdu
ties
as a
mai
dser
vant
and
entr
uste
d he
r w
ith th
edu
ty o
f lis
teni
ng to
the
disc
ours
es o
f B
uddh
a an
dre
peat
ing
them
to h
er f
oren
light
enm
ent.
Khu
jjutta
rd c
ould
rem
embe
rw
hate
ver
she
hear
d on
ce,
and
so s
he
agre
ed to
com
ply
with
her
wis
hes.
At t
he ti
me
of r
epea
ting
the
disc
ours
es it
was
arr
ange
dth
at s
he w
ould
occ
upy
ahi
gh s
eat l
ike
a
teac
her,
and
the
quee
n w
as to
sit o
n a
low
sea
t as
alis
tene
r.E
very
:
day
she
wou
ld g
o to
Bud
dha,
list
en to
his
dis
cour
ses
and
repe
atth
e','
sam
e to
the
quee
n:T
he d
isco
urse
s so
del
iver
edbe
cam
e a
colle
ctio
n,:
whi
ch h
as c
ome
dow
n to
us
asth
e Pa
li te
xt I
tivut
taka
.'In
due
cou
rse:
she
beca
me
vast
lyle
arne
d, a
nd s
o sh
e w
asco
mpl
imen
ted
by th
e
Tea
cher
as
the
fore
mos
t of
the
vast
ly le
arne
d fe
mal
ela
y de
vote
es.
...Sh
e::w
as b
orn
.as
ada
ught
er o
f Su
man
acle
yian
d'
Dha
natij
aya,
son
of
Men
clak
a,th
e fa
bulo
usly
. ric
hba
nker
of
the
city
:
of B
hadd
iya.
in th
e,pr
ovin
ce o
f A
figa
.,,;M
enda
ka w
as v
ery
piou
s,: a
nd: r
so w
aspr
actic
ally
his
who
lefa
mily
.;.; I
n: th
e do
min
ion
. of
Bim
bisa
ra th
ere
wer
e fi
veba
nker
s; o
f un
told
wea
lth,.
and
Men
daka
l,
was
one
of
them
...; K
ing
Bim
bisa
ra w
asre
ques
ted
by K
ing
Pras
enaj
it)
of K
osal
a to
,per
suad
e.on
eof
the
five
ric
hba
nker
s of
his
kin
gdon
itV
com
e ov
er a
ndse
ttle
dow
n in
Kos
ala:
.To
oblig
e hi
s ro
yal
frie
nd h
e
sugg
este
d. to
Men
daka
m.s
end'
his
son
, Dha
nalij
aya
toK
osal
a.
Pras
enaj
it se
lect
ed S
aket
a, a
plac
e ab
out s
even
yoj
anas
cabo
ui f
ifty
-0x
mile
s) d
ista
ntfr
om:S
hrav
asti,
as
suita
ble
fprh
is r
esid
ence
.
.M
enda
ka w
as !
a,gr
eat.d
evot
ee,o
f B
uddh
a,an
d so
whe
n th
e la
tter,
'
once
:rea
ched
Bha
ddiy
anag
ara
in.th
e co
urse
s of
,his
pere
grin
atio
ns, h
ey:
was
war
mly
rece
ived
.byM
enda
ka, w
ho a
lso
aske
d hi
s gr
and-
daug
hter
.
Vis
hakh
a to
pay
, her
res
pect
s to
the
Tea
cher
with
her
five
,hun
dred
com
pani
ons.
Yis
hakh
a,fe
lt: v
ery
happ
y to
do
,this
and
proc
eede
d,in
...
a :v
ehic
le a
sfa
t:as
it w
as p
rope
r.an
dth
en w
ent o
n fo
ot to
mee
tth
e
Tea
cher
. She
list
ened
.to
his
disc
ours
e an
dbe
cam
e th
en a
nd th
ere,
,
a sr
ota-
apan
na,t
he f
irst
sta
ge .o
fsa
nctif
icat
ion
in B
uddh
ist
doct
rine
s.;.;
,
At.
Shra
vast
i_ th
ere
Jive
d a
bank
er c
alle
d,M
igar
a, w
ho h
ad
grow
n up
.son
cal
led
Tun
nava
ddha
na, .
.He
was
look
ing
for
a: b
ride
:
for
his
son
and
depu
ted
his
men
tofi
nd o
ut a
sui
tabl
egi
rl.
In th
e'
cour
se o
fth
eir
sear
ch f
or .s
uch
agi
rl th
ey m
et V
isha
kha
and.
wer
e
123
270
to I
VI:
1.1
!lV
ull 1
-11_
.% 1
JAV
!
stru
ck b
y he
r be
auty
and
.de
mea
nour
. Whe
n th
e m
en w
ere
obse
rvin
g he
r fe
atur
es f
rom
a d
ista
nce,
it b
egan
to r
ain,
and
her
frie
nds
ran
hith
er a
nd th
ither
look
ing
for
a co
vere
d pl
ace.
Vis
hakh
a,ho
wev
er, w
ithou
t min
ding
her
clo
thes
that
wer
e be
ing
dren
ched
,w
alke
d sl
owly
tow
ards
a s
helte
r.; H
er q
uiet
and
ste
ady
mov
emen
tro
used
the
curi
osity
of
the
wat
cher
s, w
ho w
ante
d to
kno
w th
e re
ason
of h
er s
low
gai
t and
at t
he s
ame
time
to f
ind
out w
hat h
er v
oice
was
Eke
; so
they
ent
ered
into
a c
onve
rsat
ion
with
her
. The
y as
ked
why
she
was
not
wal
king
fas
t lik
e he
r co
mpa
nion
s, th
ough
her
clo
thes
wer
ege
tting
wet
.. Sh
e re
plie
d th
at s
he h
ad a
mpl
e cl
othe
s in
her
hou
seso
she
, did
not
min
d he
r cl
othe
s .b
eing
dre
nche
d ; a
nd s
he w
alke
dsl
owly
bec
ause
she
did
not
like
to ta
ke th
e ri
sk o
f in
juri
ng a
ny o
f he
rbi
bs, i
nasm
uch
as a
gro
wn-
up u
nmar
ried
gir
l with
a b
roke
n lim
b'w
as li
kea
brok
en w
ater
-pot
, to
be th
row
n aw
ay. T
he m
en w
ere
very
Am
uch
impr
esse
d by
her
talk
and
thre
w th
e .g
arla
nd o
ver
her
head
as a
sig
n 'o
f se
lect
ion
as a
bri
de.
She
felt
shy,
sin
ce s
he k
new
that
42e,
was
goi
ng to
,be
mar
ried
soo
n ; s
o sh
e w
as s
cree
ned
off
by h
erfr
iend
s an
d at
tend
ants
.T
he m
en f
ollo
wed
her
, met
her
fat
her
Dha
nafi
jaya
and
.pro
pose
d to
him
.the
mar
riag
e of
his
, dau
ghte
r w
ithna
vadd
hana
, the
son
of
Mig
ara.
Dha
nari
jaya
sai
d th
at th
ough
them
ealth
of
the
brid
egro
om's
fat
her
did.
not b
ear
any
com
pari
son
his,
he,
wou
ld-a
ccep
t the
pro
posa
l, si
nce
they
wer
e of
the
sam
e
,Whe
n th
e ne
ws:
of
Dha
naiij
ay.a
's .a
ccep
tanc
e, o
f th
e pr
opos
al w
asco
mm
unic
ated
.to.M
igar
a, h
e w
as v
ery
happ
y th
at h
is d
augh
ter-
in-l
awir
ould
;be
: fro
m a
. .ve
ry r
ich,
fam
ily. H
e in
form
ed K
ing
ajit,
of
the,
pro
posa
l, an
d so
ught
his
'per
mis
sion
to g
o to
Sak
eta
rfor
min
g th
e ce
rem
ony.
- T
he k
ing
expr
esse
d hi
s w
illin
gnes
s to
,th
e oc
casi
on, b
y hi
s pr
esen
ce a
nd p
roce
eded
. to
alon
gM
igar
a an
d hi
s pe
ople
....D
hana
fija
ya .m
ade
lavi
sh p
repa
ratio
ns_r
ecei
ve th
e .k
ing
and
his
retin
ue a
s al
so M
igar
a;. h
is r
elat
ives
and
frie
nds,
:so
muc
h so
. tha
t his
gue
sts,
wer
e al
l tak
en a
back
. The
kin
g&
tight
. tha
t it w
ould
be
diff
icul
t for
Dha
nafi
jaya
to. a
ct a
s th
eir
host
,suc
h a
lavi
sh m
anne
r fo
r a
long
tim
e, a
nd s
o he
inqu
ired
of
him
en h
e w
ould
be,
pre
pare
d , t
o se
nd .
his
daug
hter
to h
er f
athe
r-in
-pl
ace.
Dha
nanj
aya
repl
ied
that
as
the.
rai
ny, s
easo
n ha
d4r
eady
set
in, h
e w
ould
ent
reat
his
gue
sts
to r
emai
n th
ere
for
iota
mon
ths
and
rece
ive
the
sam
e ho
spita
lity.
Thr
ee m
onth
s pa
ssed
271
124
411U
.r
insu
ffic
ient
,to
bur
nth
eco
arse
clo
thav
aila
ble
inth
e ho
rse
for
the
purp
ose
ofm
akin
gfi
re.
The
fou
rm
onth
sat
last
elap
sed,
and
the
day
arri
ved
for
the
depa
rtur
e of
the
brid
e.O
n, th
eda
ypr
evio
usto
her
depa
rtur
e,he
r fa
ther
gave
her
inst
ruct
ions
abou
tav
oidi
nggo
ssip
,be
ing
care
ful
abou
tle
ndin
g,-
help
ing
poor
rel
atiV
es, ta
king
part
icul
arca
re o
f he
rpa
rent
s-in
-law
and
husb
and
and
givi
ngal
ms'
to th
ere
clus
es w
hom
ight
com
eto
the
hous
e:A
long
with
thes
e inst
ruct
ions
Dha
nafi
jaya
depu
ted
eigh
tre
lativ
esto
wat
chth
e ac
tions
of h
isda
ught
eran
dco
rrec
t her
ifth
ere
shou
ld b
ean
y la
pses
in h
etco
nduc
t.V
isha
kha
was
ado
rned
with
cree
per-
like
orna
men
ts w
orth
a hu
gesu
m. S
hew
as a
lso
-giv
enco
untle
ssot
her
artic
les,
as d
owry
.'A
fter
giV
ing
a be
fitti
ngfa
rew
ell p
arty
to-
the
king
and
his
retin
ue' an
d th
ebr
ideg
room
's' f
amily
,'D
hana
iijay
a1e
nt h
erda
ught
erto
her
fath
er-
in-l
aw'S
honk
.:.)
;:-V
isha
kha
pref
erre
dto
ent
er 'i
nto
the
city
of S
hrav
asti
in: a
nop
enca
rria
ge;
so th
atth
e pe
ople
- of
the
City
mig
htha
ve a
good
look
athe
r. T
hepe
ople
of
Shra
vast
iw
ere
amaz
edat
the
beau
ty a
ndgr
ande
ur o
fth
e.hr
ide;
.'as
4als
o''a
t the
larg
e'am
ount
'of 'd
owry
' giv
enby
her
fath
erV
istia
kha
erid
eare
dler
self
to th
e pe
ople
of S
hrav
asti
bydi
stri
butin
gam
ong
them
:the
pres
ents
giv
ento
her
by
her
fath
er:.
In o
rder
to c
eleb
rate
'the
occa
sion
_ of
his
son'
sm
arri
age,
Mig
ara,
the
brid
egro
om's
fath
er,
invi
ted'
the
mon
ksbe
long
ing
to th
e N
ipgr
anth
a fa
ith; W
hich
' was
pro
fess
ed' by
him
;to
his
hou
se.
He
then
sent
for
Vis
hakh
ato
pay
thei
r'he
rre
spec
ts. I
nre
spon
seto
his
cal
l,'V
isha
kha
'cam
equ
ickl
y;bu
t bec
ame
disa
ppoi
nted
to s
ee th
em
onks
nake
d. S
hetu
rned
bac
kin
dis
gust
.A
t thi
sth
e m
onks
beca
me
angr
y
and
repr
iman
ded
thei
r ho
stfo
r bri
ngin
gan
-ina
uspi
ciou
sda
ught
er-i
n-la
w; w
hoha
d fa
ithin
Gau
tam
aB
uddh
a,an
d ad
vise
dhi
m to
turn
her
out o
f th
eho
use.
Mig
ara
regr
ette
d hi
sin
abili
tyto
"act
acc
ordi
ngto
thei
r ad
vice
, and
said
that
she
cam
e of
a ve
ry r
ich
fam
ily a
ndco
uld
not b
eso
eas
ily' a
sked
to le
ave
the
hous
e.'
He
supp
licat
edth
emto
'exc
use
her,
' sin
ce' s
hew
as y
etve
ry y
oung
and
not s
o w
ise.
272
125
.,.L
ie,,a
ra d
idno
t car
ew
ent-
-:oi
r' ta
king
is f
ood.
At t
his
Vis
hakh
are
ques
ted
the
mon
kto
mov
eto
the
next
hou
se,
sayi
ngth
at h
erfa
ther
-in-
law
was
then
eatin
g"s
tale
" fo
od.
On
hear
ing
this
Mig
ara
got e
nrag
ed,
beca
use
he h
adbe
ense
rved
with
"sta
le"
food
by
his
=da
ught
er-i
n-la
w,
and
aske
dhe
r to
rem
ove
the
food
at o
nce
and
at th
esa
me
time
to le
ave
his
hous
e.V
isha
kha
prot
este
dst
rong
lysa
ying
that
she
was
not
a w
ater
-car
ryin
gm
aid
brou
ght
from
a ri
ver
bank
,
but
was
the
daug
hter
of
good
pare
nts
who
wer
e al
ive,
so s
he c
ould
not b
e tu
rned
out o
f th
eho
use
inth
atm
anne
r. E
ven
if s
heco
mm
itted
any
mis
take
,th
ere
wer
e th
eei
ght
rela
tives
sent
by
her
'fath
er f
or:c
orre
ctin
ghe
rom
issi
ons'
and
com
mis
sion
s.M
igar
ain
form
edhe
rre
lativ
esof
the
"sta
le"
food
serv
ed b
yV
isha
kha.
"O
n in
quir
ysh
eex
plai
ned
that
by
calli
ng th
efo
od"s
tale
" sh
em
eant
that
her
fath
er-
in-l
aww
as e
njoy
ing
his
food
as a
res
ult
of h
ispa
st m
erito
riou
sac
ts,
and
hew
as n
otac
cum
ulat
ing
fres
hm
erits
by
givi
ngal
ms
to m
onks
.O
ne n
ight
Vis
hakh
aw
ent o
ut o
f her
apar
tmen
t with
her
mai
d-se
rvan
ts c
arry
ing
lam
psto
hel
p th
ede
liver
y of
a m
are.
-U
naw
are
ofth
is f
act,
her
fath
er-i
n-la
wch
arge
dhe
r w
ithth
e gu
iltof
goi
ngou
tat
nig
htat
her
swee
t will
.H
e pl
aced
this
alo
ngw
ithso
me
othe
r-c
ompl
aint
sbe
fore
the
eigh
t rel
ativ
es,
who
then
conv
ince
dhi
m o
fth
egr
ound
less
ness
of h
isap
preh
ensi
ons.
He
real
ized
his
mis
take
san
dex
pres
sed
regr
et f
orth
em.
He
also
requ
este
dV
isha
kha
not t
o m
ind
mis
appr
ehen
sion
s.V
isha
kha
was
ver
ym
uch
plea
sed
at th
ead
mis
sion
of m
ista
kes
by h
erfa
ther
-in-
law
, and
took
this
oppo
rtun
ityto
obt
ain
his
perm
issi
onto
invi
teB
uddh
aan
d hi
sdi
scip
les
to th
eho
use
and
offe
r th
emfo
odw
hene
ver
she
wis
hed.
The
perm
issi
onw
as g
rant
ed,
thou
ghgr
udgi
ngly
.B
ut M
igar
agr
adua
llybe
cam
ea
-dev
otee
of B
uddh
aan
dga
ve u
p hi
sfo
rmer
faith
.In
his
illne
ss,
Vis
hakh
alo
oked
aft
erhi
m w
ithgr
eat c
are,
for
whi
chhe
bec
ame
such
an a
dmir
erof
her
that
he
look
edup
on h
eras
his
mot
her,
and
so V
isha
kha
cam
e to
be
know
nas
Mig
ara-
met
ta.
Vis
hakh
aw
as a
fre
quen
tvi
sito
rto
the
plac
es w
here
Bud
dha
deliv
ered
his
disc
ours
es.
Whe
nvi
sitin
gth
ese
plac
essh
e pr
efer
red
to'g
o w
ithou
t any
orna
men
tson
her
bod
y.O
ne d
aysh
e of
fere
dal
l her
;orn
amen
ts to
Bud
dha,
but
as g
old
coul
dno
t be
acce
pted
by th
em
onks
,.-
she
sold
them
out a
ndco
llect
ed n
ine
cror
es o
fka
rsha
tai.z
as.
With
273
18
EST
CO
PYA
VA
IIII
AB
LIE
126
x
(9/n)
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