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Transcript of Divinity, Democracy and Syncretism: Black Religion in America by Tarra Hamilton
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Divinity, Democracy and Syncretism:
Black Religion in America
William Paterson UniversityDepartment of Political Science
May 2013
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Divinity, Democracy and Syncretism: Black Religion in America
INTRODUCTION
The focus of this paper is why are African-Americans in the U.S. still markedly more religiousthan any other U.S. racial or ethnic group and the research question is how has their adherence to religion
affected their politics?
According to a 2007 survey conducted by the Pew Research Centers Forum of Religion &
Public Life1, African-Americans in the U.S. are the most religious group in the nation, especially African-
American women. This is based on several measures such as religious affiliation, attending religious
services, prayer frequency and how they rate the importance of religion in their lives. According to this
report, titled the U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, 87% of African-Americans in the U.S. report some
type of religious affiliation or associate themselves with some religious group. Latinos/Hispanics report a
rate of 85% and among the general public overall, 83% associate themselves with some type of religion.
A similar report by the Kaiser Foundation reveals the following:
1 U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, Pew Research Centers Forum of Religion & Public Life.http://religions.pewforum.org/reports
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In light of the U.S. religious trends and secularization, it is perplexing that the church is still the
bedrock of most African-American communities, especially with their religious and political history.
Prior to the Transatlantic Slave Trade, Africans had varied religious beliefs from polytheistic to
Islamic-influenced. European Christianity was merely an imposition that was adopted by displaced and
enslaved Africans and superimposed on their existing beliefs. Hybrid religions arose from the mingling of
African spirituality and European Christianity such as Voodoo, Vodun or Santaria. No matter what form
religion took on for African-Americans in the U.S., it clearly represented a sense of community,participation, inclusion and even empowerment in a new world in which they were powerless.
In Lillas work, The Stillborn God2, he discusses how religion can sustain human existence,
at least cognitively, by some type of belief in an enchanted world. This need for enchantment softens the
blows of reality and removes the sorrows of being human and what is truly more sorrowful than
enslavement? How would the slaves have fared without religion and survived a reality as harsh as slavery
without visions of hope and a concept of an afterlife or hereafter? African-Americans place a great deal of
emphasis on heaven and hell and the hope that they will enter heaven as a reward for being good and
giving praise to God.
2 Mark Lilla. The Stillborn God: Religion, Politics and the Modern West. Knopf Publishing, 2007.
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Gauchet points out in his work, The Disenchantment of the World3 that nothing is sacred nor
divine and the more that this realization creeps into the collective human psyche, the more we need a
cognitive crutch to support us as we hobble through the chaos. Gauchet comes up with a name for a man
without some form of enchantment to believe in. He calls this the naked man and this man is mentallyunarmed against life, reality, nature or anything else. This was, most likely, the experience of the slaves as
strangers in a stranger land. So, why do African-Americans in America still hang onto religion so
vehemently, especially religions that are not truly their own?
THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS
This paper discusses why African-Americans in the U.S. are the most religious group and why
this phenomenon has occurred and endured. The focus of this paper is why are African-Americans in the
U.S. still markedly more religious than any other U.S. racial or ethnic group and the research question is
how has this adherence to religion affected their politics?
The hypothesis of this research paper is that African-Americans in the U.S. are still markedly
more religious than any other U.S. racial or ethnic group because of a continued sense of social
displacement and isolation post-slavery.
The Independent Variable (X) is Social Displacement/Isolation. The Dependent Variable (Y) is
Religious African-Americans in the U.S. The causal mechanism is that African-Americans continued
sense of social displacement and isolation post-slavery causes them to have a high level of religiousnessor religiosity.
DISCUSSION
The Enslavement of Spiritual Consciousness
On the shores of America, a strange and hostile land, a prayer, a blessing, a belief and faith
were all that enslaved Africans had. Slavery had stripped them of their freedom, their names, their culture
and their humanity, but these displaced and enslaved people grasped onto the one thing that nothing could
take away from them and that was their religious faith. Religion and belief in God was something that no
shackle, whip or superior could take away.
3 Gauchet, Marcel. The Disenchantment of the World. New French Thought. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ,1999.
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Any practice of religion by slaves was forbidden. Slavemasters saw religious gatherings and the
practice of religion among African slaves as a form of revolt. Religious worship was punishable by
physical violence or even death and yet the practice of religion among blacks still carried on covertly
under cover of darkness.Torn asunder from everything they once knew, the African slaves were dehumanized and yet
they were an integral part of the building of a country of which they could not even be a part of. They
were seen as chattel and as less than human not only by treatment, but by law.
Once slavery was abolished, the former slaves were free to practice religion, but the religions
that theyd carried with them from Africa had morphed into various kinds of hybrid religions. The slaves
that were brought to America had many religions and religious practices.
At the beginning of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, African religious beliefs and practices were
numerous and varied. In addition to a wide variety of polytheistic religions, a significant portion of the
continent had for centuries fallen under Islamic influence. Some religious practices even consisted of
sacrifice. Despite this diversity, there were some commonalities. Most Africans believed in some type of
supreme being or deity, they sought to understand the connections between man and nature and much of
this was expressed creatively through dance and music. African slaves in America did not come oblivious
to spirituality and they attempted to carry on their religious legacy by teaching and by rituals.
Africans had been exposed to Christianity by missionaries during the 15 th century before they
even arrived on American shores. So, perhaps they brought with them some semblance of Christianity.Others converted to Christianity. Missionaries continued the Christianity indoctrination of blacks up until
18th century, but they clung steadfastly to the one thing that had been their saving grace through slavery
and that was their own religious beliefs and rituals. Even stripped down and regenerated, their religious
beliefs were their spiritual sustenance.
The African slaves became victims of syncretism. Syncretism is when beliefs combine. Often
these combined beliefs are at odds with each other. Raboteaus article, Slave Autonomy and Religion 4
asks if Christianity served as a tool in the hands of slaveholders to make slaves docile or did it serve in the
hands of slaves as a weapon of resistance and even outright rebellion against the system of slavery?
4 Raboteau, Albert J. (1981). Slave Autonomy and Religion.Journal of Religious Thought. Fall81/Winter82, Vol. 38 Issue 2.
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Raboteaus idea that the adoption of Christianity by slaves was a response to enslavement runs
parallel to the Durkheimian concept of anomie5. If anomie is an absence of social norms and the lack of
social bonds that an individual feels from his/her community, one can only imagine what enslaved
Africans felt, being without any social norms and social bonds at all and facing degradation anddehumanization.
African-Americans of today still exist on the periphery of mainstream America. Although some
have made inroads into complete assimilation and achieved success, the majority are still faced with
isolating social ills. The charts below reveal some indication that blacks are not up to par with other races
in America, financially, educationally and socially. Additionally, the rates of incarceration and recidivism
among blacks, especially black males, is alarming and disturbing. The collateral damage to African-
American families has been devastating.
Bureau of Labor Statistics: http://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2010/african_american_history/
5Anomie : Social norms or normalness. For Durkheim, anomie arises more generally from a mismatch between personal orgroup standards and wider social standards, or from the lack of a social ethic, which produces moral deregulation and anabsence of legitimate aspirations. ~ Wikipedia.com
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Democracy is a Playground for the Devil
Democracy says that all citizens, who are eligible to vote, have an equal chance to participate in
political decision-making and to control that which affects their lives. This is done through those that are
elected by the people and hopefully operate for the people. During my research for this paper, I kept
coming across a quote that says, Not until the 1965 Voting Rights Act, when blacks could vote, did
democracy truly begin. I have been unable to determine exactly who uttered this quote.
The Voting Rights Act changed the face of democracy in America. At certain points, there were
obstacles placed within its context. For example, certain states that allowed blacks to vote added
restrictive requirements, such as literacy tests or poll tax, knowing that many would be unable to pass the
test or afford the fee. The history of black voting rights was a give and take situation and many attempts
were made to circumvent this right. Other obstacles were grandfather clauses, gerrymandering, eligibility
requirements and even physical violence, including lynching.
Mattis6 contends that it is clear that African-Americans are religious, but very little study hasbeen done on how this affects their political decision-making. She seeks to answer if religiosity
promotes an escapist, apolitical stance among African-Americans.
6Mattis, Jacqueline S. (2001). Religion and African American Political Life. Political Psychology. Vol. 22, No. 2, SpecialIssue: Psychology as Politics (June. 2001).
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Historically, religion has had the ability to transform social and political structures. Religion
creates social and political cohesion and helps to control society by laying the grounds for morality and
law. Mattis questions the idea the religion has caused African-Americans to avoid politics. She hints that
the reason could be that African-Americans had to respond to the hand that they were dealt, which was tohaving no voting rights until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed. This gave them no voice and no
ability to make political change. Mattis states, African-Americans have adopted political philosophies
that run the gamut from gradualism to radical separatism and this community has used strategies that
range from avoidant to militant.
For African-Americans, the right to vote meant they had the power to make change, to strive
for freedom and equality and to fight racism. Mattis says that the otherworldly beliefs of the majority of
African-Americans is merely escapism. She points out that even the New Testament of the Bible lays the
groundwork for African-Americans to wage a religious battle against oppression. For example, Ephesians
6:12 states For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities,
against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms.
African-Americans have historically been politically active. Their political affiliations have
shifted between both the Democratic and Republican parties. Post-Civil War, many blacks were
Republicans as were most Abolitionists. During and after the Great Depression under President Franklin
Roosevelt and his New Deal, many blacks became Democrats. Legislation surrounding the civil rights of
blacks under President John F. Kennedy and under Lyndon Baines Johnson pushed more blacks tobecome Democrats. By the year 2010, just 16% of African-Americans called themselves Republicans.
Dr. Cornel West, a famed educator, philosopher, activist, author and member of the Democratic
Socialists of America, discusses two theories, Radical Conditionedness and Existential Angst. He has
referred to the United States a "racist patriarchal nation and said that "White America has been
historically weak-willed in ensuring racial justice and has continued to resist fully accepting the humanity
of blacks". This caused many blacks to be degraded and oppressed and unable to find neither meaning in
life, a sense of self-worth or even an identity. Again, blacks in America are a displaced people and Dr.
West contends that it is this "Existential Angst that has caused social scars on blacks in America and
these scars have yet to completely heal.
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As for Radical Conditionedness, Dr. West did not expound on it nor is there much detail on it
or scholarly discussions to be found about it, but the term speaks for itself. One can speculate that this
refers to the adaption of the self in an adversarial society and how one reacts. When faced with such, one
becomes conditioned in order to cope. African-Americans are in a perpetual state of being conditioned by
several factors, political and socioeconomic. Racism has been a headache for which there is no pill, but
for African-Americans, religiosity has been a soothing balm.
Black Religion 2013
As a more contemporary approach to my research, I conducted a small questionnaire using
Facebook and posed the following questions, seeking those that were African-American and considered
themselves religious and well-educated. The questions were as follows:1) How did you come to be the religion that you are?2) What do you know about the early religion of African slaves in America and the manifestation
of hybrid religions?
http://blackdemographics.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Black-Party-Affiliation-and-Vote-Patterns.jpg -
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Below are some excerpts from the responses that I received, as they were written, which I felt
were relevant:
Response 1: The masses of former slaves clearly had this new religion forced upon them and wereindoctrinated overtly and in subtle ways to accept it. The first black church was a mixture
of people who practiced the Islam, Yuroba, Joo Joo and some of the other animist religionsof Africa/Kemt/Sudan/Akebulan. The Islamic presence can be seen in the old photos of
women who wore white turbans and flowing white robes and sang a negro spiritual called
"Give Me That Old Time Religion". If it was good enough for Abraham and Moses, then
its good enough for me. They were clearly rejecting this "New Religion" called
Christianity and the white spook God theory. We become what our parents are until we
can muster the nerve and courage to go against tradition and the fear of being ostracized
and rebuked by the family by bucking the establishment and have the gall to think for
ourselves.
Response 2: Slaves were not allowed to read the Bible for the first 200 yrs in this country and when
they "allowed" us to read it, they gave us a corrupted version of it and hid the oldtestament and only allowed the hand selected passer (pastor) to teach parts that supported
being a slave and legitimized their rule and position of power. Love your enemy, turn the
other cheek, and if they take your coat give them thy hat. Slaves, obey your masters
according to the flesh. They mocked our parents by the language they used, but upon
serious investigation...they used "stealth communication". They called the Pastor -
Passer..sounds like Ebonics right..? They were right and exact in what they said. The hand
selected puppet/slave only "passed on" what his enemy taught him and instructed him to
say and teach.
Response 3: When the missionaries came to Africa and observed our culture in its most splendid
manifestations they said we were practicing savagery. We practiced "ancestral worship"and they said we were foolish, ignorant and dumb for engaging in such a vain practice.
They began the indoctrination process with the white Jesus that died for your sins and all
the rest of it. Yashua/Jesus is "OUR ANCESTOR" lol. So, when they told us that we needed
Jesus, we still were practicing our form of religion they corrupted and tricked us with
subtle white supremacy and then gave us an inferior complex and later reinforced it by
way of the media...:
Response 4: The early beginnings of my faith started with my family. You know, back then kids had novoice! You went to the church of parental choice..the Baptist church. Do I regret it...no.
Did I research it....no. I love The Lord and he has always heard my cry and made it
possible for me to smile! He's in my heart and that's enough for me.
Response 5: As a youngster, I went to church with my Mom every Sunday. Initially, as I grew, I wasso frightened, because the pastor preached about fire and brimstone all the time, and I was
afraid to do anything wrong. That man scared me! Once I moved away from home, I truly
believed that I was I spiritual "woman" and I began to grow. I joined a Baptist church,
where I spent my Sundays, and other days of the week. I had always known of Jesus Christ,
but I had never made HIM my personal Savior and allowed HIM to become my LORD.
However, when I did....WOW is all I can say. It is a decision I have NEVER regretted. As
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for early African religion, I must admit that I do not know as much as I should. It is a
subject that while I have never researched it, I do read about it from time to time. I do
know that religion was very important to our ancestors, and it is my belief this is why it is
so important to most of us today. It is something which I feel "calls" to one and at some
point "you" not only "feel" but you feel compelled to "answer."
Response 6: The modern day apostolic church follow the teachings of Paul which makes the masses ofChristians "Paulites" and followers of him and not of the Biblical Yashua/Jesus. Paul in
many instances outright contradicts the teachings and laws that Yashua ascribed to. The
utilize the Greek language to explain scripture and non of the scriptures were "revealed"
in Greek. They were translated and transliterated into Greek where they "redefined" the
"Meanings" of words. The word for Heaven in Greek is "Orion" or "Oronus" which is a
star constellation which our ancestors the Tamareans used to align the Pyramids.
Therefore, the God of the Bible lives in the star constellation of Orion a physical place. I
was remiss in fully answering your question pertaining to the origins of my spiritual
beginnings. When I was around 8 yrs old I knew I was different from my own siblings and
had a awareness of the Etheric reality in the universe and within me. I prayed to thesupreme being without knowledge of religion. The world was a strange and imbalanced
place and I struggled to make sense of the evils around me. Man's inhumanity to man
baffled me and even my own flesh and bone was strange to me. I heard the fire and
brimstone narrative, but knew that there was no such thing as being "saved".
Response 7: I remember once sitting in church with my mother and grandmother and they had agigantic crucifix with the white Jesus hanging on the cross. My grandmother said "Son, if
you just be a good boy God will answer all your prayers". I remained quiet and did not
verbalize a response to her however, deep within my soul and mind .I questioned her
teachings and logic but, out of respect for her did not outwardly challenge her teaching
that was sincere however, flawed. I said within myself; "Jesus was considered a "perfect"man and did not sin according to the church's view. I am nowhere near that and God
refused to answer Jesus's request/prayer when he went inside the Gardener's shed in the
Garden of Gethsemane and asked of his Father"Let this cup (crucifixion) pass by him".
If God did not answer Jesus's prayer then, why would he answer mine"? I, like the majority
of Black people in America, are indoctrinated by whatever school of thought they are. I
was always in search of the "pure milk"...the total truth as to who and what is God and
who and where we (blacks) are in scripture. It took many years of study, attending lectures
and visiting and listening to others teachings and research...that the magnitude and myriad
of lies, distortions, myths and spookism was revealed and the motives behind them.
Elijah Muhammad made a statement or posed a question to his followers. "If a man won't
treat you right? Why would you think he would teach you right"?
Clearly, the people that responded to my questions are deep thinkers with some great insights
and reasonable knowledge of the history of black religion, even if some of the responses were tinged with
racial overtones. They seem to question religion and the history of religion and they realize that there are
flaws in what they were taught as children, but they are still clearly religious.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
In the article, Urbanization and the End of Black Churches in the Modern World 7 Evan
discusses the nature of black religion in the United States. He points out that for black people in America;
religion has been a double-edged sword. It has possibly hindered their progress, but on the other hand,religious faith may have given them the strength and resilience to overcome racism and adversity. The
black church has always been prominent in black culture. Evan discusses the fact that some feel that black
people are religious by nature. African blacks had various religions pre-slavery and on Americas new
soil, they allowed themselves to be indoctrinated into Christianity. He too suggests that religion for black
people has been a balm against political and social oppression.
Prior to the civil rights movement, religion was the saving grace of black people, but once
empowered, they still did not began to shed their otherworldliness and become more secular. Evan points
out that it is unclear if black religiosity is compensatory. He discusses the essays of Brennan 8, who
suggested that religion helped black people climb out of economic hardships, social deprivation, and
psychological maladjustment. Evan questions if religion, in black people, is innate, but suggests that it is
not.
While the church played a major role in black culture in the U.S. as Southern blacks began to
migrate to the North, religion was more of a psychological coping mechanism. Evan points out that there
is no conclusive evidence that religiosity has been a hindrance to black progress in America, but he
suggests that black people were not really given a choice in the matter as they were under what he callsthe seemingly ubiquitous white gaze. Religion became a major part of the assimilation process.
In the article, Slave Autonomy and Religion9, Roboteau discusses the roll of Christianity and
how it created autonomy among slaves in antebellum Southern States, the rise of black churches and how
slaves adopted religion in the U.S. He begins by asking if religion was simply the slaves response to
slavery or was it used by slave masters to control the slaves. Initially, slave masters believed that religion
among slaves would cause rebellion and uprising. It was missionaries that convinced them that it was
okay for slaves to be religious.
7 Evan, Curtis J. (2007). Urbanization and the End of Black Churches in the Modern World. The American Society of ChurchHistory. 76:4, December 2007.
8 Emily Brennan is assistant director of the Institute for Religion, Culture and Public Life at Columbia University in New York.
9 Raboteau, Albert J. (2001). Slave Autonomy and Religion.Journal of Religious Thought. Fall81/Winter 82, Vol. 38, Issue2.
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The dynamic between the slave and religion was complex. It supposedly leveled all men before
God. It opened the door to forgiveness of oppressors. It supplied strength and fortitude for the enslaved.
Roboteau says that religion among slaves was compensatory. Something was better than nothing. If they
could not find equality on earth among men, they could find it in the sky. Religion gave the slaves anotherworldly distraction from their harsh realities. Raboteau states In the hand-clapping, footstomping,
headshaking fervor of the plantation praise house, the slaves, in prayer, sermon, and song, fit Christianity
to their peculiar experience and in the process resisted, even transcended, the dehumanizing bonds of
slavery.
In the article, The Visible Church: Historiography of African American Religion since
Raboteau10, Frey discusses Raboteaus focus on the invisible institution, which is black religion under
slavery. In the book, Slave Religion, Raboteau says that slave religion was both institutional and non-
institutional, visible and invisible, formally organized and spontaneously adapted. Frey says that
religion, for slaves and ex-slaves, is a means of locating the cause of misfortune and providing a fix or
remedy. This paper discussed the flow of historical research in the religious and cultural studies of black
history and black religion and how it lapsed for many years.
In the 1960s and 1970s, there was resurgence in the study of black religiosity due to the Civil
Rights movement by revisionists and re-revisionists. Despite lapses and gaps in research, Frey points out
that during the mass migration of Africans to the U.S., they arrived as communities and not individuals
and they brought with them their rituals, symbols, beliefs, languages and customs. He contends thatreligion and religious beliefs have the power to change and adapt to circumstances.
In the article, The Heavenization of Earth: African American Visions and Uses of the Afterlife,
1863-190111, Gin discusses the importance that African Americans place on the concept of an afterlife.
She suggests that the vision of heaven and hell were simply metaphors for freedom and slavery.
Imagining life after death was a way of coping with the dehumanizing effects of slavery and later the
social ills, racism, inequalities and isolation that blacks felt after slavery. Gin poses the question of
whether religion and belief in an afterlife was a panacea for African-Americans or a destructive delusion
that detracted from striving for excellence here on earth. She points out that even back in 1886; Frederick
10 Frey, Sylvia R. (2008). The Visible Church: Historiography of African American Religion since Raboteau. Slavery andAbolition. Jan. 2008, Vol 29, Issue 1.
11 Gin, Kathryn (2010). The Heavenization of Earth: African American Visions and Uses of the Afterlife, 1863-1901. Slaveryand Abolition. Jun. 2010, Vol. 31 Issue 2.
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Douglas expressed a hope that religion would not be an excuse or a reason to settle for less socially for
African Americans. His hope was that it would empower African Americans to fight harder for peace,
happiness and equality on earth. Gin states Otherworldiness did not have to be solely escapist, and the
afterlife rhetoric did not have to be purely otherworldly.Like other scholars, she contends that AfricanAmericans had religion when they arrived in the U.S., but that over time it was altered and changed and
that they made it resonate with the contexts in which they found themselves.
In the article, Deconstructing a Theology of Defiance: Black Preaching and the Politics of Racial
Identity12, Clardy suggests that religiosity among black people was an act of defiance. It was a response
to social, political and cultural confusion and upheaval. He states From its earliest origins during the
slave trade, the Reconstruction period, and Jim Crow segregation, the Black Church in America has
served as a vital source of collective comfort, an agent of socialization, and an outlet for active and
positive social change. When we think of anomie13 being caused by industrialization and modernization,
it is almost unfathomable to image what slavery did to the individual and the collective of black people.
In the article, Religion and African American Political Life14, Mattis states:
African Americans have challenged the notion that civic and secular definitions
of reality are authoritative. In short, for many African Americans, religion
provides a framework in which political actors are answerable not only, or even
primarily, to the citizens of a state, or to temporal and corporeal power, but to a
higher and final authority God.
Mattis points out that black in America have had to fight every step of the way to grab onto even a
tiny piece of the American dream and find a home in a place with hostile hosts. They have never been
lethargic in their fight, yet they hold deeply to religion. It is no secret that religion affects politics, but
Mattis asks how religion has shaped practices and political discourse for African-Americans. She
poses the question of whether religion somehow became an excuse for African-Americans to shy away
from politics. Understandably, politics was not always a friend of African-Americans and still isnt,
12 Clardy, Brian K. (2011). Deconstructing a Theology of Defiance: Black Preaching and the Politics of Racial Identity.Journal of Church & State. Mar. 2011, Vol. 53, Issue 2.
13 Anomie is a lack of normalcy experienced by the individual in a society in the absence of social norms. It gives theindividual a sense of detachment from society and a sense of isolation and/or rejection. The concept was brought to light bymile Durkheim, a French sociologist, in the book Suicide, which was written in 1897. The word may have originated from theFrench philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau.
14 Mattis, Jacqueline S. (2001). Religion and African American Political Life. Political Psychology. Vol. 22, No. 2, SpecialIssue: Psychology as Politics (June. 2001).
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despite appearances. It has been hard for African-Americans to take the hand of the political machine that
once chewed them up, spit them out and saw them as chattel and sub-human. Mattis says that African
Americans face a unique existential and political quandary. She discusses a term called Double
Consciousness, which represents the struggle of African Americans to deal with their relationship withAmerica, the collective existential self and citizenship along with democracy, human rights, liberty and
assimilation into the American mainstream.
Assimilation has been made even more complicated due to the effects that religion has on politics.
Mattis encourages scholarship on the following questions: Is moral suasion a viable political strategy
and is the moral transformation of a community a legitimate political outcome? She alleges that most
studies on African-American religion and politics rely on cross-sectional data and that it is time for
something new and more concrete, yet she does suggest in this article that the church was the first
institution created and fully owned by African-Americans and as such it became their conscious.
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
The research question is: Why are African-Americans in the U.S. still markedly more religious
than any other U.S. racial or ethnic group? The hypothesis of this research paper is that African-
Americans in the U.S. are still markedly more religious than any other U.S. racial or ethnic group because
of a continued sense of social displacement and isolation post-slavery. The Independent Variable (X) is
Social Displacement/Isolation. The Dependent Variable (Y) isReligious African-Americans in the U.S.The causal mechanism is that African-Americans experience a continued sense of social displacement and
isolation post-slavery (X) causes African-Americans in the U.S. (Y) to have a high level of religiousness.
The research method that I selected was a twofold qualitative approach. I posed a question and
targeted a particular audience educated and religious African-Americans - to gain insights and to find
holistic, meaningful, contextual and subjective comments/responses. Some of these comments/responses
were indicated above.
The conclusion of this part of the study was as indicated above:
Clearly, the people that responded to my questions are deep thinkers with some
great insights and reasonable knowledge of the history of black religion, even if
some of the responses were tinged with racial overtones. They seem to question
religion and the history of religion and they realize that there are flaws in what
they were taught as children, but they are still clearly religious.
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The Dependent Variable (Y) was African-Americans in the U.S. and the Independent Variable (X)
was Social Displacement. I operationalized the Dependent Variable as follows:
Social Displacement = Level of Education
Secondly, as part of my research, I posed a question to an organization called Black Atheists ofAmerica. This organization claims to have over 7,000 members. This is the question that was posted:
I am a political science grad student working on a final paper. Graduating soon! My paper
is on black religion in America and yes, I am black and agnostic/atheist. According to
several studies, black people are still the most religion/devout in the U.S. My theory is that
this adherence during a time of secularization in the U.S. is due to blacks continuing to
feel socially displaced and disenfranchised (i.e., economically and socially, etc.). It would
be really helpful if you would please answer a simple question.
Do you agree with the following statement? (Yes or No):Black adherence to religion during a time of secularization in the U.S. is due to blacks
continuing to feel socially displaced and disenfranchised.
It would be helpful if you indicate if you are college-educated or not.
THANK YOU IN ADVANCE TO ALL THAT ANSWER.
NOTE: Secularization "is the transformation of a society from close identification with
religious values and institutions toward nonreligious (or irreligious) values and secular
institutions". ~ Wikipedia.com
YES NO EDUCATION LEVEL
X 2
X 1
X 3
X 4
X 5
X 4
X 4
X 2
X 5
X 2
X 2
X 3
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X 7
X 4
X 3
X 3
X 2
X 2
X 2
X 1
X 2
X 4
X 1
X 3
X 1
X 3
1 Did Not Complete High School/No GED
2 High School Diploma or GED
3 Some College
4 Bachelors Degree
5 Masters Degree
6 PhD
7 Vocational/Technical or Other
I did not receive as many responses as Id hoped on from the black atheist organization. I
speculated that most of those who responded would be somewhat educated. My intent was to use
education level to gauge social displacement and isolation. Those African-Americans that were more
well-educated would be less likely to feel socially displaced, isolated or disenfranchised. It seems that
while participants were happily ready to broadcast their atheist leanings, they were less receptive to
displaying their educational level on a public message board for the world to see. Perhaps this was why
the responses were less than desirable using a venue that had over 7,000 members. The responses I
received were as indicated in the above table.
This section of the research concluded the following:
Those that did not complete high school or obtained GED were equally divided. Those that graduated from high school or obtained a GED leaned strongly towards agreement. Those with some college were equally divided.
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Those with a Bachelors Degree leaned strong towards disagreement. Those with a Masters Degree were equally divided. There were no responses from anyone that had a PhD. The one respondent with vocational/technical or other was in disagreement.While this part of my research was inconclusive due to the minimal and unbalanced response, it
does seem that those with less education lean strongly towards agreement and those with higher education
learn towards disagreement.
CONCLUSION
My research revealed that the more educated African-Americans do not feel that African-
Americans in the U.S. are still markedly more religious than any other U.S. racial or ethnic group because
of a continued sense of social displacement and isolation post-slavery, while the less educated seem to
agree. It was also revealed that well-educated African-Americans, who feel fully assimilated into the
American mainstream, while aware of the syncretistic nature of the history of African-Americans in the
U.S., they still lean towards religion. Historically, within all races and ethnicities, an individuals social
and economic position and conditioning affects their political decision-making and political participation.
Joseph R. Washington, Jr.15 summed up the experience of black religion in American as follows:
That dynamism is not the dominant pattern in middle-class black
churches is a virtually undisputed fact, empirically verifiable by any
unbiased investigator in most communities where middle-class blackspractice religion. It is precisely because of this pervasiveness that this
inertia is so disquieting.
15 Washington, Joseph R. (1974). The Black Religious Crisis. Religion Online, The Christian Century Foundation, May 1,1974, pp. 472.475.
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REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY
Articles
Evan, Curtis J. (2007). Urbanization and the End of Black Churches in the Modern World. The American Society of ChurchHistory. 76:4, December 2007.
Raboteau, Albert J. (2001). Slave Autonomy and Religion.Journal of Religious Thought. Fall81/Winter82, Vol. 38, Issue 2.
Frey, Sylvia R. (2008). The Visible Church: Historiography of African American Religion since Raboteau. Slavery andAbolition. Jan. 2008, Vol. 29, Issue 1.
Gin, Kathryn (2010). The Heavenization of Earth: African American Visions and Uses of the Afterlife, 1863-1901. Slaveryand Abolition. Jun. 2010, Vol. 31 Issue 2.
Clardy, Brian K. (2011). Deconstructing a Theology of Defiance: Black Preaching and the Politics of Racial Identity.Journal of Church & State. Mar. 2011, Vol. 53, Issue 2.
Mattis, Jacqueline S. (2001). Religion and African American Political Life. Political Psychology. Vol. 22, No. 2, Special
Issue: Psychology as Politics (June. 2001).
Books
Pinn, Anthony B. The African American Religion Experience in America. Green Press, Westport, CT, 2006.
Raboteau, Albert J. Canaan Land: A Religious History of African American, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 1999.
Raboteau, Albert J. Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in the Antebellum South, Oxford University Press, New York,NY, 2004 (New Ed.)
Berger, Peter L, Berger, Brigitte and Kellner, Hansfried. The Homeless Mind: Modernization and Consciousness. VintageBooks, A Division of Random House, New York, NY, 1974.
Gauchet, Marcel. The Disenchantment of the World. New French Thought. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1999.
Mark Lilla. The Stillborn God: Religion, Politics and the Modern West. Knopf Publishing, 2007.
Miscellaneous
U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, Pew Research Centers Forum of Religion & Public Life.http://religions.pewforum.org/reports.
American Identification Religion Survey, http://commons.trincoll.edu/aris/,http://commons.trincoll.edu/aris/files/2012/09/GENXreport2012_05_22.pdf.
Source: Washington Post-Kaiser Family Foundation Poll of Black Women in America,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/nation/black-women-in-america/.
BlackDemographics.com: http://blackdemographics.com/culture/black-politics/
Wikipedia.com
Center for Political and Economic Studies New York Times http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/19/us/gop-tries-hard-to-win-black-votes-but-recent-history-works-against-it.html http://www.factcheck.org/2008/04/blacks-and-the-democratic-party/ http://www.people-press.org/2012/11/07/changing-face-of-america-helps-assure-obama-victory/
http://religions.pewforum.org/reportshttp://commons.trincoll.edu/aris/http://commons.trincoll.edu/aris/files/2012/09/GENXreport2012_05_22.pdfhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/nation/black-women-in-america/http://blackdemographics.com/culture/black-politics/http://www.people-press.org/2012/11/07/changing-face-of-america-helps-assure-obama-victory/http://www.people-press.org/2012/11/07/changing-face-of-america-helps-assure-obama-victory/http://blackdemographics.com/culture/black-politics/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/nation/black-women-in-america/http://commons.trincoll.edu/aris/files/2012/09/GENXreport2012_05_22.pdfhttp://commons.trincoll.edu/aris/http://religions.pewforum.org/reports -
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G.O.P. Tries Hard to Win Black Votes, but Recent History Works Against It, R.W. APPLE Jr., Sept. 19, 1996(http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/19/us/gop-tries-hard-to-win-black-votes-but-recent-history-works-against-it.html%20http://www.factcheck.org/2008/04/blacks-and-the-democratic-party/%20http://www.people-
press.org/2012/11/07/changing-face-of-america-helps-assure-obama-victory/)
The Pew Center on the States, Public Safety Performance Project, State of Recidivism: The Revolving Door of AmericasPrisons, April 2001.
Washington, Joseph R. (1974). The Black Religious Crisis. Religion Online, The Christian Century Foundation, May 1,1974, pp. 472.475.
http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/19/us/gop-tries-hard-to-win-black-votes-but-recent-history-works-against-it.html%20http://www.factcheck.org/2008/04/blacks-and-the-democratic-party/%20http://www.people-press.org/2012/11/07/changing-face-of-america-helps-assure-obama-victory/http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/19/us/gop-tries-hard-to-win-black-votes-but-recent-history-works-against-it.html%20http://www.factcheck.org/2008/04/blacks-and-the-democratic-party/%20http://www.people-press.org/2012/11/07/changing-face-of-america-helps-assure-obama-victory/http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/19/us/gop-tries-hard-to-win-black-votes-but-recent-history-works-against-it.html%20http://www.factcheck.org/2008/04/blacks-and-the-democratic-party/%20http://www.people-press.org/2012/11/07/changing-face-of-america-helps-assure-obama-victory/http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/19/us/gop-tries-hard-to-win-black-votes-but-recent-history-works-against-it.html%20http://www.factcheck.org/2008/04/blacks-and-the-democratic-party/%20http://www.people-press.org/2012/11/07/changing-face-of-america-helps-assure-obama-victory/http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/19/us/gop-tries-hard-to-win-black-votes-but-recent-history-works-against-it.html%20http://www.factcheck.org/2008/04/blacks-and-the-democratic-party/%20http://www.people-press.org/2012/11/07/changing-face-of-america-helps-assure-obama-victory/http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/19/us/gop-tries-hard-to-win-black-votes-but-recent-history-works-against-it.html%20http://www.factcheck.org/2008/04/blacks-and-the-democratic-party/%20http://www.people-press.org/2012/11/07/changing-face-of-america-helps-assure-obama-victory/