DOCUMENT RESUME ED 427 378 AUTHOR Frymier, Ann … · TITLE Communicating with Touch in the...
22
DOCUMENT RESUME ED 427 378 CS 510 015 AUTHOR Frymier, Ann Bainbridge; Mongeau, Paul A. TITLE Communicating with Touch in the Teacher/Student Relationship. PUB DATE 1997-04-00 NOTE 36p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Eastern Communication Association (Baltimore, MD, April 10-13, 1997) . For a related study, see CS 510 016. PUB TYPE Reports Research (143) -- Speeches/Meeting Papers (150) EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Communication Research; Higher Education; *Nonverbal Communication; *Student Attitudes; *Teacher Attitudes; *Teacher Student Relationship; Undergraduate Students IDENTIFIERS *Physical Contact; *Touching ABSTRACT Touch is an important and powerful form of communication that is often avoided for fear of negative interpretations. However, touch has also been associated with positive relational and educational outcomes. In this study, descriptions of touch that occurred between teachers and undergraduate students were elicited from students" and then sorted using S. E. Jones' (1994) categories of touch. Additionally, the relational messages (J.K. Burgoon & J.L. Hale, 1987) and attitudes toward the teacher and course associated with the different types of touch were examined. Findings suggest that touch plays an important role in developing close professional relationships such as between teacher and student. Contains 21 references and 3 tables of data. (Author/RS) ******************************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ********************************************************************************
Transcript of DOCUMENT RESUME ED 427 378 AUTHOR Frymier, Ann … · TITLE Communicating with Touch in the...
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 427 378 CS 510 015
AUTHOR Frymier, Ann Bainbridge; Mongeau, Paul A.TITLE Communicating with Touch in the Teacher/Student
Relationship.PUB DATE 1997-04-00NOTE 36p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Eastern
Communication Association (Baltimore, MD, April 10-13,1997) . For a related study, see CS 510 016.
PUB TYPE Reports Research (143) -- Speeches/Meeting Papers (150)EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Communication Research; Higher Education; *Nonverbal
Communication; *Student Attitudes; *Teacher Attitudes;*Teacher Student Relationship; Undergraduate Students
IDENTIFIERS *Physical Contact; *Touching
ABSTRACTTouch is an important and powerful form of communication
that is often avoided for fear of negative interpretations. However, touchhas also been associated with positive relational and educational outcomes.In this study, descriptions of touch that occurred between teachers andundergraduate students were elicited from students" and then sorted using S.E. Jones' (1994) categories of touch. Additionally, the relational messages(J.K. Burgoon & J.L. Hale, 1987) and attitudes toward the teacher and courseassociated with the different types of touch were examined. Findings suggestthat touch plays an important role in developing close professionalrelationships such as between teacher and student. Contains 21 references and3 tables of data. (Author/RS)
********************************************************************************
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
********************************************************************************
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch in
the
Tea
cher
/Stu
dent
Rel
atio
nshi
p
Ann
Bai
nbri
dge
Frym
ier*
Paul
A. M
onge
au
Mia
mi U
nive
rsity
Ann
Bai
nbri
dge
Frym
ier
(Ed.
D.,
Wes
t Vir
gini
aU
nive
rsity
) is
an
Ass
ista
nt P
rofe
ssor
in S
peec
hC
omm
imic
atio
n at
Mia
mi U
nive
rsity
, Oxf
ord,
Ohi
o.
Paul
A. M
onge
au (
Ph.D
., M
ichi
gan
Stat
e U
nive
rsity
) is
an A
ssoc
iate
Pro
fess
or in
Spe
ech
Com
mun
icat
ion
atM
iam
i Uni
vers
ity, O
xfor
d, O
hio.
Pape
r pr
esen
ted
at th
e E
aste
rn C
omm
unic
atio
nA
ssoc
iatio
n C
onve
ntio
n, B
altim
ore,
Mar
ylan
d, A
pril
1997
.
*The
aut
hors
wou
ld li
ke to
ext
end
a sp
ecia
l tha
nk y
outo
Am
y B
alco
m f
or h
er a
ssis
tanc
e in
cod
ing
the
data
.
2B
EST
CO
PY A
VA
ILA
BL
E
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch
1
Abs
trac
t
Tou
ch is
an
impo
rtan
t and
pow
erfu
l for
m o
f
com
mun
icat
ion
that
is o
ften
avo
ided
for
fea
r of
nega
tive
inte
rpre
tatio
ns. H
owev
er to
uch
has
also
bee
n
asso
ciat
ed w
ith p
ositi
ve r
elat
iona
l and
edu
catio
nal
outc
omes
. In
this
stu
dy, d
escr
iptio
ns o
f to
uch
that
occu
rred
bet
wee
n te
ache
rs a
nd s
tude
nts
wer
e el
icite
d
from
stu
dent
s an
d th
en s
orte
d us
ing
Jone
s' (
1994
)
cate
gori
es o
f to
uch.
Add
ition
ally
, the
rel
atio
nal
mes
sage
s (B
urgo
on &
Hal
e, 1
987)
and
atti
tude
s to
war
d
the
teac
her
and
cour
se a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith th
e di
ffer
ent
type
s of
touc
h w
ere
exam
ined
.
U.S
. DE
PA
RT
ME
NT
OF
ED
UC
AT
ION
Offi
ce o
f Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
and
Impr
ovem
ent
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
RE
SO
UR
CE
S IN
FO
RM
AT
ION
CE
NT
ER
(E
RIC
):T
his
docu
men
t has
bee
n re
prod
uced
as
rece
ived
from
the
pers
on o
r or
gani
zatio
nor
igin
atin
g it.
0 M
inor
cha
nges
hav
e be
en m
ade
toim
prov
e re
prod
uctio
n qu
ality
.
Poi
nts
of v
iew
or
opin
ions
sta
ted
in th
isdo
cum
ent d
o no
t nec
essa
rily
repr
esen
tof
ficia
l OE
RI p
ositi
on o
r po
licy.
PE
RM
ISS
ION
TO
RE
PR
OD
UC
E A
ND
DIS
SE
MIN
AT
E T
HIS
MA
TE
RIA
L H
AS
BE
EN
GR
AN
TE
D B
Y
TO
TH
E E
DU
CA
TIO
NA
L R
ES
OU
RC
ES
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N C
EN
TE
R (
ER
IC)
1
c 5
5--(
2(
5-
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch in
the
Tea
cher
/Stu
dent
Rel
atio
nshi
p
Tou
ch is
an
impo
rtan
t asp
ect o
f co
mm
unic
atio
n
that
can
be
used
to c
omm
unic
ate
both
pos
itive
mes
sage
s (i
.e.,
love
and
aff
ectio
n) a
s w
ell a
s ne
gativ
e
mes
sage
s (i
.e.,
ange
r). B
oth
disc
ussi
ons
with
col
leag
ues
and
rese
arch
(B
ooth
-But
terf
ield
, 198
9; M
onge
au &
Bla
lock
, 199
3) h
ave
iden
tifie
d co
nfus
ion
abou
t usi
ng
touc
h w
hen
inte
ract
ing
with
stu
dent
s. I
s it
OK
to
touc
h st
uden
ts o
r is
it s
omet
hing
that
sho
uld
be
avoi
ded
alto
geth
er?
The
pri
mar
y go
al o
f th
is r
esea
rch
was
to u
nder
stan
d th
e re
latio
nal c
onse
quen
ces
of
teac
hers
touc
hing
stu
dent
s.
Tou
ch h
as b
een
desc
ribe
d as
a p
ower
ful f
orm
of
com
mun
icat
ion
(Ric
hmon
d &
McC
rosk
ey, 1
995)
.
Tou
ch is
pow
erfu
l bec
ause
of
the
inte
nsity
of
feel
ings
that
can
be
com
mun
icat
ed w
ith to
uch.
It m
ay b
e
beca
use
of th
e po
wer
of
touc
h th
at m
akes
touc
h su
ch a
cont
rove
rsia
l for
m o
f co
mm
unic
atio
n. T
ouch
has
been
ass
ocia
ted
with
sex
ual h
aras
smen
t (B
ooth
-
But
terf
ield
, 198
9; M
onge
au &
Bla
lock
, 199
3). T
ouch
es
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch 2
inte
rpre
ted
as g
ropi
ng, g
rabb
ing,
or
that
are
for
ced,
such
as
a fo
rced
hug
or
kiss
are
con
side
red
to b
e
sexu
ally
har
assi
ng. H
owev
er to
uch
has
also
bee
n
asso
ciat
ed w
ith p
ositi
ve r
elat
iona
l out
com
es s
uch
as
imm
edia
cy (
Meh
rabi
an, 1
981,
197
1). I
mm
edia
cy is
defi
ned
as p
erce
ived
phy
sica
l and
/or
psyc
holo
gica
l
clos
enes
s (R
ichm
ond,
Gor
ham
, & M
cCro
skey
, 198
7)
and
is c
onsi
dere
d a
dist
inct
them
e or
cha
ract
eris
tic o
f
rela
tiona
l com
mun
icat
ion
(Bur
goon
& H
ale,
198
4).
Add
ition
ally
, tou
ch is
con
side
red
to b
e cr
ucia
l for
norm
al h
uman
dev
elop
men
t (H
arlo
w, 1
971;
Mon
tagu
,
1995
), w
ith a
lack
of
touc
h be
ing
asso
ciat
ed w
ith b
oth
a
decl
ine
in p
hysi
cal a
nd p
sych
olog
ical
fun
ctio
ning
.
With
touc
h be
ing
asso
ciat
ed w
ith b
oth
posi
tive
and
nega
tive
outc
omes
, it i
s ea
sy to
bec
ome
conf
used
abo
ut
how
to c
ondu
ct o
nese
lf in
cer
tain
situ
atio
ns. I
n
busi
ness
and
edu
catio
nal s
ettin
gs, i
ndiv
idua
ls a
re
ofte
n di
rect
ed to
"no
t tou
ch e
ach
othe
r" in
ord
er to
avoi
d th
e ap
pear
ance
of
sexu
al h
aras
smen
t. B
ut is
this
real
ly g
ood
advi
ce?
Alth
ough
mos
t int
erac
tions
can
be
carr
ied
out
succ
essf
ully
with
out t
ouch
occ
urri
ng, m
any
inte
ract
ions
may
be
mor
e su
cces
sful
whe
n to
uch
is
used
. Ste
war
d an
d L
upfe
r (1
987)
con
duct
ed a
n
expe
rim
ent w
here
stu
dent
s m
et w
ith th
eir
inst
ruct
or
to d
iscu
ss th
eir
perf
orm
ance
on
an e
xam
and
thei
r
gene
ral p
rogr
ess
in th
e co
urse
. Hal
f of
the
stud
ents
wer
e to
uche
d tw
ice
on th
e ar
m b
y th
e in
stru
ctor
duri
ng th
e co
nfer
ence
. Tho
se s
tude
nts
who
wer
e
touc
hed
by th
e in
stru
ctor
rat
ed th
eir
inst
ruct
or a
s
frie
ndlie
r, m
ore
unde
rsta
ndin
g, in
tere
stin
g, a
nd
capa
ble
than
did
thos
e st
uden
ts w
ho w
ere
not t
ouch
ed
duri
ng th
e co
nfer
ence
. Mor
e im
port
antly
, tho
se
stud
ents
who
wer
e to
uche
d by
thei
r in
stru
ctor
s
perf
orm
ed s
igni
fica
ntly
bet
ter
on th
e ne
xt e
xam
than
did
thos
e st
uden
ts w
ho w
ere
not t
ouch
ed. T
he r
esul
ts
of th
is s
tudy
cle
arly
indi
cate
that
touc
h m
ay h
elp
teac
hers
ach
ieve
thei
r cl
assr
oom
goa
l of
faci
litat
ing
lear
ning
. Thi
s st
udy
is c
onsi
sten
t with
res
earc
h on
imm
edia
cy. A
lthou
gh to
uch
is o
nly
one
com
pone
nt o
f
imm
edia
cy, i
mm
edia
cy h
as c
onsi
sten
tly b
een
6
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch 3
asso
ciat
ed w
ith p
ositi
ve o
utco
mes
suc
h as
aff
ectiv
e
lear
ning
(A
nder
son,
197
9; C
hris
toph
el, 1
990;
Gor
ham
,
1988
; Ric
hmon
d, e
t al.,
198
7), c
ogni
tive
lear
ning
(Com
stoc
k, R
owel
l, &
Bow
ers,
199
5; K
elly
& G
orha
m,
1987
), a
nd m
otiv
atio
n to
stu
dy (
Chr
isto
phel
, 199
0;
Frym
ier,
199
4, 1
993)
. Tou
ch th
at e
nhan
ces
imm
edia
cy
wou
ld b
e ex
pect
ed to
hav
e po
sitiv
e ef
fect
s on
stu
dent
s'
lear
ning
and
mot
ivat
ion
in th
e cl
assr
oom
. Whi
le
touc
h ca
n ce
rtai
nly
have
neg
ativ
e co
nseq
uenc
es s
uch
as s
exua
l har
assm
ent,
touc
h ca
n al
so h
ave
som
e ve
ry
bene
fici
al o
utco
mes
.
Alth
ough
ther
e ha
s be
en a
goo
d de
al o
f re
sear
ch
cond
ucte
d on
touc
h (B
urgo
on, 1
991;
Bur
goon
, Bul
ler,
Hal
e, &
deT
urck
, 198
4; B
urgo
on &
Wal
ther
, 199
0;
Bur
goon
, Wal
ther
, & B
aesl
er, 1
992;
Jon
es &
Yar
brou
gh,
1985
; Jou
rard
& R
ubin
, 196
8; M
onta
gu, 1
986;
Ros
enfe
ld,
Kar
tus,
& R
ay, 1
976)
, the
re is
stil
l a g
reat
dea
l abo
ut
touc
h th
at is
not
und
erst
ood.
One
issu
e th
at
com
plic
ates
the
stud
y of
touc
h is
that
touc
h do
es n
ot
occu
r in
a v
acuu
m. T
ouch
is a
for
m o
f
com
mun
icat
ion
that
is u
sed
in c
onju
nctio
n w
ith o
ther
7
form
s of
com
mun
icat
ion,
bot
h ve
rbal
and
non
verb
al.
For
inst
ance
, Bur
goon
and
Wal
ther
(19
90)
foim
d th
at a
touc
h to
the
face
was
inte
rpre
ted
diff
eren
tly d
epen
ding
on th
e at
trac
tiven
ess
of th
e co
mm
unic
ator
. Alth
ough
som
e to
uche
s do
hav
e a
fair
ly s
tabl
e m
eani
ng (
i.e.,
a
hand
shak
e) (
Bur
goon
& W
alth
er, 1
990)
, the
mea
ning
conv
eyed
by
mos
t tou
ches
var
ies
depe
ndin
g on
the
cont
ext,
rela
tions
hip,
topi
c of
con
vers
atio
n, a
nd o
ther
nonv
erba
l beh
avio
rs a
ccom
pany
ing
the
touc
h.
To
expl
ore
the
mea
ning
s co
mm
unic
ated
by
touc
h, J
ones
and
Yar
brou
gh (
1985
) lo
oked
at t
he
touc
hes
that
acc
ompa
nied
dif
fere
nt ty
pes
of m
eani
ng.
Usi
ng p
artic
ipan
t obs
erve
rs, J
ones
& Y
arbr
ough
colle
cted
info
rmat
ion
on 1
500
touc
hes,
and
iden
tifie
d
18 c
ateg
orie
s of
mea
ning
. The
se c
ateg
orie
s w
ere:
supp
ort,
appr
ecia
tion,
incl
usio
n (l
ater
cal
led
toge
ther
ness
by
Jone
s, 1
994)
, sex
ual,
affe
ctio
n, p
layf
ul
affe
ctio
n, p
layf
ul a
ggre
ssio
n, c
ompl
ianc
e, a
ttent
ion-
getti
ng, a
nnou
ncin
g a
resp
onse
, gre
etin
g, d
epar
ture
,
gree
ting/
affe
ctio
n, d
epar
ture
/aff
ectio
n, r
efer
ence
to
appe
aran
ce, i
nstr
umen
tal a
ncill
ary
(lat
er c
all i
ncid
enta
l
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
cli 4
by J
ones
, 199
4), i
nstr
umen
tal i
ntri
nsic
, and
acc
iden
tal.
Jone
s an
d Y
arbr
ough
wer
e ab
le to
iden
tify
key
feat
ures
of to
uche
s th
at c
onve
yed
each
mea
ning
, but
one
cle
ar
resu
lt w
as th
at a
var
iety
of
touc
hes
coul
d be
use
d to
com
mun
icat
e ea
ch ty
pe o
f m
eani
ng.
Jone
s (1
994)
slig
htly
mod
ifie
d th
e ab
ove
typo
logy
of m
eani
ngs,
iden
tifyi
ng e
ight
cat
egor
ies
of to
uch
mea
ning
s. T
hese
cat
egor
ies
are:
Pos
itive
Tou
ches
whi
ch in
clud
es s
uppo
rt, a
ppre
ciat
ion,
toge
ther
ness
,
and
affe
ctio
n; S
exua
l Tou
ches
whi
ch in
clud
es th
is ty
pe
only
; Pla
yful
Tou
ches
whi
ch in
clud
es p
layf
ul a
ffec
tion
and
play
ful a
ggre
ssio
n; C
ontr
ol T
ouch
es w
hich
incl
udes
com
plia
nce,
atte
ntio
n-ge
tting
, and
anno
unci
ng-a
-res
pons
e; R
itual
Tou
ches
whi
ch
incl
udes
sim
ple
gree
ting
and
sim
ple
depa
rtur
e; H
ybri
d
Tou
ches
whi
ch in
clud
es g
reet
ing
with
aff
ectio
n an
d
depa
rtur
e w
ith a
ffec
tion;
Tas
k-R
elat
ed T
ouch
es w
hich
incl
udes
ref
eren
ce-t
o-ap
pear
ance
, inc
iden
tal,
and
inst
rum
enta
l, an
d A
ccid
enta
l Tou
ches
whi
ch in
clud
es
this
type
onl
y.
Whi
le s
ome
of th
e Jo
nes'
touc
h ca
tego
ries
hav
e
a po
sitiv
e co
nnot
atio
n, it
is c
lear
that
bot
h pl
easa
nt a
nd
unpl
easa
nt to
uche
s co
uld
occu
r in
eac
h ca
tego
ry. F
or
inst
ance
sex
ual t
ouch
es c
ould
be
inte
rpre
ted
very
posi
tivel
y or
as
sexu
al h
aras
smen
t. T
he s
ame
is tr
ue
for
task
rel
ated
touc
hes.
Tak
ing
hold
of
anot
her's
arm
to h
elp
_the
m c
ould
be
inte
rpre
ted
posi
tivel
y (t
he h
elp
is a
ppre
ciat
ed),
or
nega
tivel
y (t
he h
elp
is p
erce
ived
as
cond
esce
ndin
g).
A q
uest
ion
driv
ing
the
pres
ent r
esea
rch
is,
"Wha
t is
the
diff
eren
ce b
etw
een
posi
tive
and
nega
tive
touc
h be
twee
n te
ache
rs a
nd s
tude
nts?
" W
hile
it
wou
ld b
e ni
ce a
nd s
impl
e if
we
coul
d id
entif
y sp
ecif
ic
touc
hes
that
wer
e "g
ood"
and
oth
ers
that
wer
e "b
ad,"
the
natu
re o
f th
e in
terp
reta
tion
of to
uch,
as
dem
onst
rate
d by
Jon
es a
nd Y
arbr
ough
, is
not s
o
sim
ple.
Alth
ough
sim
ple
pres
crip
tions
are
unr
ealis
tic,
it is
rea
listic
to e
xpec
t pos
tive
and
nega
tive
touc
hes
to
be o
f di
ffer
ent t
ypes
. Jon
es' (
1994
) ty
polo
gy o
f to
uch
is a
usef
ul a
nd m
eani
ngfu
l fra
mew
ork
for
diff
eren
tiatin
g
0
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch 5
posi
tive
from
neg
ativ
e to
uche
s. T
his
led
to o
ur f
irst
two
rese
arch
que
stio
ns:
RQ
1: W
hat t
ype
touc
hes
occu
r be
twee
n
stud
ents
and
teac
hers
?
RQ
2: W
hat t
ype
of to
uche
s w
ere
repo
rted
as
plea
sant
and
wha
t typ
e of
touc
hes
wer
e
repo
rted
as
unpl
easa
nt?
A s
econ
d qu
estio
n dr
ivin
g th
e pr
esen
t res
earc
h
is "
Wha
t is
the
impa
ct o
f to
uch
on th
e st
uden
t-te
ache
r
rela
tions
hip?
" O
ne w
ay o
f ad
dres
sing
this
que
stio
n is
to e
xplo
re th
e re
latio
nal m
essa
ge in
terp
reta
tion
asso
ciat
ed w
ith d
iffe
rent
type
s of
touc
h. A
noth
er w
ay
of a
ddre
ssin
g th
is q
uest
ion
is to
exp
lore
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
the
type
s of
touc
h an
d af
fect
ive
lear
ning
. Thi
s le
d us
to o
ur la
st tw
o re
sear
ch
ques
tions
:
RQ
3: H
ow d
id d
iffe
rent
type
s of
touc
hes
impa
ct
the
rela
tiona
l mes
sage
inte
rpre
ted
from
the
touc
h?
RQ
4: H
ow d
id d
iffe
rent
type
s of
touc
hes
impa
ct
part
icip
ants
' atti
tude
tow
ard
thei
r
11
inst
ruct
ors
and
tow
ard
the
cour
se c
onte
nt
(aff
ectiv
e le
arni
ng)?
ME
TH
OD
Proc
edur
es
Part
icip
ants
wer
e ra
ndom
ly a
ssig
ned
to o
ne o
f
two
cond
ition
s. H
alf
of th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts w
ere
aske
d to
reca
ll an
d de
scri
be a
n in
tera
ctio
n be
twee
n th
emse
lves
and
a te
ache
r th
at in
volv
ed to
uch
and
was
unp
leas
ant
and
unco
mfo
rtab
le. T
he o
ther
hal
f of
the
part
icip
ants
wer
e as
ked
to r
ecal
l and
des
crib
e a
plea
sant
and
com
fort
able
inte
ract
ion
with
a te
ache
r th
at in
volv
ed
touc
h. E
xam
ples
of
touc
hes
(sha
king
han
ds, h
uggi
ng,
pat o
n th
e ba
ck, b
rush
ing
up a
gain
st, s
lapp
ing,
etc
.)
wer
e lis
ted
to p
rim
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts' m
emor
ies.
Part
icip
ants
wer
e as
ked
to d
o th
e fo
llow
ing
whe
n
desc
ribi
ng th
e in
tera
ctio
n:1)
des
crib
e th
e co
ntex
t
with
in w
hich
the
touc
h oc
curr
ed; 2
) de
scri
be h
ow a
nd
why
the
touc
h oc
curr
ed; 3
) de
scri
be h
ow th
ey r
eact
ed to
the
touc
h; a
nd 4
) de
scri
be th
e im
pact
this
inte
ract
ion
had
on th
eir
rela
tions
hip
with
thei
r in
stru
ctor
(if
any
).
Aft
er p
rovi
ding
a w
ritte
n de
scri
ptio
n of
the
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch 6
inte
ract
ion,
par
ticip
ants
wer
e as
ked
a va
riet
y of
ques
tions
abo
ut th
e in
tera
ctio
n an
d as
ked
to c
ompl
ete
addi
tiona
l sca
les
whi
ch w
ill b
e de
scri
bed
belo
w.'
Part
icip
ants
who
wer
e un
able
to r
ecal
l an
inte
ract
ion
that
invo
lved
touc
h w
ere
aske
d to
com
plet
e th
e tw
o
affe
ctiv
e le
arni
ng s
cale
s, b
ut n
ot th
e ot
her
scal
es. M
ost
stud
ents
wer
e ab
le to
rec
all a
n in
tera
ctio
n in
volv
ing
touc
h (7
8%),
whi
le o
nly
22%
wer
e un
able
to r
ecal
l suc
h
an in
tera
ctio
n.
Part
icip
ants
Part
icip
ants
con
sist
ed o
f 23
2 (1
27 f
emal
e, 1
03
mal
e, a
nd 2
uni
dent
ifie
d) u
nder
grad
uate
stu
dent
s
enro
lled
in o
ne o
f tw
o in
trod
ucto
ry c
omm
unic
atio
n
cour
ses
at a
med
ium
siz
ed M
idw
este
rn u
nive
rsity
.
Part
icip
ants
rep
orte
d on
128
mal
e an
d 55
fem
ale
(49
unid
entif
ied)
teac
hers
. The
ave
rage
age
of
part
icip
ants
whe
n th
e in
tera
ctio
n on
whi
ch th
ey w
ere
repo
rtin
g
took
pla
ce w
as 1
7.27
. The
ave
rage
age
of
part
icip
ants
at
the
time
of th
e st
udy
was
20
year
s. T
here
wer
e 18
0
part
icip
ants
who
rec
alle
d an
d de
scri
bed
a to
uch.
Dat
a
anal
ysis
was
lim
ited
to th
ese
part
icip
ants
.
Mea
sure
men
t
Rel
atio
nal C
omm
unic
atio
n Sc
ale.
Bur
goon
and
Hal
e's
(198
7) R
elat
iona
l Com
mun
icat
ion
Scal
e w
as u
sed
to
asse
ss p
artic
ipan
ts' p
erce
ptio
ns o
f th
e in
tera
ctio
n
invo
lvin
g to
uch.
-T
he 4
0-ite
m v
ersi
on o
f R
elat
iona
l
Com
mun
icat
ion
Scal
e, u
sing
a 5
-poi
nt L
iker
t-ty
pe
scal
e, w
as c
hose
n fo
r th
is s
tudy
. Thi
s ve
rsio
n of
the
Rel
atio
nal C
omm
unic
atio
n Sc
ale
cons
ists
of
eigh
t
dim
ensi
ons:
imm
edia
cy-a
ffec
tion,
sim
ilari
ty-d
epth
,
rece
ptiv
ity-t
rust
, com
posu
re, f
orm
ality
, dom
inan
ce,
equa
lity,
and
task
-soc
ial.
Bur
goon
and
Hal
e (1
987)
repo
rt r
elia
bilit
ies
for
each
dim
ensi
on r
angi
ng f
rom
.52
(equ
ality
) to
.81
(im
med
iacy
-aff
ectio
n). S
ee T
able
1 f
or
scal
e m
eans
, sta
ndar
d de
viat
ions
, and
rel
iabi
litie
s in
the
pres
ent s
tudy
.
inse
rt T
able
1 a
bout
her
e
Aff
ectiv
e L
earn
ing.
Tw
o su
bsca
les
from
Gor
ham
's
(198
8) A
ffec
tive
Lea
rnin
g Sc
ale
wer
e us
ed. G
orha
m's
Aff
ectiv
e L
earn
ing
Scal
e co
nsis
ts o
f si
x su
bsca
les
aski
ng
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch 7
stud
ents
abo
ut th
eir
(a)
attit
ude
tow
ard
cour
se c
onte
nt,
cour
se r
ecom
men
ded
beha
vior
s, a
nd c
ours
e in
stru
ctor
,
and
(b)
beha
vior
al in
tent
to e
ngag
e in
beh
avio
rs
reco
mm
ende
d in
the
cour
se, e
nrol
l in
anot
her
cour
se
of r
elat
ed c
onte
nt, a
nd ta
ke a
noth
er c
lass
with
the
sam
e in
stru
ctor
. The
two
subs
cale
s us
ed in
this
stu
dy
wer
e st
uden
ts' a
ttitu
de to
war
d co
urse
con
tent
and
tow
ard
the
cour
se in
stru
ctor
. The
se tw
o di
men
sion
s of
affe
ctiv
e le
arni
ng w
ere
mea
sure
d us
ing
a 7
poin
t
sem
antic
dif
fere
ntia
l sca
le w
ith th
e ad
ject
ives
good
/bad
, wor
thle
ss/v
alua
ble,
fai
r/un
fair
, and
posi
tive/
nega
tive.
Pre
viou
s re
liabi
litie
s fo
r th
e
Aff
ectiv
e L
earn
ing
Scal
e an
d su
b-sc
ales
hav
e ra
nged
from
.96-
.98.
See
Tab
le 1
for
the
mea
ns, s
tand
ard
devi
atio
ns, a
nd r
elia
bilit
ies
for
thes
e m
easu
res
in th
e
pres
ent s
tudy
.
RE
SUL
TS
To
addr
ess
the
firs
t res
earc
h qu
estio
n re
gard
ing
the
type
s of
touc
hes
that
occ
ur b
etw
een
teac
hers
and
stud
ents
, con
tent
ana
lysi
s w
as u
sed.
Par
ticip
ants
'
desc
ript
ions
of
the
inte
ract
ions
invo
lvin
g to
uch
betw
een
them
selv
es a
nd a
teac
her
wer
e tr
ansc
ribe
d
and
plac
ed o
n se
para
te c
ards
. Jon
es' (
1994
) ca
tego
ries
of
touc
h w
ere
used
for
sor
ting
the
desc
ript
ions
and
dete
rmin
ing
wha
t typ
es o
f to
uche
s oc
curr
ed b
etw
een
teac
hers
and
stu
dent
s. T
wo
inde
pend
ent c
oder
s re
ad
each
des
crip
tion
and
firs
t det
erm
ined
whi
ch o
f th
e
eigh
teen
type
s of
touc
h th
e de
scri
ptio
n be
st f
it. T
he
desc
ript
ions
wer
e th
en c
ombi
ned
into
the
broa
der
cate
gori
es o
f to
uch
iden
tifie
d by
Jon
es (
1994
).
Inte
rcod
er a
gree
men
t for
the
eigh
t cat
egor
ies
usin
g
Coh
en's
(19
60)
coef
fici
ent o
f ag
reem
ent w
as .6
8. M
ost
disa
gree
men
ts o
ccur
red
betw
een
the
posi
tive
touc
h
cate
gory
and
the
task
-rel
ated
cat
egor
y. T
his
was
larg
ely
due
to th
e va
guen
ess
and
inco
mpl
ete
natu
re o
f m
any
of th
e pa
rtic
ipan
t des
crip
tions
. The
two
code
rs
revi
ewed
and
rea
ched
agr
eem
ent o
n ea
ch d
escr
iptio
n
for
fina
l cat
egor
izat
ion.
See
Tab
le 2
for
the
num
ber
of
touc
hes
that
occ
urre
d in
eac
h ca
tego
ry.
inse
rt T
able
2 a
bout
her
e
16
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch 8
As
is s
how
n in
Tab
le 2
, mos
t tou
ches
fel
l int
o
the
cate
gory
of
posi
tive
touc
hes
(78
touc
hes)
. Jon
es
(199
4) d
efin
es p
ositi
ve to
uche
s as
com
mun
icat
ing
supp
ort,
appr
ecia
tion,
toge
ther
ness
, or
affe
ctio
n. M
ost
of th
e de
scri
ptio
ns c
ould
be
clas
sifi
edas
eith
er a
ffec
tion
or s
uppo
rt, a
nd n
one
wer
e cl
assi
fied
as
toge
ther
ness
. A
typi
cal e
xam
ple
of a
sup
port
ive
touc
h de
scri
bed
bya
part
icip
ant i
s as
fol
low
s:
I w
as in
cla
ss a
fter
sch
ool s
ittin
g at
my
desk
,
aski
ng m
y te
ache
r (a
mal
e) to
hel
p m
e w
ith
som
e pr
oble
ms
(con
cern
ing
the
clas
s). A
s he
was
hel
ping
me
he p
ut h
is h
and
on m
y
shou
lder
and
aft
er I
sho
ok h
is h
and
in th
anks
. I
didn
't th
ink
anyt
hing
of
it.If
any
thin
g it
seem
ed th
at h
e w
as c
once
rned
and
car
ed th
at I
was
doi
ng w
ell i
n hi
s cl
ass.
Non
e w
e re
mai
ned
frie
nds
and
a te
ache
r/st
uden
t rel
atio
nshi
p.
Tou
ches
iden
tifie
d as
aff
ectio
n in
clud
ed a
var
iety
of
touc
hes
and
cont
exts
. Tou
ches
that
wer
e th
ough
t to
expr
ess
likin
g , b
ut w
ere
not s
peci
fica
lly p
rovi
ding
supp
ort o
r sh
owin
g ap
prec
iatio
n w
ere
cons
ider
ed a
s
17
com
mun
icat
ing
affe
ctio
n. T
here
wer
e se
vera
l
desc
ript
ions
of
stud
ents
bei
ng c
ongr
atul
ated
by
a
teac
her
for
som
e ac
hiev
emen
t, an
d th
ese
exam
ples
wer
e de
term
ined
to b
est f
it th
e af
fect
ion
cate
gory
. A
typi
cal e
xam
ple
of th
is ty
pe o
f to
uch
is a
s fo
llow
s:
I w
as a
t an
awar
ds c
erem
ony
as a
sen
ior
in h
igh
scho
ol b
eing
hon
ored
for
my
achi
evem
ent i
n
mus
ic. A
fter
I r
ecei
ved
a m
ajor
aw
ard
my
band
dire
ctor
hug
ged
me,
con
grat
ulat
ed m
e, a
nd
patte
d m
e on
the
back
. I d
idn'
t min
d th
is
beca
use
I kn
ew th
ey w
ere
prou
d of
me.
The
only
impa
ct it
wou
ld h
ave
had
on m
e is
that
I
knew
they
wer
e si
ncer
e in
wha
t the
y w
ere
com
plim
entin
g m
e ab
out.
I fe
lt go
od b
ecau
se
they
kne
w .1
wor
ked
hard
.
The
sec
ond
larg
est c
ateg
ory
of to
uche
s w
as
hybr
id to
uche
s. T
hese
touc
hes
invo
lve
gree
tings
and
depa
rtur
es w
ith a
ffec
tion.
Mor
e th
an a
sim
ple
hand
shak
e is
invo
lved
in th
ese
inte
ract
ions
. The
se
touc
hes
typi
cally
invo
lved
som
e fo
rm o
f hu
ggin
g an
d
the
part
icip
ant d
escr
ibed
the
inte
ract
ion
as w
arm
:
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch 9
Tas
k-re
late
d to
uche
s w
ere
the
thir
d la
rges
t
cate
gory
with
24
touc
hes.
Jon
es (
1994
) de
fine
s th
is
cate
gory
of
cons
istin
g of
inci
dent
al, i
nstr
umen
tal,
and
refe
renc
e to
app
eara
nce
touc
hes.
The
cod
ers
did
not
iden
tify
any
of th
e de
scri
ptio
ns a
s re
pres
entin
g
refe
renc
e to
app
eara
nce.
Tou
ches
wer
e ev
enly
spl
it
betw
een
inci
dent
al a
nd in
stru
men
tal.
Inci
dent
al
touc
hes
occu
r as
an
unne
cess
ary
part
of
perf
orm
ing
a
task
. A ty
pica
l exa
mpl
e of
an
inci
dent
al to
uch
isas
follo
ws: O
ne o
f m
y m
ath
teac
hers
like
d to
rub
my
back
.
He
wou
ld d
o th
is in
cla
ss w
hen
he w
ould
be
chec
king
on
the
clas
ses'
wor
k. A
t fir
st, I
thou
ght
it w
as r
eally
wei
rd b
ut th
en I
not
iced
that
he
did
it to
eve
ryon
e, e
ven
the
guys
, so
it di
dn't
mak
e
me
as u
ncom
fort
able
. It d
idn'
t rea
lly h
ave
an
impa
ct e
xcep
t for
the
fact
that
I th
ough
t he
was
a
"tou
chy"
kin
d of
guy
.
An
inst
rum
enta
l tou
ch is
def
ined
as
a to
uch
that
occu
rs in
acc
ompl
ishi
ng a
task
(Jo
nes,
199
4). A
n
exam
ple
of a
n in
stru
men
tal t
ouch
is a
s fo
llow
s:
My
phys
ical
ther
apy
clas
s in
stru
ctor
(op
posi
te
sex)
use
d m
y bo
dy to
dem
onst
rate
sev
eral
phys
ical
ther
apy
mot
ions
.
A f
ew to
uche
s al
so f
ell i
nto
the
cate
gori
es o
f
sexu
al a
nd p
layf
ul to
uch
(thr
ee a
nd f
our
resp
ectiv
ely)
.
The
se ty
pes
of to
uche
s ap
pear
to b
e th
e ex
cept
ion
in
teac
her
stud
ent i
nter
actio
ns. T
hese
touc
hes
wer
e
excl
uded
in th
e an
alys
es p
erfo
rmed
to a
ddre
ss r
esea
rch
ques
tions
two,
thre
e, a
nd f
our.
Als
o to
fac
ilita
te
anal
yses
, the
ritu
al to
uch
and
hybr
id to
uch
cate
gori
es
wer
e co
mbi
ned.
The
se tw
o ca
tego
ries
wer
e co
mbi
ned
beca
use
of th
eir
sim
ilari
ty (
al]
touc
hes
invo
lved
gree
tings
or
depa
rtur
es)
and
to c
reat
e a
larg
er s
ampl
e
size
for
this
cel
l for
sta
tistic
al a
naly
ses.
Thi
s re
sulte
d in
four
cat
egor
ies
of to
uch:
pos
itive
touc
hes,
con
trol
touc
hes,
ritu
al/h
ybri
d to
uche
s, a
nd ta
sk-r
elat
ed
touc
hes.
(N
o to
uche
s w
ere
cate
gori
zed
as a
ccid
enta
l,
ther
efor
e th
is c
ateg
ory
was
not
use
d.)
The
re w
ere
149
desc
ript
ions
of
touc
hes
that
wer
e co
ded
and
used
in th
e
follo
win
g an
alys
es.
20,
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch.
10
To
addr
ess
the
seco
nd r
esea
rch
ques
tion,
the
freq
uenc
y of
touc
hes
elic
ited
as p
leas
ant a
nd
impl
easa
nt in
eac
h ca
tego
ry o
f to
uch
wer
e ex
amin
ed.
As
indi
cate
d ab
ove,
par
ticip
ants
wer
e as
ked
to th
ink
of
eith
er a
ple
asan
t and
com
fort
able
touc
h or
an
unpl
easa
nt a
nd u
ncom
fort
able
touc
h. O
f th
e 78
posi
tive
touc
hes,
51
wer
e fr
om p
artic
ipan
ts in
the
plea
sant
gro
up a
nd 2
7 fr
om p
artic
ipan
ts in
the
unpl
easa
nt g
roup
.' O
f th
e 12
con
trol
touc
hes,
10
wer
e
from
par
ticip
ants
in th
e un
plea
sant
gro
up a
nd 2
wer
e
from
the
plea
sant
gro
up. O
f th
e 35
ritu
al/h
ybri
d
touc
hes,
24
wer
e fr
om th
e pl
easa
nt g
roup
and
11
from
the
unpl
easa
nt g
roup
. Am
ong
the
24 ta
sk-r
elat
ed
touc
hes,
11
wer
e fr
om th
e pl
easa
nt g
roup
and
13
wer
e
from
the
unpl
easa
nt g
roup
. Of
the
149
desc
ript
ions
, 88
wer
e el
icite
d fr
om p
artic
ipan
ts in
the
plea
sant
gro
up
and
61 f
rom
par
ticip
ants
in th
e un
plea
sant
gro
up.
As
expe
cted
, mos
t pos
itive
touc
hes
wer
e el
icite
d
from
par
ticip
ants
des
crib
ing
a pl
easa
nt to
uch.
One
mig
ht e
xpec
t vir
tual
ly a
ll of
thes
e to
uche
s to
be
cons
ider
ed p
leas
ant,
how
ever
som
e to
uche
s w
ere
clea
rly
inte
nded
to b
e po
sitiv
e, b
ut w
ere
inte
rpre
ted
nega
tivel
y by
the
stud
ent.
An
exam
ple
of s
uch
a to
uch
is il
lust
rate
d by
the
follo
win
g de
scri
ptio
n.
At a
n aw
ards
ass
embl
y, I
was
rec
eivi
ng th
e
awar
d. T
each
er w
as v
ery
happ
y fo
r m
e an
d
hugg
ed m
e. D
idn'
t lik
e it
beca
use
of w
here
we
wer
e. D
idn'
t aff
ect r
elat
ions
hip
afte
r th
at d
ay.
It a
ppea
rs th
at th
e st
uden
t rec
ogni
zed
the
posi
tive
inte
nt o
f th
e te
ache
r's to
uch,
but
was
unc
omfo
rtab
le
with
the
touc
h be
caus
e of
per
sona
l pre
fere
nces
.
Tou
ches
in th
e ri
tual
/hyb
rid
cate
gory
wer
e al
so
mos
tly c
onsi
dere
d pl
easa
nt. T
hese
touc
hes
freq
uent
ly
invo
lved
stu
dent
s an
d te
ache
rs w
ho h
ad d
evel
oped
a
clos
e re
latio
nshi
p an
d w
ho w
ere
eith
er g
lad
to s
ee e
ach
othe
r or
sor
ry to
see
the
othe
r pe
rson
leav
ing.
As
expe
cted
, con
trol
touc
hes
wer
e al
mos
t all
cons
ider
ed u
nple
asan
t. H
avin
g on
e's
beha
vior
dire
cted
and
con
trol
led
is r
arel
y a
plea
sant
exp
erie
nce.
Tas
k-re
late
d to
uche
s w
ere
quite
eve
nly
dist
ribu
ted
betw
een
the
plea
sant
and
unp
leas
ant g
roup
s. T
his
is
not s
urpr
isin
g. T
ask-
rela
ted
touc
hes
invo
lve
touc
hes
22
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch 11
that
are
nec
essa
ry to
com
plet
ing
a ta
sk. A
stu
dent
may
feel
clo
ser
to h
is/h
er in
stru
ctor
as
a re
sult
of s
uch
a
touc
h, o
r fe
el r
esen
tful
of
bein
g to
uche
d. T
his
may
be
a
resu
lt of
the
stud
ent's
fee
lings
tow
ard
the
inst
ruct
or
prio
r to
the
touc
h.
The
thir
d re
sear
ch q
uest
ion
asks
how
the
diff
eren
t typ
es o
f to
uche
s im
pact
the
rela
tiona
l
mes
sage
inte
rpre
ted
from
the
touc
h. A
naly
sis
of
vari
ance
was
use
d to
res
pond
to th
is q
uest
ion,
with
the
cate
gori
es o
f to
uch
serv
ing
as th
e in
depe
nden
t var
iabl
e
and
each
of
the
eigh
t rel
atio
nal m
essa
ges
serv
ing
as
depe
nden
t var
iabl
es. S
igni
fica
nt d
iffe
renc
esam
ong
the
cate
gori
es o
f to
uch
wer
e fo
und
for
the
imm
edia
cy-
affe
ctio
n re
latio
nal m
essa
ge [
F(3/
140)
= 1
0.90
,R <
.011
.
See
Tab
le 3
for
gro
up m
eans
. Par
ticip
ants
per
ceiv
ed
less
imm
edia
cy-a
ffec
tion
in c
ontr
ol to
uche
s th
an in
posi
tive,
ritu
al/h
ybri
d, o
r ta
sk-s
ocia
l tou
ches
.
Sign
ific
ant d
iffe
renc
es w
ere
also
fou
nd f
or r
ecep
tivity
-
trus
t [F(
3/14
0) =
18.
44, p
< .0
11. A
gain
, con
trol
touc
hes
wer
e pe
rcei
ved
to h
ave
less
rec
eptiv
ity a
nd tr
ust t
han
posi
tive
touc
hes,
ritu
al/h
ybri
d to
uche
s, a
nd ta
sk-s
ocia
l
23
touches. A sim
ilar pattern was found for sim
ilarity-
depth [E(3/142) =
18.80, p < .01], w
ith control touches
being perceived as having less similarity and depth
than the other three types of touches. Significant
differences were also found am
ong the touch
categories for composure [F(3/142) =
13.45, p < .01].
Again, control touches w
ere perceived as being less
composed than the other categories of touch.
Significant differences for formality w
ere found
[E(3/143) =
10.69, p < .01], but in the opposite pattern.
Control touches w
ere perceived to have significantly
greater formality than positive, ritual/hybrid, or task-
social touches. Dom
inance had a pattern similar to
formality. Significant differences w
ere found for
dominance [F(3/137) =
5.59, p < .01], w
ith control
touches being perceived as being greater in dominance
than the other categories of touch. Significant
differences were found for equality [F(3/142) =
15.73, p
< .01], w
ith control touches being perceived as having
less equality than the other three categories of touch.
Significant differences were also found for task-social
2 4
Com
municating W
ith Touch12
relational message, but in a pattern different from
the
other relational messages [F(3/139) =
8.30, p < .011.
Ritual/hybrid touches w
ere perceived as being less task
oriented (more social) than positive, control, or task-
related touches.insert Table 3 about here
The fourth research question w
as concerned
with participants' attitudes tow
ard the instructor on
which they w
ere reporting and the course they had
with that instructor. Significant differences am
ong the
categories of touch were found for participants' attitude
toward the teacher [F(3/145) =
4.94, p < .05].
Participants' who described ritual/hybrid touches
reported having a more positive attitude tow
ard their
teacher than participants describing either a positive
touch or a control touch.A
nalysis of variance
indicated no significant differences among the four
categories of touch in regards to participants' attitude
tow
ard
the
cour
se c
onte
nt. S
ee T
able
3 f
or th
em
eans
asso
ciat
ed w
ith a
ll an
alys
is o
f va
rian
ce.
DIS
CU
SSIO
N
The
res
ults
of
this
stu
dy in
dica
te th
at a
var
iety
of
touc
hes
occu
r be
twee
n te
ache
rs a
nd s
tude
nts.
Mos
t of
thes
e to
uche
s w
ere
inte
nded
to b
e po
sitiv
e in
nat
ure,
and
very
few
touc
hes
wer
e us
ed to
com
mun
icat
e
cont
rol.
It a
lso
appe
ars
that
teac
hers
fre
quen
tly to
uch
stud
ents
as
a fo
rm o
f gr
eetin
g an
d/or
dep
artu
re. T
here
wer
e se
vera
l des
crip
tions
of
touc
h oc
curr
ing
betw
een
a
teac
her
and
stud
ent w
here
a f
rien
dshi
p-lik
e
rela
tions
hip
had
deve
lope
d, m
akin
g it
norm
al in
eith
er a
gre
etin
g or
a d
epar
ture
to c
ompl
emen
t the
verb
al m
essa
ge w
ith s
ome
form
of
touc
h.
Eac
h ca
tego
ry o
f to
uch
was
als
o re
pres
ente
d by
both
ple
asan
t and
unp
leas
ant t
ouch
es. W
hile
this
was
expe
cted
and
fits
Jon
es a
nd Y
arbr
ough
's (
1985
) ty
polo
gy
of to
uche
s, it
is n
ot v
ery
com
fort
ing
to th
ose
ofus
fac
ed
with
the
dile
mm
a of
whe
ther
to w
ithho
ld to
uch
or n
ot
whe
n in
tera
ctin
g w
ith s
tude
nts.
It a
ppea
rs f
rom
this
rese
arch
, tha
t eve
n w
hen
stud
ents
rec
ogni
ze th
e
06
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch 13
posi
tive
inte
ntio
n of
the
teac
her
in u
sing
touc
h,
stud
ents
may
stil
l int
erpr
et th
e to
uch
nega
tivel
y.
Con
trol
touc
hes
wer
e th
e on
ly c
ateg
ory
that
was
not
wel
l rep
rese
nted
by
both
ple
asan
t and
unp
leas
ant
touc
hes.
How
ever
, the
num
ber
of in
tera
ctio
ns th
at
wer
e cl
assi
fied
as
cont
rol w
as v
ery
smal
l, so
this
may
not b
e a
very
mea
ning
ful f
indi
ng.
As
was
exp
ecte
d, th
e ca
tego
ry o
f to
uch
infl
uenc
ed th
e re
latio
nal m
essa
ge f
orm
ed in
the
inte
ract
ion.
Con
trol
touc
hes
cons
iste
ntly
had
mor
e
nega
tive
rela
tiona
l mes
sage
s as
soci
ated
with
them
.
The
com
bine
d ca
tego
ry o
f ri
tual
/hyb
rid
touc
hes
was
cons
iste
ntly
ass
ocia
ted
with
mor
e po
sitiv
e re
latio
nal
mes
sage
s. T
he to
uch
invo
lved
in g
reet
ings
and
depa
rtur
es (
whi
ch m
akes
up
the
ritu
al/h
ybri
d
cate
gory
), is
mos
t lik
ely
mut
ually
neg
otia
ted.
It m
akes
sens
e th
at to
uch
that
is m
utua
lly n
egot
iate
d w
ould
be
perc
eive
d m
ore
posi
tivel
y. W
e ar
e m
ore
likel
y to
inte
rpre
t som
ethi
ng p
ositi
vely
if w
e ar
e in
volv
ed in
initi
atin
g it.
Oth
er c
ateg
orie
s of
touc
h in
volv
e m
ore
inst
ance
s of
touc
h th
at a
re in
itiat
ed b
y th
e te
ache
r,
2 7
rather than mutually negotiated. A
dditionally, over
half of the touches in this category were identified as
pleasant and comfortable touches by participants.
Positive touches and task-related touches tended
to be perceived very similarly in term
s of relational
messages. T
ouches in both of these categories were
evenly split between the pleasant and unpleasant
groups. Exam
ination of the means in T
able 3 shows
that for the most part, the relational m
essages
associated with these touches w
ere quite positive.
In regard to the impact touch had on students'
attitude toward their teachers and tow
ard the course,
all types of touch resulted in fairly positive attitudes.
There w
ere no significant differences in attitude
toward the course am
ong the four types of touch. The
only significant difference for attitude toward the
teacher was betw
een positive touches and
ritual/hybrid touches. Exam
ination of Table 3 show
s
that all of the means for teacher/course attitude w
ere
above the mid-point of 4 on the scale. E
ven control
touches resulted in an overall positive attitude toward
28
Com
municating W
ith Touch14
the instructor and toward the course. A
lthough we do
not have a control group with w
hich to compare, these
results indicate that teachers touching students result
in fairly positive student responses.
As stated early in this paper, touch is a pow
erful
form of com
munication. T
he message com
municated
through touch can certainly be a powerful negative
message, but it can also be pow
erfully positive. Most
people recognize the important role touch plays in the
development of close friendships, rom
antic
relationships, and family relationships. B
ased on the
present research, it appears that touch also plays an
important role in developing close professional
relationships such as between teacher and student.
Although this research did not exam
ine other types of
professional relationships (e.g., doctor-patient,
superior-subordinate), touch is likely an important
component in the developm
ent of close working
relationships in other contexts as well.
29
Not
es
'Dat
a co
llect
ed, b
ut n
ot r
epor
ted
here
incl
ude:
touc
h
appr
ehen
sion
, tou
ch a
void
ance
, bod
y pa
rt to
uche
d,
dura
tion,
mov
emen
t, an
d pr
essu
re o
f to
uch,
eye
cont
act a
nd b
ody
posi
tioni
ng a
ccom
pany
ing
the
touc
h,
reac
tion
to to
uch,
and
labe
ling
of th
e to
uch.
'Som
e st
uden
ts a
ppea
red
to d
isre
gard
the
dire
ctio
ns
and
desc
ribe
d a
plea
sant
'tou
ch w
hen
aske
d to
des
crib
e
an u
nple
asan
t tou
ch. R
EFE
RE
NC
ES
And
erse
n, J
. F. (
1979
). T
each
er im
med
iacy
as
a
pred
icto
r of
teac
her
effe
ctiv
enes
s. I
n D
. Nim
mo
(Ed.
),
Com
mun
icat
ion
year
book
5 (
pp. 5
43-5
59).
New
Bru
nsw
ick,
NJ:
Tra
nsac
tion
Boo
ks.
Bur
goon
, J. K
. (19
91).
Rel
atio
nal m
essa
ge
inte
rpre
tatio
ns o
f to
uch,
con
vers
atio
nal d
ista
nce,
and
post
ure.
Jou
rnal
of
Non
verb
al B
ehav
ior,
15,
233
-259
.
Bur
goon
, J. K
., &
Hal
e, J
. L. (
1984
). T
he
fund
amen
tal t
opoi
of
rela
tiona
l com
mun
icat
ion.
Com
mun
icat
ion
Mon
ogra
phs,
51,
193
-214
.
Com
mun
icat
ing
With
Tou
ch 15
Bur
goon
, J. K
., &
Hal
e, J
. L. (
1987
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3 3
Communicating With Touch
17
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Re liabilities for Scales
Mean SD Reliability
Immediacy-Affection 3.69 .56 .78
Receptivity-Trust 3.86 .69 .82
Similarity-Depth 3.34 .72 .74
Composure 4.07 ..65 .81
Formality 2.11 .77 .68
Dominance 2.70 .64 .63
Equality 3.62 .80 .73
Task-Social 3.22 .80 .73
Attitude toward Teacher 5.63 1.48 .93
Attitude toward Course 5.78 1.25 .91
3 4
Communicating With Touch
18
Table 2
Categorization of Touch Descriptions
Positive Touches 78
Sexual Touches 3
Playful Touches 4
Control Touches 12
Ritual Touches 9
Hybrid Touches 26
Task-Related Touches 24
Accidental Touches 0
Unusable Descriptions 24
Communicating With Touch
19
Table 3
Relational Message and Teacher/Course Attitude Means for Categories
of Touch
Positive Control Ritual/Hybrid Task-RelatedTouches Touches Touches Touches
Imm-Aff 3.66a (.49) 2.87ab (.72) 3.96ac (.60) 3.66bc (.52)
Rec-Trust 3.88a (.58) 2.70ab (1.10) 4.12a (.47) 3.98b (.54)
Sim-Depth 3.32a (.57) 2.08ab (.85) 3.65ac (.62) 3.29bc (.67)
Composure 4.11a (.51) 3.15abc (.94) 4.29b (.57) 4.28c (.46)
Formality 2.11a (.70) 3.14abc (1.08) 1.86b (.60) 1.86c (.69)
Dominance 2.70a (.63) 3.15ab (.66) 2.33ac (.58) 2.69bc (.59)
Equality 3.62a (.75) 2.31abc (1.29) 3.92b (.56) 3.93c (.56)
Task-Social* 3.29a (.67) 3.67b (1.06) 2.78ab (.70) 3.68a (.80)
Teacher Att. 5.53a (1.60) 4.75 (1.99) 6.44a (.92) 5.72 (1.36)
Course Att. 5.66a (1.39) 5.69b (1.47) 6.27ab (.89) 5.86 (1.18)
Numbers inside parentheses are standard deviations.Means that share the same subscript are significantly different, p < .05.*A higher score indicates a more task-related relational message, and alower score indicates a more social relational message.
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Communicating With Touch in the Teacher/Student Relationship
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